SEWAGE OR WASTE WATER TREATMENT

By Prof. Olu Odeyemi Department of Microbiology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun state. Nigeria.

Sewage Treatment Sewage or waste water is generated from most of our daily chores such as bathing, laundry, washing of dishes and other activities. Sewage is composed of human faecal materials, domestic wastes, municipal wastes and industrial wastes. It is made up of 99.9% water and 0.1 % solids. The 0.1 % solids contained 70% organic (65% protein, 25% carbohydrates and 10% fats) and 30% inorganic (grit, salt and metals) components. Waste water must be properly treated because it contains excessive nutrients, harmful microorganisms and chemicals that may be toxic to the environment. The remaining water after treatment is called Treated Effluent which can be discharged into receiving water bodies, while, the solid wastes (Treated Sludge) is disposed or reused usually as farm fertilizers. Human faeces and urine are part of the major components of sewage and their composition is shown on the Table below: Table 1: Composition of Human faeces and urine Faeces Quantity (wet) /person/day Quantity (dry solids) /person/day Approximate composition (%) Moisture Organic matter Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Carbon Calcium (Odeyemi, 2011) In measuring waste water concentrations, there are some important factors to be considered such as the Theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD) which is the theoretical amount of oxygen required to oxidize the organic fraction of waste completely to Carbon dioxide and water. e.g. C6H12O6 + 6 O2 180 g 192 g 6 CO2 + 6 H2O 66 80 88 97 57 3.0 5.4 1.0 2.5 44 55 4.5 93 96 65 85 15 19 2.5 5.0 3.0 4.5 11 17 4.5 6.0 135 270 g 35 70 g Urine 1.0 1.3 kg 50 70 g

Therefore, the ThOD of a 300 mg/l solution of glucose = 192/180 300 = 321 mg/l. Sewage is so complex in nature; therefore, the ThOD cannot be calculated in practice, it is estimated by Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). COD is obtained by oxidizing the waste

with a boiling acid solution. This process oxidises almost all organic compounds to CO2 and H2O. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of oxygen required for the oxidation of a waste by bacteria. It is therefore, a measurement of the concentration of organic matter in a waste that can be oxidized by bacteria (biodegraded). BOD is usually expressed on a 5 day, 20 0 C basis, that is oxygen consumed during oxidation of the waste for 5 days at 20 0C. This is because the 5 day BOD (BOD5) is more easily measured than the Ultimate BOD (BODu), which is the oxygen required for the complete oxidation of the waste. Generally, it should be noted that ThOD > COD > BODu > BOD5 also, BOD5/COD = 0.5 and BODu/BOD5 = 1.5 (Odeyemi, 2011). .Objectives of Waste Treatment

To maintain high quality of water supply To prevent diseases To prevent nuisance such as odours (NH3, S) To make water clean for bathing and recreation To make water clean to support growth of fish and other aquatic lives To prevent silting in channels To obtain good water for industrial and agricultural uses.

Sewage can be treated close to where it is created (septic tank, biofilters or aerobic treatment systems) or collected and transported via a network of pipes and pump stations to municipal treatment plants. Sewage collection and treatment are typically subject to local, state and federal regulatory standards. Industrial waste water often requires specialized treatment because industrial effluents usually contain both biodegradable and recalcitrant or toxic chemicals. Sewage treatment plant makes use of microorganisms to oxidize organic matter in faeces to the mineral form and to entrap portions of this mineral in bacterial cells. The carbon in the cells is finally reduced microbiologically to methane gas by anaerobic digestion. Conventional sewage treatment involves three stages, namely: (1) Primary Treatment: It is a physical process, whereby sewage is temporarily held in a basin and suspended solids are removed by passage of the sewage through screens. The sewage is then placed in a sedimentation tank to allow settling of solids. (2) Secondary Treatment: It is a biological process that removes dissolved organic matter from waste water by indigenous and water borne microorganisms. Also, the treatment eradicates human pathogens carried in the sewage. (3) Tertiary Treatment: This is a process whereby the treated water is disinfected to destroy pathogens. This may be accomplished using methods such as filtration, ultraviolet radiation and chlorination.

Sewage Treatment Process (1) Collection of Sewage: Fresh waste is opalescent and doesnt smell too much, while septic (hard) sewage has odours and moves slowly with the stream. (2) Screening: The waste is screened to remove all large objects like rags, cans, sticks e.t.c that may be present in the waste. This is most commonly done with an automated mechanically raked bar screen in modern plants, serving large populations; while in smaller or less modern plants a manually cleaned screen may be used. The solids are collected and later disposed in a land fill or incinerator. (3) Grit Chamber: The waste water is slowed down to remove grits such as stones, sands, broken glasses and papers which are chopped off into pieces (Commution). (4) Primary Treatment (10 Sedimentation): It takes about 30 minutes for the sewage to pass through the sedimentation tank after which the settleable solids are removed; this is called fresh solids or sludge. A typical sedimentation tank may remove from 40 60% of suspended solids, and from 30 40 % biological oxygen demand (BOD). These solids contain millions of microorganisms such as pathogenic bacteria, protozoa, parasitic worms and nematodes, viruses and scum (fatty grease) and may be treated or removed by anaerobic digestion and vacuum filter. The supernatant (settled effluent) can then be chlorinated and disposed off or may undergo secondary treatment. (5) Secondary Treatment: The secondary treatment of sewage involves the biological oxidation of a heterogeneous mixture of compounds derived from human waste and other materials. There are a number of ways in which this is done, in all these methods; the microorganisms consume the biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (sugars, fats, organic short chain carbon molecules e.t.c.) and bind much of the less soluble materials into flocculent. Types of Secondary Treatment (1) (a) Activated Sludge System(Aerobic) This process is the most widely applied biological waste water treatment in the world, which depends on an enrichment culture of bacteria in an aerobic environment to oxidize the sewage. The system removes pathogenic microorganisms from waste water, and the removal efficiency of pathogenic and indicator organisms in the waste water treatment plant varies according to retention time, oxygen concentration, pH, temperature, other biological flora present in the activated sludge and the efficiency in removing suspended solids (Doorn et al., 2006). The treatment tank consists of a highly aerated fully mixed system in which the effluent is in continual contact with a native population of microorganisms (activated sludge). This population is maintained by returning portion of the settled sludge to the tank.

Fig. 1: Diagrammatic Representation of Sewage Treatment Process Methane Drying bed Digested ripe solids Anaerobic Digestion (30 60 days) Primary effluent Liquor 10 sludge Chlorination and (fresh solids) Discharge -------------Collection of sewage Raw sewage Bar screens Grit chambers (For de-gritting) Comminitor 10 settling (1 3 hrs) Settled 10 effluent Receiving Water Chlorination clarified Secondary settling effluent BOD oxidized effluent activated sludge Clarification (6 hrs) Decolourization Deodourization Return activated sludge (30%) Extra activated sludge Source: (Odeyemi, 2011)

The secondary treatment plant behaves as a chemostat, the rate of mineralization of organic substrate is dependent on the detention time. K = 1/S ds/dt Therefore, K = Kmax C/ Ck + C Where: K = the exponential growth rate of the microorganisms C = concentration of limiting substrate at time (t) Kmax = maximum growth rate when substrate is not limiting Ck = Micheles Menten constant, which is the concentration of limiting substrate at which K = 0.5 Kmax The oxidation of organic matter in the activated sludge is accompanied by the development of a large population of micro organisms effecting the oxidation. Ecological succession associated with activated sludge l0 Protozoa Microorganism Biopolymers Heterotrophic bacteria 20 Protozoa

Time The large population of bacteria in the waste stimulates growth of a large population of protozoa and later heterotrophic bacteria develop upon lysed and dead protozoa e.t.c. Finally protozoan and bacterial polymers accumulate in the tank and cause microbial cells to flocculate. Flocculation When microorganisms become old and nitrogen becomes limiting in the activated sludge tank, extracellular polymer excretion increases (bacterial polysaccharides), so also are dead cells of microorganisms. These polymers enhance flocculation of bacterial cells. Zooglea ramigera is the commonest bacteria associated with activated sludge flocs. The flocculated bacteria are responsible for digesting the organic materials of the sludge, thus removing about 90% of the organic matter. The mineralized effluent from the tank is chlorinated to kill pathogenic microorganisms and then returned to the natural waters.

(1) (b) Anaerobic Sludge system In this system, the sludge is fed into a tank, which is held under completely anaerobic conditions. The methane produced by methane bacteria is stored under a floating roof until it is removed from the top of the digester and the spent sludge is removed from the bottom. Methane Outlet Floating roof

Sludge Inlet

Sludge -

Spent Sludge An Anaerobic Sludge Digester (2) Trickling Filters The trickling filter method can be employed instead of activated sludge for treatment of sewage. The filters are made from a bed of gravel over which the sewage slowly trickles; and the organic matter adsorbs to the rocks and gravel, and a thin film of microorganisms (consisting mainly of Zooglea) develops. As the waste passes downward air is passed upward, aerobic conditions are maintained by splashing, diffusion and either by forced air flowing through the bed or natural convection of air if the filter is porous. The microbial population consists of bacteria, fungi and protozoa. As the thin film of microorganism thickens, it becomes more difficult for air to penetrate the layer and an inner anaerobic layer is probably formed. These thin films continue to build up until they eventually slough off; braking off longer growth into the treated effluent as sludge and it requires subsequent removal and disposal. The oxidation of organic matter leads to deamination of organic nitrogen compounds and the release of NH3 which is then converted to NO3 by autotrophic nitrifying bacteria. H2S is formed from decomposition of sulfur containing organics and it is converted to SO4 by autotrophic sulfur oxidizers. Similarly, PO4 is formed from the nucleic acids and other phosphorous containing organics. Hence the effluent is rich in inorganics like NO3, SO4 and PO4. These nutrients usually give rise to algal blooms in the receiving waters of the sewage treatment effluent. This eutrophication may choke water, kill its fish and give rise to deterioration in the quality of water. The schematic diagram below shows the process of a typical trickling filter which was being used to treat sewage at the University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

Trickling Filter

Sewage inlet

The sewage trickles from a sprinkler onto a bed of sand covered with gravel, the structure have been termed Bacteria bed, Contact bedor Percolation filter Air inlet

Arm of sprinkler which rotates to distribute sewage

Stones and pebbles permit passage of air through the system

Raw sewage influent

Bacterial film

Effluent Clarifier or Sedimentation tank

Under drains Stones Org. C Org. N Org. S Org. P Bigger stones 1012 ft. Smaller stones

Treated water

CO2, NO3, SO4, PO4, humus Organic matter in solution and suspension Effluent

Generally, most organic wastes can be successfully treated by trickling filter method, except some industrial wastes which contain excessive concentrations of toxic materials such as pesticide residues, heavy metals and high acidic and alkaline wastes. Advantages of Trickling Filter System (1) It has high degree of performance reliability (2) It requires much less operation attention and process control than activated sludge (3) It can cope with drastic changes in the amount of biological material (4) It provides higher removal rates for organic matter and suspended solids Disadvantages of Trickling Filter (1) Additional treatment is needed to meet strict discharge standards (2) Potential for odour and vectors (3) Clogging of underdrain system (4) During cold weather the microorganisms metabolic process is slowed down and efficiency decreases. (5) Excessive organic loading without a corresponding higher recirculation rate (3) Sewage lagoons/ Stabilization basins/ Oxidation ponds These are large open reservoirs into which waste water is introduced. The sewage lagoons are lined ponds or basins that treat waste water by allowing the solids to settle to the bottom of the pond, and allowing naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria and algae to degrade the organic matter. Usually purple sulfur bacteria grow to Methane impact or produce pinkish or purplish colouration Algal growth Inorganic nutrients 6 10 ft Dead algae Organic wastes Heterotrophic Aerobic microorganisms heterotrophic zone Photic zone

Anaerobic zone

A Schematic Diagram of an Oxidation Pond

The oxidation pond system is employed by Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Osun State, Nigeria, in treating their sewage. In this pond, a mixture of aerobic and anaerobic conditions occurred. The aerobic conditions are maintained in the upper layers, while anaerobic conditions exist towards the bottom. Oxygen is supplied by diffusion from the air or by artificial aeration. Since light is available, heavy growth of algae and small aquatic plants usually occurs on the surface of the water. Usually, purple sulphur bacteria grow on the surface to produce pinkish or purplish colouration. Dead algae fall into the aerobic heterotrophic zone where they are partially degraded and such partially degraded algae and bacteria may fall to the bottom anaerobic zone. Bacteria grow, consume oxygen and decompose organic matter to CO2 and produce O2. Bacteria and other aquatic organisms attack algal cells and re-oxidize the algal constituents to CO2. As the process continues under aerobic conditions, more and more BOD is removed. Effluents containing oxidized products are removed at regular intervals so that oxidation ponds function as a batch culture. Oxidation pond receiving sewage typically achieves between 70 95% removals of BOD5 (non-filtered) at a loading rate to the pond of 2.2 to 3.5g BOD5 m-2day-1 depending on temperature. Advantages of Oxidation Ponds (1) They can achieve required degree of purification at the lowest cost. (2) The algae produced in the pond are potential source of high protein food which can be conveniently harvested for fish farming (3) They may be designed to function without electricity or mechanical equipment (4) The method of construction is such that, should at some future date the land be required for some other purposes, it is easily reclaimed. Disadvantages of Oxidation Ponds (1) They require large areas of land than other forms of sewage treatment (2) They produce odour and other nuisances such as mosquito breeding site if not properly maintained. (3) If improperly installed, can lead to ground and surface water pollution. (4) Septic Tank In rural areas, septic tanks are used for treating sewage. The tanks which are rectangular are buried in the ground usually at the back of the household. Raw sewage passes into the tank from one end and moves slowly through the tank to the other end. Conditions in the tank are usually anaerobic and hence sludge settles down to the bottom and it is digested biologically. In this way, about 50% of the BOD may be removed.

A Diagram of Septic Tank

Vent Scum Anaerobic Digestion Effluent Deposited solids

Leaching field Disadvantages of Septic Tank (1) Its inefficient as only about 50% of BOD is removed (2) The tank usually fills up with sediment, hence needs to be cleaned nearly every two years (3) Septic tank may discharge intestinal pathogenic organisms into the environment. Disinfection The final stage of sewage treatment is disinfection. The purpose of disinfection is to substantially reduce the number of microorganisms in the effluent to be discharged back into the environment. It is scientifically irresponsible and hygienically unacceptable to allow either treated or untreated sewage to enter natural waters without disinfection. The effectiveness of disinfection depends on the type of disinfectant being used, the dosage and other environmental variables. Generally, short contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against effective disinfection. Effluents leaving treatment plants should contain 0.5 mg/l residual chlorine; this disinfection would lead to 99.9% destruction of Escherichia coli. Methods of disinfection include chlorination, ultraviolet (UV) light and ozonation. Chlorination: It remains the most common form of waste water disinfection due to its low cost and long term history of effectiveness. One of the disadvantages of chlorination is that residual organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic or harmful to the environment. Ultraviolet light: Its very effective but expensive.

Ozone (O3): Its very unstable, reactive and oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine, because unlike chlorine which has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of accidental release), ozone is generated on site as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by products than chlorination but its disadvantage is the high cost of the ozone generation equipment and the requirements for special operators. Advanced Sewage Treatment The conventional means of treating sewage or water do not remove all of the organic materials, some of the inorganic materials and in particular recalcitrant organic compounds are not removed at all, therefore, advanced sewage treatment is needed to remove them. (1) Removal of PO4: Since PO4 and NO3 would cause algal blooms in receiving waters, they ought to be removed from sewage effluents. PO4 is removed by precipitation of lime at alkaline pH. (a) Ca (OH)2 + Ca (HCO3)2 (b) 5 Ca2+ + 4 OH- + 3 HPO4 CaCO3 + 2 H2 Ca5OH (PO4)3 + 3 H2O Hydroxyapatite

Removal of PO4 is achieved especially if liming increases the pH above 9.5. Between pH 6.0 and 7.5, PO4 is more efficiently removed by precipitation with alum. Al2 (SO4)3 + 2 PO4 2 AlPO4 + 3 SO4

Tube settlers are used for removing the precipitated PO4. (2) Removal of Nitrogen: Nitrogen occurs mainly in form of NH3, NO3 and NO2 in waste water. (a) Ammonia Stripping: Ammonia is very soluble in water at pH 7 and ammonia becomes very gaseous as pH increases from 7 to 10. Hence, when the water is passed through a heated tube at pH 10, about 99% of the ammonia will escape as gas. (b) Removal of NO3 and NO2 by Denitrification 2HNO3
+4H -2H2O

2HNO2

+2H -2H2O

2NO

+2H -H2O

N2O

+2H -H2O

N2

Optimum temperature is approximately 150C or higher Optimum pH is Neutral Microorganisms like Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Thiobacillus denitrificans and Micrococcus denitrificans may effect heterotrophic de-nitrification. De-nitrification takes place only in the presence of available carbon as an energy source and in the absence of oxygen. This mode of removing nitrogen is entirely biological, hence it is difficult to control.

(3) Removal of Refractory Compounds: Activated ion carbon can be used to remove substances like pesticides, industrial wastes, taste and odour producing organic compounds, and lignin. Activated carbon has a large surface, volume ratio and hence can adsorb organic materials readily especially at pH 7. (4) Ion Exchange Resins: It can be used to remove many toxic chemicals, cation exchange resins containing acidic groups like COOH, - SO3H exchange with cations in solution. Example, 2 R-SO3H + Ca2+ (RSO3)2 Ca + 2H+

This reaction, thus removes Ca2+ from the solution. When the column is saturated with Ca2+, a strong acid can be passed through the column to remove the Ca2+. Anions-exchange resins on the other hand contain basic amino groups like NH2, RNH which will exchange with anions in solutions. Example, 2 RNH3 OH + SO4 (RNH3) 2SO4 + 2 OH-

This reaction removes SO4 from solution easily; a strong base can be passed through the column to get rid of the SO4. (5) Carbon Adsorption: activated carbon is a porous and highly adsorbent form of carbon with a very large surface area. In granular or powdered form, it will adsorb many refractory organic compounds. The carbon must be regenerated (approximately once in a year) by heating to about 925 0C in an air-steam atmosphere to burn off the adsorbed organic material. (6) Chemical Oxidation: Strong oxidants like ozone, hydrogen peroxide or the free hydroxyl radical OH can be used to treat waste water. (7) Air Stripping: Ammonia can be removed from water by air stripping. The pH of the water is raised, usually by addition of lime and the ammonia driven out of the solution by vigorous agitation with air.

References Beychok, M. R. (1967). Aqueous Waste from Petroleum Waste and Petroleum Plants (1st Edition ed.). John Wiley & Sons Ltd. LCCN 67019834. Beychok, M. R. (1971). Performance of Surface-Aerated Basins. Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Series. 67 (107): 322 339. Doorn, M. R. J., Towprayoon, S., Maria, S., Veira, M., Irving, W., Palmer, C., R. Pipatti and C. Wang (2006). Waste Water Treatments and Discharge. In: 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Vol. 5: 1 6. Odeyemi, O. (2011). Lecture Note of Professor Olu Odeyemi, Department of Microbiology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife. Osun State. Nigeria. Pp. 5 14. Massoud, T and A. Abrishamchi (2005). Integrated Approach to Water and Waste Water Management for Tehran, Iran. Water Conservation, Reuse and Recycling: Proceedings of the Iranian-American Workshop, National Academies Press.