A Minor Project Report On

Power Quality Improvement Using dVr Compensator In MATLAB

In the partial fulfillment for the award of Four year B.Tech Degree Course In

Electrical and Electronics Engineering

From

Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra

2006-2010

Guided By: Er. Surinder Bokadia

Submitted By: Neha (1706339)

(Lect.,EEE Deptt.) Kumar(1706352) Rajender Kumar (1706362)

Mandeep

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering Haryana College of Technology & Management, Kaithal-136027

Certificate
This is to certify that the Minor Project entitled POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT USING DVR COMPENSATOR IN MATLAB by NEHA(1706339), MANDEEP KUMAR (1706352) and RAJENDER KUMAR (1706362) in partial fulfillment for the requirement of course no. EEcT-424E for the B.Tech. In Electrical & Electronics Engineering. Of Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra. It is the record of students own work carried out under my supervision and guidance.

Asstt. Prof. Vivek Pahwa H.O.D.

Er. Surinder Bokadia Project Guide

Acknowledgement
We express our gratitude to our working guide, Er. Surender Bokadia, Lecturer in Department of Electrical & Electronics Engg., and Er. Rajeev Kumar , Lecturer in Department of Electrical & Electronics Engg., Haryana College of Technology & Management Kaithal, for their valuable guidance, continued encouragement, constant inspiration and sincere devotion for our project entitled POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT USING static VAR COMPENSATOR IN MATLAB. We also thank all visible & invisible hands, which helped us to complete this project with feeling of success.

NEHA KUMAR (1706339) (1706352)

MANDEEP

RAJENDER KUMAR (1706362)

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
A broad collection of methods used to study and analyze the behaviour and performance of actual or theoretical systems. Simulation studies are not performed not on the real world system, but on the model of the system created for the purpose of studying certain dynamics and characteristics. Simulation is both an experimental science and an art or craft in the development of the precise valid model that captures the necessary elements of system, and the use of model to analyze system behaviour under scenarios. Simulation helps in providing information to aid the decision maker in selecting proper alternative. Simulation then becomes a decision aiding tool, and with simulation decision maker can try out new designs, layouts software programs, and system before committing resources to their implementation; test why certain phenomena occur in the operations of the system under consideration; compress and expand time; gain in sight about which variables are important to performance and how these variables interact; identify bottlenecks in material, information and product flow; better understand how the system really operates and compares alternatives and reduce the risk of decisions.

1.1. BACKGROUND
Power quality means different things to different people, but it is generally an all-encompassing term used to describe the consistency and desirable characteristics, or lack thereof, of electrical power from its generation, delivery and usage. Actually the term power quality (PQ) broadly refers to maintaining the near sinusoidal waveforms of power distribution bus voltages at the rated voltage magnitude and frequency. A power quality problem is any occurrence manifested in voltage, current or frequency deviation that results in failure or miss operation of electronic equipments, sensitive loads (like microprocessors), personnel computers, and all electrical gadgets It is important to first understand the kinds of PQ variations that can cause problems with sensitive loads. Categories for these variations that must be developed with a set of definitions i.e. voltage dips (sag and swell etc.)

1.2. Introduction to power quality problems

For most of the people, power quality problems are anything related with electrical power the inteterfare with the proper operation of electrical devices. There are numerous specific type of power quality problems each have their reason of occurrence and also have their adverse effects on the device.

The various power quality problems are as follows which occurs generally in our power system:

Voltage Sag Voltage Swell Voltage Interruption Under/ Over Voltage Voltage Flicker Harmonic Distortion Voltage Notching Transient Disturbance Outage and frequency variation

CHAPTER 2 LITRATURE SURVEY

2.1 Power Quality Surveys
With an increase in the use of sensitive loads, the power quality issues have become an increasing concern. Poor distribution power quality results in power disruption for the user and huge economical losses due to the interruption of production processes.

According to an EPRI report, the economical losses due to poor power quality are $400 billion dollars a year in the U.S. alone . A power disturbance can be classified as voltage sag, swell, over voltage, under voltage, surge, outage, etc. More widespread use of advanced power-line monitoring technology is enabling useful surveys of electric power quality that can be used to statistically characterize power quality problems. Three power quality surveys for North America had been done by the National Power Laboratory (NPL), the Canadian Electrical Association (CEA), and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) ]. Table .1 shows summary of these three power quality surveys. In each of the three surveys, the definition of a power disturbance event is different. For instance, voltage sag is defined as being less than 92% and 90% of nominal voltage for the CEA and the EPRI survey, respectively. In case of voltage swell, the CEA defines it as the voltage level greater than 104% of nominal voltage, while that of the EPRI is 110%. The data of the three surveys was summarized by Duglas D. Dorr. This paper shows the voltage sag events defined by 0% to 87% of nominal voltage comprise 68% of power disturbances, in which no filter was applied for NPL data. Where, no filter means that every power disturbance is recorded. In the NPL survey, the voltage range of 106% to 110% of nominal voltage is considered to be a voltage swell event. If the EPRI definition of voltage swell, greater than 110% of nominal voltage, is applied to the same data, it results in that voltage sags events having 0_87% consists of 93.3% of total event, and voltage sag having 50%_87% of nominal voltage consists of 70% of total disturbances. In addition, the EPRI survey shows that in most of the cases (92%), the voltage sags have duration of less than 2 seconds and down to 40_50% of nominal voltage [6]. Besides the above three surveys, many papers have reported power quality surveys. The survey reported in shows that 68% of the power disturbances were voltage sags, and these types of disturbances were the only cause of production losses. From power quality surveys, it can be concluded that voltage sags are the most common power disturbances and main cause of power disruption. Therefore, this research focuses on voltage sags and their mitigation techniques. Table 2.1 Summary of the CEA, NPL, and EPRI power quality survey.

2.2.

Organization of present work

The present work is given in eight chapters. A detailed literature survey, which carried out for this project work, is discussed in chapter 2. Consequences due to voltage dips are discussed in chapter 3. Chapter 4 elucidates the various dip mitigation techniques. The various control schemes like scalar control, vector control, etc. have been described in chapter 5 & 6. Chapter 5 presents the control scheme for zero sequence components present in case of a LG fault. This Chapter explains the mathematical formulation

and the modeling aspects. Simulated results and a brief discussion are contained in the chapter 7. Finally, the chapter discusses the conclusions of the presents work and makes recommendation for future work in this field.

CHAPTER 3 POWER QUALITY

3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Power quality is a term used to describe electric power that motivates an electrical load and the load's ability to function properly with that electric power. Without the proper power, an electrical device (or load) may malfunction, fail prematurely or not operate at all. There are many ways in which electric power can be of poor quality and many more causes of such poor quality power. The electric power industry is in the business of electricity generation (AC power), electric power transmission and ultimately electricity distribution to a point often located near the electricity meter of the end user of the electric power. The electricity then moves through the distribution and wiring system of the end user until it reaches the load. The complexity of the system to move electric energy from the point of production to the point of consumption combined with variations in weather, electricity demand and other factors provide many opportunities for the quality of power delivered to be compromised. While "power quality" is a convenient term for many, it is actually the quality of the voltage, rather than power or electric current that is actual topic described by the term. Power is simply the flow of energy and the current demanded by a load is largely uncontrollable. Nevertheless the relationship between the concepts of "voltage quality" and energy quality is unknown. It is often useful to think of power quality as a compatibility problem: is the equipment connected to the grid compatible with the events on the grid, and is the power delivered by the grid, including the events, compatible with the equipment that is connected? Compatibility problems always have at least two solutions: in this case, either clean up the power, or make the equipment tougher. Ideally electric power would be supplied as a sine wave with the amplitude and frequency given by national standards (in the case of mains) or system specifications (in the case of a power feed not directly attached to the mains) with an impedance of zero ohms at all frequencies.

3.2 Deviating factors of real life power

Variations in the peak or RMS voltage are both important to different types of equipment.

When the RMS voltage exceeds the nominal voltage by 10 to 80% for 0.5 cycles to 1 minute, the event is called a "swell".

 A "dip" (in British English) orsag" (in American English - the two terms are equivalent) is the opposite situation: the RMS voltage is below the nominal voltage by 10 to 90% for 0.5 cycles to 1 minute. Random or repetitive variations in the RMS voltage between 90 and 110% of nominal can produce phenomena known as "flicker" in lighting equipment. Flicker is the impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus on the human eye. A precise definition of such a voltage fluctuations that produce flicker have been subject to ongoing debate in more than one scientific community for many years. Abrupt, very brief increases in voltage, called "spikes", "impulses", or "surges", generally caused by large inductive loads being turned off, or more severely by lightning. "Under voltage" occurs when the nominal voltage drops below 90% for more than 1 minute. The term "brownout" in common usage has no formal definition but is commonly used to describe a reduction in system voltage by the utility or system operator to decrease demand or to increase system operating margins. "Over voltage" occurs when the nominal voltage rises above 110% for more than 1 minute. Variations in the frequency Variations in the wave shape - usually described as harmonics Nonzero low-frequency impedance (when a load draws more power, the voltage drops)

Nonzero high-frequency impedance (when a load demands a large amount of current, then stops demanding it suddenly, there will be a dip or spike in the voltage due to the inductances in the power supply line)

3.3 Causes & CONSEQUENCES:

The causes and consequences of power quality problems can be traced to a specific type of electrical disturbance. By analyzing the waveform of the disturbance, power quality engineers can determine what problems your facility has and what the optimal solution is.

For comparison purposes, a normal voltage waveform is 60 cycles per second - at most plus or minus ten percent of nominal voltage. Power disturbances can be classified into five categories, each varying in effect, duration and intensity.

3.3.1 VOLTAGE fluctuations:

Voltage fluctuations are changes or swings in the steady-state voltage above or below the designated input range for a piece of equipment. Fluctuations include both sags and swells.

Causes: Large equipment start-up or shutdown; sudden change in load; improper wiring; or grounding; utility protection devices Vulnerable equipment: Computers; fax machines; variable frequency drives; CNC machines; extruders; motors Effects: Data errors; memory loss; equipment shutdown; flickering lights; motors stalling/stopping; reduced motor life Solutions: Verify proper electrical connections and wiring; relocate equipment; reduce voltage motor starters; uninterruptible power supply; voltage ride-through equipment

3.3.2 TRANSIENTS
Transients, commonly called "surges," are sub-cycle disturbances of very short duration that vary greatly in magnitude. When transient occur, thousands of voltage can be generated into the electrical system, causing problems for equipment down the line.

Causes: Lighting; normal operation of utility equipment; equipment start-up and shutdown; welding equipment.

 Vulnerable equipment: Phone systems; computers; fax machines; digital scales; gas pump controls; fire/security systems; variable frequency drives; CNC machines; PLCs. Effects: Processing errors; computer lock-up; burned circuit boards; degradation of electrical insulation; equipment damage. Solutions: Transient voltage surge suppression; uninterruptible power supply; isolation transformer; proper grounding.

3.3.3 Electrical noise

Electrical noise is high-frequency interference caused by a number of factors, including arc welding or the operation of some electric motors.

Causes: Lighting; normal operation of utility equipment; equipment start-up and shutdown; welding equipment. Vulnerable equipment: Phone systems; computers; fax machines; digital scales; gas pump controls; fire/security systems; variable frequency drives; CNC machines; PLCs. Effects: Processing errors; computer lock-up; burned circuit boards; degradation of electrical insulation; equipment damage. Solutions: Transient voltage surge suppression; uninterruptible power supply; isolation transformer; proper grounding

3.3.4 Harmonics
Harmonics are the periodic steady-state distortions of the sine wave due to equipment generating a frequency other than the standard 60 cycles per second.

 motors.

Causes: Electronic ballasts; non-linear loads; variable frequency drives. Vulnerable equipment: Transformers; circuit breakers; phone systems; capacitor banks;

Effects: Overheating of electrical equipment; random breakers tripping; hot neutrals.

Solutions: Harmonic filters; wiring and grounding upgrades; isolating non-linear loads; special transformers.

3.3.5 power outages

Power outages are total interruptions of electrical supply. Utilities have installed protection equipment that briefly interrupts power to allow time for a disturbance to dissipate.For example, if lightning strikes a power line, a large voltage is instantly induced into the lines. The protection equipment momentarily interrupts power, allowing time for the surge to dissipate.

Causes: Ice storms; lightning; wind; utility equipment failure. Vulnerable equipment: All electrical equipment. Effects: Complete disruption of operation. Solutions: Transient voltage surge suppression; uninterruptible power supply.

CHAPTER- 4
POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS
Power quality means different things to different people, but it is generally an all-encompassing term used to describe the consistency and desirable characteristics, or lack thereof, of electrical power from its generation, delivery and usage. It include all possible situations in which the waveforms of the supply voltage or load current deviate from the sinusoidal waveform at rated frequency with amplitude corresponding to the rated rms value for all three phases of a three-phase system. Power quality disturbance covers sudden, short duration deviation impulsive and oscillatory transients, voltage dips (or sags), short interruptions, as well as steady- state deviations, such as harmonics and flicker . The various power quality problems are given below:

4.1 VOLTAGE SAG : One of the most common power quality problems today is voltage dips. A voltage dip is a short time (10 ms to 1 minute) event during which a reduction in r.m.s voltage magnitude occurs. Despite a short duration, a small deviation from the nominal voltage can result in serious disturbancesA voltage sag is a reduction in the RMS voltage in the range of 0.1 to 0.9 p.u. (retained) for duration greater than hall a mains cycle and less than 1 minute. Often referred to as a sag. Caused by faults, increased load demand and transitional events such as large motor starting. Sags account for the vast majority of power problems experienced by end users. They can be generated both internally and externally from an end users facility. External causes of sags primarily come from the utility transmission and distribution network. Sags coming from the utility have a variety of cause including lightning, animal and human activity, and normal and abnormal utility equipment operation. Sags generated on thetransmission or distribution system can travel hundreds of miles thereby affecting thousands of customers during a single event. Sometimes externally caused sags can be generated by other customers nearby. The starting of large electrical loads or switching off shunt capacitor banks can generate a sag large enoughto affect a local area. If the end user is already subject to chronic undervoltage, then even a relatively small amplitude sag can have detrimental effects. Sags caused internally to an end user's facility are typically generated by the starting of large electrical loads such as motors or magnets. The large inrush of current required to starts these types of loads depresses the voltage level available to other equipment that share the same electrical system. As with externally caused sags, ones generated internally will be magnified by chronic undervoltage.

Fig 4.1 Voltage Sag

4.2 VOLTAGE SWELL: A swell is the opposite of a sag - an increase in voltage above 110% of nominal for one-half cycle to one minute. Although swells occur infrequently when compared to sags, they can cause equipment malfunction and premature wear. Swells can be caused by shutting off loads or switching capacitor banks on. A voltage swell is an increase in the RMS voltage in the range of 1.1 to 1.8 p.u. for a duration greater than half a main cycle and less than 1 minute. Caused by system faults, load switching and capacitor switching

Fig 4.2 Voltage Swell

4.3VOLTAGE INTERRUPTION: When the voltage drops below 10% of its nominal value it is called an interruption or a blackout. Interruptions have three classifications: momentary (lasting 30 cycles to 3 seconds), temporary (lasting 3 seconds to 1 minute) and sustained (lasting more than 1 minute). Although interruptions are the most severe form of power problem, they are also the least likely to occur. Voltage sags are often mistaken for an interruption because equipment shuts down or lighting goes off since the voltage dropped below the point that these devices can operate. Where sags and undervoltage typically represent more than 92% of power problem events, interruptions represent less than 4% of such problem

Fig 4.3 Voltage interruption

4.4 OVER VOLTAGE: Long-duration voltage variations that are outside the normal limits (that is, too high or too low) are most often caused by unusual conditions on the power system. For example, out-of-service lines or transformers sometimes cause under voltage conditions. These types of root-mean-square (RMS) voltage variations are normally short term, lasting less than one or two days Sustained overvoltages are not common. The most likely causes are maladjusted voltage regulators on generators or on-load tap changers, or incorrectly set taps on fixed-tap transformers. Equipment failures may immediately result in the case of severe overvoltages, but more likely is accelerated degradation leading to premature failure without obvious cause. Some equipment that is particularly sensitive to overvoltages may have to be shut down by protective devices. A voltage greater than that at which a device or circuit is designed to operate. It is also known as over potential.

4.5 UNDER VOLTAGE: Undervoltage is a decrease in voltage below 90% ofits nominal value for more than one minute. Undervoltage is sometimes called a "brownout"although this term is not officially defined. Brownout is often used when the utility intentionally reduces system voltage to accommodate high demand or other problems. The symptoms of undervoltage can range from none to daily equipment malfunction or

premature equipment failure. Undervoltage may go unnoticed until new equipment is installed or the electrical system is otherwise changed and the new combined load depresses (see Sags) the voltage to a point where symptoms become apparent. Besides the obvious malfunction of equipment, chronic undervoltage can cause excess wear on certain devices like motors as they will tend to run overly hot if the voltage is low.

Fig 4.4 Over/Under Voltage

4.6VOLTAGE FLICKER:
These are mainly caused by load variations, especially large rapid ones such as are likely to occur in arc and induction heating furnaces, rolling mills, mine winders, and resistance welders.Flicker in incandescent lamps is the most usual effect of voltage fluctuations. It is a serious problem, with thehuman eye being particularly sensitive to light flicker inthe frequency range of 5-15Hz. Because of the wide use of such lamps, the effects are widespread and inevitably give rise to a large number of complaints. Fluorescent lamps are also affected, though to a lesser extent

Fig 4.5 Voltage Flicker

4.7 VOLTAGE NOTCHING:

When the drive DC link current is commutated from one rectifier thyristor to the next, an instant exists during which a line-to-line short circuit occurs at the input terminals to the rectifier.Notching is a disturbance of opposite polarity to the normal voltage waveform (which is subtracted from the normal waveform) lasting for less than one-half cycle. Notching is frequently caused by malfunctioning electronic switches or power conditioners.While it is generally not a major problem, notching can cause equipment, especially electronics, to operate improperly.

Fig 4.6 Voltage Notching

4.7 HARMONIC DISTORTION:

Harmonics are a recurring distortion of the waveform that can be caused by various devices including variable frequency drives, non-linear power supplies and electronic ballasts. Certain types of power conditioners like ferroresonant or constant voltage (CVT) transformers can add significant harmonic distortion to the waveform.Waveform distortion can also be an issue with uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) and other inverter-based power conditioners. The UPS does not actually add distortion, but because the UPS digitally synthesizes a waveform, that waveform may be square or jagged rather than a smooth sine wave. Symptoms of harmonic distortion include overheating and equipment operational problems

Fig 4.7 Harmonic Distortion

4.8TRANSIENTS:
Transients on the supply network are due to faults, control and protection malfunctions, lightning strikes,etc.Voltage-sensitive devices and insulation of electrical equipment may be damaged, as noted above for voltage surges/spikes. Control systems may reset.Semiconductor manufacture can be seriously affected unless the supplies to critical process plant are suitably protected. Transients are very short duration (sub-cycle) events of varying amplitude. Often referred to as "surges", transients are probably most frequently visualized as the tens of thousands of volts from a lighting strike that destroys any electrical device in its path. Transients can be caused by equipment operation or failure or by weather phenomena like lightning. Even relatively low voltage transients can cause damage to electrical components if the occur with any frequency. A properly sized industrial-grade surge suppressor is usually ample protection from the damaging effects of high voltage transients. Transients are classified in two categories Impulsive and oscillatory

Fig 4.8.1 Impulsive Transients

Fig 4.8.2 Oscillatory Transients

4.9 FREQUENCY VARIATIONS:

Frequency variations that are large enough to cause problems are most often encountered in small isolated networks, due to faulty or maladjusted governors. Other causes are serious overloads on a network, or governor failures, though on an interconnected network, a single governor failure will not cause widespread disturbances of this nature. Network overloads are most common in areas with a developing electrical infrastructure, where a reduction in frequency may be a deliberate policy to alleviate overloading. Serious network faults leading to islanding of part of an interconnected network can also lead to frequency problems. Few problems are normally caused by this problem. Processes where product quality depends on motor speed control may be at risk but such processes will normally have closed-loop speed controllers. Motor drives will suffer output changes, but process control mechanisms will normally take care of this. Extreme under- or overfrequency may require the tripping of generators, leading to the possibility of progressive network collapse through network overloading/under frequency causes.

CHAPTER 5 POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT techniques

5.1 Mitigation of voltage dips
If the economical losses due to voltage dips are significant, mitigation actions can be profitable for the customer and even in some cases for the utility. Since there is no standard solution which will work for every site, each mitigation action must be carefully planned and evaluated. There are different ways and responsibilities when trying to mitigate voltage dips. The utility can improve the reliability of the feeding grid, the end-user can improve the voltage supply inside the plant and the manufacture can improve the immunity level of the equipment. The right solution to chose is not obvious. The best way to mitigate voltage dips is to coordinate the utility network and the equipment before a new plant is built.

5.2

Different perspectives and responsibilities

There are different perspectives of voltage dip related problems between utilities, manufacturers of equipment and customers.

5.2.1

The utility

The utility does not see the direct result or cost of voltage dips, but they have often knowledge about the cause and origin. They also have the possibility to perform mitigation actions at the origin of the voltage dip. In some cases, when the voltage dip occurs outside the local utility network it is almost impossible to find the cause of the voltage dip. However, improving the grid reliability does not have to result in the same improved reliability for the plant. E.g. a utility can improve the grid reducing the outages but the number of dips remains the same. In that case the reliability of the utility will increase but for the plant the result is the same. The opposite is also possible if the utility decreases the number of dips but the downtime of the grid is not be affected. 5.2.2 The manufacturer

The manufacturer has the possibilities and knowledge to build equipment with better ride-through capacity, without using batteries or UPS. The reasons why the manufacturers do not are many. One can be that customers are not willing to pay for increased immunity. Another factor can be that a better ridethrough capability can be achieved with a decreased performance; torque, speed, etc., which the customer does not accept. It is also possible that the manufacturers do not really know what the customers need. 5.2.3 The customer The customer has very often a good knowledge of the consequences of a voltage dip, but seldom knows the origin of the disturbance. This makes mitigation actions harder for the customer. Further on mitigation actions are difficult and expensive for the customer when protecting the site from remotely injected voltage dips. As a result most of the mitigation actions are performed locally at the plant or on selected equipment. In some cases, this is the right place to install them, but sometimes a better result will be achieved performing them at utility level. Mitigation shall be made locally for a single industry connected to a rural grid or being the only one suffering from voltage dips. If several industries are suffering from voltage dips from the same utility network, mitigation actions can be more cost effective to perform at a higher voltage level instead of on each site. 5.2.4 Voltage dips mitigation performed by the utility There are numbers of different ways to mitigate voltage dips in transmission and distribution systems. The actions can be made with different results, but all have a common goal to reduce the number of voltage dips. The actions can be divided into three groups; reducing the number of faults, optimizing the fault clearing time and redesigning of the network. [6]

5.2.5 Reducing the number of faults Reducing the number of faults on the network will reduce the number of voltage dips. Faults are usually caused by weather, ageing of the equipment and animals. Weather related faults are lightning and storms. The best way to mitigate these disturbances is to use cables instead of overhead lines. The fault rate of an underground cable is much less than for an overhead line. Problems with cables are limited length, due to losses.

One way to avoid disturbances due to storms is to trim trees near and under the power lines or to use insulated wires. To protect the phase conductors from lightning, using shielding wires and improving the grounding are recommended. If the ground resistance is high, the voltage caused by the lightning current at the top of the tower will be high. If the voltage is high enough, a flashover can occur between the tower and a phase conductor. If there are surge arrestors installed on the line, the effect can be reduced and even eliminated. 5.2.6 Optimizing the fault clearing time The duration of a voltage dip is depending of the fault clearing time. The faster the fault is cleared the shorter is the duration of the voltage dip. Using current-limiting fuses may reduce the faultclearing time to half a cycle [5]. Fuses are often used in low- and medium voltage networks. The disadvantage is that the fuses can only be use up to a few tens of kilovolts. Meshed networks are protected by distance protection or other protection systems. Each protection protects one zone (often 80% of the line length) and works also as back-up protection for one or two other zones. The fault clearing time with distance protections are longer than with fuses. Typical fault-clearing time is around 100 ms. the time depends on how fast the relay can decide if it shall trip the breaker and the breaker opening time. To reduce the duration of each interruption due to self repairing faults, auto-reclosing is used. 5.2.7 System design Radial networks are common in low- and medium voltage systems, with the advantage that simple protection schemes with fuses can be used. A disadvantage is the decreased availability due to longer interruptions. To improve the operation of the network the number of feeders fed from the same substation can be reduced. To further improve the supply to sensitive loads, parallel feeders from two different substations or bus bars can be used. The disadvantage is that the impedance during a fault becomes less, and the severity of the voltage dip increases. Using current-limiting fuses or reactors in all the non-prioritized feeders will limit the propagation of the voltage dip during a fault.

5.3 Voltage dips mitigation performed by the manufacturer

Different strategies can be used when improving the immunity of various equipments. 5.3.1 Single-phase rectifier loads Computers, PLC and other small single-phase equipment with rectifiers, usually have a capacitor as energy storage. Considerations are normally not made to voltage dips when choosing values of the capacitance, since it is not an issue raised by the customers and it will increase the cost. Instead the designer focuses on minimizing it. They normally use the lowest expected voltage and the maximum expected load as limits. To make the equipment ride-through one cycle, the capacitance must at least be doubled. To withstand 1s it must be 100 times larger [7]. The cost of increasing the capacitor 100 times is probably much lower than redesigning the network.

5.3.2

Three-phase loads

Improving the voltage dip immunity of different three-phase equipment with converters or rectifiers mainly consists of three actions; improving the energy storage capacity, the control design or the operation criteria. Adding more capacitance to the DC-link improves the storage capacity. Such improvement shows good result against single-phase and two phase voltage dips. Against three-phase voltage dips the solution is not very effective [5]. Another way to improve the ride-through capability is by designing the DC/DC or AC/DC rectifier to operate with a varying input voltage. It is generally harder to improve a DC adjustable speed drive system because of the fast drop of armature-current. A third possibility to improve the ride-trough of adjustable drives is to let the torque vary during the voltage dip. 5.3.3 Directly fed induction machines Induction machines connected directly to the network will work as generators during the voltage dip. When the voltage recovers, they will draw a large inrush-current, which can aggravate the situation, especially when many motors start at the same time [8] Adding controllers to the machines, which lets them contribute to the mitigation and then soft start them with different time delays, can avoid some problems. 5.3.4 Other equipment Other equipment like relays, contactors and sensors can also be improved by using coil-locks to ridethrough the voltage dip. Sensors can be designed to hold their value during a voltage dip. Improved checking of realistic data in control algorithm can be implemented to prevent the use of faulted values caused by the voltage dip.

5.3.5

Local mitigation actions performed by the customer

Most of the mitigation solutions today are done locally at site or on selected equipment. One reason is that this is the only part in the chain of power delivery where the customer can have a complete overview. The fact that costs for mitigation actions in higher voltage levels are often higher is also on important reason. Performing mitigation at site makes it possible for the customer to only protect the disturbed equipment.

5.4.

On site generation and prioritized bus bars

One way to establish a higher immunity for a site is to have power generation within the plant. There will not only be an advantage of improved immunity during the voltage dips. Some industries, with steam production within the plant, can even find it profitable to use it for electric generation. Generally, the locally generated power is not enough to supply the whole site in a complete island operation, and therefore other solutions must be made. Instead of supporting all loads, they are divided into prioritized and non prioritized loads. The different types are then connected to different bus bars at the site as shown in figure11. The bus bars are often connected via a closed circuit breaker. When a disturbance is expected the prioritized bus bar is disconnected from the main grid and only supplied by the local generation.

Fig.5.1 Example of a site configuration with local generation and a 2-section bus bar system. Another solution is available for sites with a least two incoming utility feeders. Depending on how independent the feeders are, a very cost effective solution is available. By using a High Speed Source Transfer System (HSSTS) large loads can be switched between different bus bars. These systems have an ability to switch 600 amps at 25 kV or 1200 amps at 12 kV in 4 ms [9]. The method is not suitable for weak networks and studies must be made with the local utility before such implementations. The most frequent use of a HSSTS is similar to the configuration with in-plant generation, but here the switch is used to select the source for the prioritized loads. Figure 4.1 shows a possible configuration of a double bus design with two feeders, two categories of loads and a HSSTS switch to select the source for the prioritized load.

Fig.5.2 An example of a configuration with two feeders and a HSSTS for switching the prioritized loads. 5.4.1 Motor-flywheel-generator sets

An old mitigation method is the use of a motor-generator set-up. It consists of a motor supplied by the plant power system, a synchronous generator connected to the load and a flywheel which all are connected to a common axis as shown in figure4.3. The kinetic energy stored in the flywheel will keep the rotation of the generator when the motor loses power during the voltage dip, and therefore still produce energy. The load will not experience the voltage dip unless the duration is too long and the

flywheel starts to slow down. The system is preferably used in industrial applications since it is rather big and noisy. It also requires regular maintenance to work properly. The units have typically sizes of 15 or 35 kVA, but several units can be connected in parallel to protect larger loads [10]. There are also some configurations where an adjustable speed drive system is used on the motor side and a converter on the generator side. This will improve the efficiency and extend the voltage for operation.

Fig.5.3.A conventional motor-generator set. The standard configuration has relatively high losses, which makes the solution expensive. Different methods based on the same principal as above have been developed to reduce the losses. One example is the solution called Optimized Power Supply System (OPSS), which consists of a traditional motor with a flywheel, but the DC-link of the motor converter is connected to the DC-link of the load converter. During the dip the flywheel, motor, and motor converter will keep the DC-link voltage. Another configuration is a system using the synchronous machine and the flywheel. Normally the system is connected to the network and can then be used for reactive power compensating or for voltage control. When a voltage dip occurs, the motor is disconnected from the network by a static switch, but is still connected to the load. The motor then operates as a generator, using the energy in the flywheel to maintain the voltage. 5.4.2 Transformers Using special transformer can in some cases improve the voltage dip reduction, but often is these solutions not so effective to fast changes like voltage dips. The transformer shall if it is possible be configured so that the output voltage is close to the upper voltage range. 5.4.3 Electronic tap changers Electronic tap changers can be installed on selected transformers in order to mitigate voltage dips to the secondary side. The secondary winding is divided to different sections and static switches connect and disconnect the sections in order to maintain the secondary voltage. The advantage with this method is that voltage can be restored for rather severe voltage dips, but a disadvantage is that the thyristors based switching requires half a cycle to operate. 5.4.4 Ferro-resonant transformers (FRT) FRT are also called constant voltage transformers (CVT) and works similar to a 1:1 transformer excited to maximum flux. Therefore an input voltage variation will not affect the output voltage. The solution is only suitable for low-power and rather constant loads. To be efficient it shall be rated for almost the double VA compared to a normal transformer.

5.5

Inverter Based Solutions

Inverter based solutions all have in common that they are based on power electronic rectifiers, converters or inverters to help the equipment to withstand a voltage dip. Most of the solutions use some kind of energy storage. 5.5.1 UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) The most common mitigation device is the UPS. The reason is the low investment, simple operation and control [11]. It is usually connected between the network and the equipment to protect, but other configurations exist. The UPS is usually made of a diode rectifier, a battery and a converter as shown in Figure14. Other configurations with other energy sources than batteries exist, but are not as common. In normal operation the grid will feed the load and at the same time keep the DC voltage and the batteries at a certain threshold. When the voltage dip occurs, the stored energy will keep up the DC level and protect the equipment. The UPS is used for rather limited power requirements since the cost caused by the losses in the two converters and the maintenance of the batteries are relatively high. In industrial environments UPS are normally used to protect control equipment and computers.

Fig. 5.4 Example of a standard UPS An improvement of the UPS is the off-line UPS. These units are often smaller and designed for shorter interruptions. The UPS is normally not connected to the load. Instead a power electronic switch controls the connection between the grid and the load. The total time from sensing a voltage dips and switch to the battery source is 2-4 ms in average. As soon as the utility voltage returns, the UPS switches load back and the batteries recharge.

Fig.5.5.Example of an off-line UPS. 5.5.2 Voltage source converters (VSC) A voltage-source converter is a power electronic device, which can generate a sinusoidal voltage with any required magnitude, frequency and phase angle. Voltage source converters are widely used in adjustable-speed drives, but can also be used to mitigate voltage dips. The VSC is used to either completely replace the voltage or to inject the missing voltage. The missing voltage is the difference between the nominal voltage and the actual. The converter is normally based on some kind of energy storage, which will supply the converter with a DC voltage. The solid-state electronics in the converter is then switched to get the desired output voltage. Normally the VSC is not only used for voltage dip mitigation, but also for other power quality issues, e.g. flicker and harmonics. 5.5.3 Series Voltage Controller [Dynamic Voltage Restorer, (DVR)] The series voltage controlleris connected in series with the protected load as shown in figure16. Usually the connection is made via a transformer, but configurations with direct connection via power electronics also exist. The resulting voltage at the load bus bar equals the sum of the grid voltage and the injected voltage from the DVR. The converter generates the reactive power needed while the active power is taken from the energy storage. The energy storage can be different depending on the needs of compensating [12]. The DVR often has limitations on the depth and duration of the voltage dip that it can compensate. Therefore right sized has to be used in order to achieve the desired protection. Options available for energy storage during voltage dips are conventional capacitors for very short durations but deep, batteries for longer but less severe magnitude drops and super capacitors in between. There are also other combinations and configurations possible. There are configurations, which can work without any energy storage, and they inject a lagging voltage with the load current. There are also different approaches on what to inject to obtain the most powerful solution. The main advantage with this method is that a single DVR can be installed to protect the whole plant (a few MVA) as well as single loads. Because of the fast switches, usually IGBTs, voltage compensation can be achieved in less than half a cycle [12]. Disadvantages are that it is relatively expensive and it only mitigates voltage dips from outside the site. The cost of a DVR mainly depends on the power rating and the energy storage capacity.

Fig.5.6 Example of a standard configuration for a DVR.

Fig.5.7 Example of a standard configuration for a shunt voltage controller(DSTATCOM). The shunt voltage controller is a voltage source converter connected in parallel with the load bus bar through a transformer or a reactor, figure 4.7. The difference between the DVR and the SVC is that instead of injecting a voltage, the current through the reactance is controlled. The shunt voltage controller is normally used for power factor correction, voltage flicker, active filtering, etc., rather than voltage mitigation. For faults originated close to the SVC, on the same voltage level or close to the load, the impedance seen by the SVC will be very low. Since the contribution to the bus bar voltage equals the injected current multiplied by the impedance, a very high reactive current will be drawn during such a fault [13]. Even if the SVC can be used for voltage dip mitigation purpose, it is not the better alternative compared to DVR. 5.5.5 Combination of a DVR and a SVC A development of the voltage source converters is a combination of the DVR and the SVC. By using them together, the SVC will during a voltage dip use the remaining voltage to obtain the required energy to the DVR by taking a current from the power grid. The DVR will then inject the missing voltage as described before thus compensating the voltage dip. Using this configuration shown in figure18, no energy storage is needed except for a small capacitance to stabilize the DC-link. The main disadvantage with the SVC and large currents during faults still remains.

Fig.5.8 Combination of a DVR and SVC without energy storage. 5.5.6 Energy storage The energy required during a disturbance through voltage source converters; rectifiers, inverters, UPS, can be stored electrically, kinetically, chemically, or magnetically. These can be implemented by capacitors, flywheels, batteries or superconducting magnetic coils (SMES). The development of new storage medium results in increased capability of those devices. 5.5.7 Capacitors Capacitors can be used as energy storage to produce active power. The amount of energy stored on the capacitor is proportional to the square of the voltage. To supply a constant dc-voltage there must be a dcdc converter to regulate the voltage, since the capacitor voltage decreases when the capacitor is discharged. Capacitors can normally be used up to a few seconds ride-through [5], depending on the load. 5.5.8 Batteries Batteries have a higher energy density than capacitors and supply power for a longer time than capacitors, but at a slower rate [5]. Batteries have a few disadvantages compared to capacitors; they may contain substances, which are not environmentally friendly, a limited lifetime, and they require maintenance to operate as intended. 5.5.9 Superconducting magnetic coils To deliver a high peak-power, e.g. an interruption in a large industrial system, superconducting magnetic coils are recommended in. The energy is stored in the magnetic field, generated by a DC current. The conductor is generally a niobium-titanium alloy, is kept at liquid helium temperature in order to be superconducting. The energy can be stored in a persistent mode until required. The advantages with a SMES are that it requires less space than an energy storage medium and that the price can compete with UPS in the kVA range.

chapter 6 DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER

6.1 INTRODUCTION:

A Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) is a recently proposed series connected solid state device that injects voltage into the system in order to regulate the load side voltage. The DVR was first installed in 1996. It is normally installed in a distribution system between the supply and the critical critical load feeder. Its primary function is to rapidly boost up the load-side voltage in the event of a disturbance in order to avoid any power disruption to that load[8,9]. There are various circuit topologies and control schemes that can be used to implement a

Fig 6.1 Block diagram of DVR

DVR. In addition to voltage sags and swells compensation, DVR can also perform such as: line voltage harmonics compensation, reduction of transients in voltage and fault current limitations. The general configuration of the DVR consists of an Injection/Booster transformer, a Harmonic filter, a Voltage Source Converter (VSC), DC charging circui and a Control and Protection system as shown in Fig. 6.1

6.1.1 INJECTION/BOOSTERTRANSFORMER It is specially designed transformer that attemts to limit the coupling of noise and transient energy from primary to secondry side.its main task are :To connect the DVRto distribution network via the HV winding and transforms and couples the injected compensating voltages generated by voltage source converter to incoming suplly voltages. It serves to isolate the load from the system

6.1.2 HARMONIC FILTERR : The main task of harmonic filter is to keep the harmonic voltage content generated by the voltage source converters to the permissible level (i.e. eliminate high frequency switching harmonics).It has a small rating approximately 2% of the load MVA [12]. 6.1.3VOLTAGE SOURCE COVERTER: A VSC is a power electronic system consists of a storage device and switching devices, which can generate a sinusoidal voltage at any required frequency, magnitude, and phase angle. In the DVR application, the VSC is used to temporarily replace the supply voltage or to generate the part of the supply voltage which is missing .

6.1.4SWITCHING SYSTEM: There are four main types of switching devices Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET), Gate Turn-Off thyristors (GTO), Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT), and Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Each type has its own benefits and drawbacks.

6.1.5 STORAGE DEVICE:

The purpose is to supply the necessary energy to the VSC via a dc link for the generation of injected voltages. Batteries and Ultracapacitors are the most common types of energy storage devices. In fact, the capacity of the stored energy directly determine duration of the sag which can be mitigating by the DVR. Batteries are the common choice and can be highly effective if a high voltage battery configuration is used. This high voltage string of batteries can be placed across the regulated dc bus with little or no additional circuitry. However batteries in general have a short lifetime and often require some type of battery management system, which can be quite costly. And ultracapacitors are used as alternative to the batteries.

6.1.6 CONTROL AND PROTECTON SYSTEM: The control mechanism of the general configuration typically consist of digital signal e processes sing boards. The software on the processing boards provides the control such as detection and correction. Filters are used for the purpose. 6.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE: The basic function of the DVR is to inject a dynamically controlled voltage generated by force commutated converter n series to the bus voltage by means of booster transformer. The momentry amplitude of three injected phase voltages such as to eliminate any detrimental effect of a bus fault to the load voltage . This means that any differential voltages caused by disturbances in the ac feeder will be compensated by an equivalent voltage generated by the converter and injected on the medium voltage level through the booster transformer The DVR works independently of the type of fault or any event that happens in the system,provided that the whole system remains connected to the supply grid, i.e. the line breaker does not trip For most practical cases, a more economical design can be achieved by only compensating the positive and negative sequence components of the voltage disturbance seen at the input of the DVR (because for a typical distribution bus configuration, the zero sequence part of a disturbance will not pass through the step down transformer which has infinite impedance for this component The DVR has two modes of operation which are: standby mode and boost mode. In standby Mode(V=0), the Booster transformers low voltage winding is shorted through the converter. No switching of semiconductors occurs in this mode of operation, because the individual converter legs are triggered such as to establish a short circuit path for comparatively low conduction losses of the semiconductors in this current loop contribute to the losses. The DVR will be most of the time in this mode .In boost mode(V>0) the dvr is injecting a compensation voltage through the booster transformer due to a detection of a supply voltage disturbance. .6.3 CONVENTIONAL DVR INJECTION METHODS: The possibility of compensating voltage sag can be limited by a number of factors including finite DVRpower rating, different load conditions and different types of voltage sag. Some loads are very sensitive to phase angle jump and others are tolerant to it. Therefore, the control strategy depends on the type of load characteristics. There are three distinguishing methods to inject DVR compensating voltage

6.3.1 Pre-Dip Compensation (PDC):

The PDC method tracks supply voltage continuously and compensates load voltage during fault to pre-fault condition. In this method, the load voltage can be restored ideally, but the injected active power cannot be controlled and it is determined by external conditions such as the type of faults and load conditions. The lack of the negative:

sequence detection in this method leads to the phase-oscillation in the case of single-line faults. Figure 1 shows the single-phase vector diagram of this method. According to Fig. 1, the apparent power of DVR is

= = + -2 cos( )

nd the active power of DVR is:

cos

cos )

= tan

6.3.2 In-Phase Compensation (IPC):

This is the most used method in which the injected DVR voltage is in phase with the supply side voltage regardless of the load current and the pre-fault voltage as shown in Fig. 3. The IPC method is suitable for minimum voltage or minimum energy operation strategies[10]. In other word, this approach requires large amounts of real power to mitigate the voltage sag, which means a large energy storage device. The apparent and active powers of DVR are:

= =

) )cos

cos =

C Vs C VDVR

Vs

Fig 6.2.1

Single-phase vector diagram of the PDC method

C

VLp red ip
C

VD V R C VS
C

IL

Fig 6.2.2

Single-phase vector diagram of the IPC method :

The magnitude and angle of DVR are: = = -

6.4 ControlCIRCUIT OF SSC for voltage dip mitigation.

The vulnerability to voltage dips varies with the equipment, for example a paper machine can suffer for only 90% voltage dip lasting for 100ms, whereas a PC can withstand a 70% voltage dip lasting 10 cycles without serious performance consequence.The new scenario of liberalized electric energy market is increasing the importance of power quality problems in the system the reasons are several and mainly concerns the augmented vulnerability of equipments, the increased number of pollutant devices and actual awareness of detrimental effect linked to disturbances. All these aspects make the mitigation issue a crucial problem and evidence the importance of voltage dip mitigation. To mitigate voltage dips due to faults various options are available, the main are 1. Reducing the number of short-circuit faults ; 2. Reducing the faults-clearing time; 3. Changing the system such that short-circuit faults results in less severe events at the equipment terminals or at the customer interface; 4. Connecting mitigation equipment between the sensitive equipment and supply; 5. Improving the immunity of the equipment. The aforementioned methods can be used in combination with different responsibility of the corresponding actions. In fact, items 1) and 2) can be implemented by utilities that also should completely cover the related costs. Item 3) , that does not allow avoiding voltage dips but only reduce their severity, can be also implemented by utilities. In such a case the utilities could share the involved investment cost with customer. Improving the immunity of equipment item 5) is the most effective way to solve the problem but also not suitable in short time. It involves manufacturer and, often, the customer can require increased immunity only incase of large industrial equipment that are customized. The installation of mitigation equipment at the interface with power supply is the most attracative solution (item 4). Overall, it allows reaching higher PQ performance levels just where they are needed in function of the customer request. The corresponding costs of installation and service could be recovered by proper tariffs of electric energy supply. The mitigation equipment use power electronics converters whose performance characteristics are ever more effective for the continuous improving of power electronics switches and microprocessors devices. Among possible means available the most, the efficient solutions involves the use of Static Series Compensator (SSC).

Fig 6.3 Circuit diag of DVR On August 26, 1996, the worlds first SSC (DVR) was installed at the Duke Power distribution system to protect the sensitive textile customer from voltage dips. The SSC is mainly constituted by a Voltage Source Converter (VSC) connected in serie with the load via series-injection transformer, as shown in fig 5.1, is an effective solution for compensation of short-duration, shallow dips. The device injects three AC voltages of controllable amplitude and phase angle, which add up independently to corresponding source voltages, thus performing both supply unbalance compensation and voltage regulation. The use of pulsewidth modulation (PWM) with high switching frequency ensures a smooth voltage waveform, with distortion components shifted to high frequencies. High-frequency harmonics can thus be canceled by using small passive filters.

CHAPTER 7 MATLAB : A POWERFUL SIMULATION TOOL

MATLAB is numeric computation software for engineering and scientific calculations. MATLAB is primarily a tool for matrix computations. MATLAB is being used to teach filter design, random processes, control systems and communication theory. The MATLAB exercises cover sinusoidal analysis, network characteristics and frequency response. The interactive programming and versatile graphics of MATLAB is especially effective in enhancing the teaching topics in electrical engineering. MATLAB is a high level language whose basic data type is a matrix that does not require dimensioning. In MATLAB, all computations are done in complex valued double precision arithmetic to guarantee high accuracy. MATLAB has a rich set of plotting capabilities. The graphics are integrated into MATLAB. Since MATLAB is also a programming environment, a user can extend the functional capabilities of MATLAB by writing new modules. MATLAB has a large collection of toolboxes for variety of applications. A toolbox consists of functions that can be used to perform some computations in the toolbox domain, some examples of MATLAB toolboxes are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Signal Processing Image Processing Neural Network Control System Statistics Symbolic Mathematics Optimization System Identification

MATLAB is being used to teach filter design, random processes, control systems and communication theory. The interactive programming feature and versatile graphics of MATLAB is especially effective in demonstrating some of the principles of ac circuit analysis. MATLAB is a computer program that can be very helpful in solving the sorts of mathematical problems you will frequently encounter throughout your engineering or technology coursework. MATALB can be used for more complexes, such as factoring polynomials, filtering curves to data points, making calculations using matrices, performing signal processing operations such as Fourier transforms, building and training neural networks. A very and often very useful aspect of MATLAB is that it can be used to plot many different kinds of graphs, enabling you to visualize complex mathematical functions

and laboratory data. For example, the three images below were created by using MATLAB plotting functions.

7.1 ADVANTAGES OF MATLAB:

MATLAB has many advantages compared with conventional languages for technical problem solving. Among them are following: Ease of Use: MATLAB is an interpreted language, like many versions of basics, i.e. very easy to use. The program can be used as a scratch pad to evaluate expressions typed at the command line, or it can be used to execute large prewritten programs. Programs may be easily written and modified with the built-in integrated development and debugged with the MATLAB debugger. It is ideal for prototyping of new programs. Platform Independence: MATLAB is supported on many different computer systems, providing a large measure of platform independence. Program written on any platform will run on all other platforms, and data files written on any platform may be read transparently on any other platform. So, program written in MATLAB can migrate to new platforms when users need change. Predefined Functions: MATLAB comes complete with an extensive library of predefined functions that provide tested and pre-packaged solution to many basic technical tasks. In most languages you would need to write your own subroutines or functions to implement calculations such as arithmetic mean, standard deviation, median and so forth. These and hundred of other functions are built right into the MATLAB language, making job easier. Device Independent Plotting: MATLAB has many integral plotting and imaging commands. The plots and images can be displayed on any graphical output device supported by the computer on which MATLAB is running. This capability makes MATLAB an outstanding tool for visualizing technical data. Graphical User Interface: MATLAB includes tool that allow programmer to interactively construct a graphical user interface (GUI) for his or her program. With his capability, the programmer can design sophisticated data analysis programs that can be operated by relatively inexperienced users.

MATLAB Compiler: MATLABs flexibility and platform independence is achieved by compiler MATLAB programs into a device independent p-code and then interpreting the p-code instruction at run time. The approach is similar to that used by Microsoft visual-basic language. Unfortunately the resulting program can sometimes execute slowly because the MATLAB code is interpreted rather than compiled. We will point out features that tend to slow program execution when we encounter them.

7.2 SIMULATION STUDIES

Most simulation study precedes around four major areas: the problem, the system and the model, the experiment, and the analysis.In formulating the problem, a key step in problem solving endeavours any, the analyst must strive to understand and define the problem in a precise and systematic form.

7.3 SIMULINK
In the last few years, Simulink has become the most widely used software package in academia and industry for modelling and simulating dynamical systems. Simulink encourages you to try things out. You can easily build models from scratch, or take an existing model and add to it. Simulations are interactive, so you can change parameters "on the fly" and immediately see what happens. You have instant access to all of the analysis tools in MA TLAB, so you can take the results and analyze and visualize them. You will get a sense of the fun of modelling and simulation, through an environment that encourages you to pose a question, model it, and see what happens. With Simulink, you can move beyond idealized linear models to explore more Realistic nonlinear models, factoring in friction, air resistance, gear slippage, hard Stops and the other things that describe real-world phenomena. It turns your computer into a lab for modelling and analyzing systems that simply wouldn't be possible or practical otherwise, whether the behaviour of an automotive clutch system, the flutter of an airplane wing, the dynamics of a predator-prey model, or the effect of the monetary supply on the economy. Simulink is also practical. With thousands of engineers around the world using it to and solve real problems, knowledge of this tool will serve you well throughout your professional career. Simulink is a software package that enables you to model, simulate, and analyze Dynamic systems, that is, systems whose outputs and states change with time. Simulink can be used to explore the behaviour of a wide range of real-world systems, including electrical circuits, shock absorbers, braking systems, and many other electrical, mechanical, and thermodynamic systems. Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, you use Simulink's model editor to create a model of the system to be simulated. The model graphically depicts the time-dependent mathematical relationships among the system's inputs, states, and outputs (see Modelling Dynamic Systems). Then, you use Simulink to simulate the behaviour of the system for a specified time span. Simulink uses information that you entered into the model to perform the simulation.

7.4 SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARIES

Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behaviour. The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.

The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output. The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components. The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions. The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions. The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions and table look-up operations. The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions. The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and Demultiplexing, implement external input/output, pass data to other arts of the models, creates subsystems, and performs other functions. The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of specialized blocks.

7.5 POWER SYSTEM BLOCK SET

Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits, and electromechanical devices, like motors and generators. Engineers working in this discipline are constantly asked to improve the performance of the systems. Requirements for drastically increased efficiency have forced power system designers to use power electronic devices and sophisticated control system concepts that tax traditional analysis tools and techniques. Further complicating the analyst's role is the fact that the system is often so nonlinear, the only way to understand it is through simulation. The Power System Block set was designed to provide a modem design tool that will allow scientists and engineers to rapidly and easily build models that simulate power systems. The block set uses the Simulink environment, allowing a model to be built using simple click and drag procedures. Not only can the circuit topology be drawn rapidly, but the analysis of the circuit can include its interactions with mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines. This is possible because all of the electrical parts of the simulation interact with Simulink's extensive modeling library. Since Simulink uses MAT LAB as the computational engine, the designer can also use MAT Lab's toolboxes.

7.6 THE POWER SYSTEM BLOCK LIBRARIES

The Power System Block set's main library powerlib organizes its blocks into libraries according to their behaviour. The powerlib window displays the block library icons and names: The Electrical Sources library contains blocks that generate electric signals. The Elements library contains linear and nonlinear network elements. The Power Electronics library contains power electronics devices.

The Machines library contains machinery models.

The Connectors library contains blocks that can be used to interconnect blocks in various situations. The Measurements library contains blocks for the current and voltage measurements.

The Extras library contains three-phase blocks and specialized measurements and control blocks. Typing powerlib extras in the MA TLAB window can also open this library. These blocks are not documented in the block reference section. The Demos library contains useful demos and case studies. The Power lib window also contains the following blocks:

The Powergui block that opens a graphical user interface for the steady-state analysis of electrical circuits. The Discrete System block that is used to discretize your electrical models.

The Simulink models of the nonlinear blocks of powerlib are stored in a library named Powerlib models. The Power System uses these Simulink models.

7.7 ADVANTAGES OF SIMULATION

The goal of each simulation study varies: however there are some fundamental reasons why people use simulation to analyze real world systems: 1) Simulation can be used to predict outcomes. If a power system wants to configure its operations, simulation can be used to test various layouts and scenario of operation. 2) Most real world systems are stochastic (changes in the system are determined by chance) and dynamic (the system changes over time).in this case, the development of an analytical solution for studying the systems is either not feasible or impractical. 3) Simulation can account for the effects of variance. Multiple runs of the model can be made under different condition, and not only the average but also the variability of outcomes can be examined. 4) Simulation analysis promotes what is known as total solutions. A simulation model is designed and builds to take into account all aspects that directly impact the system; indirectly impacts exist in the system environment. Since the total system is reflected in the model, any outcomes suggested by the analysis of the model, represent total solution to the system behavior.

Simulation can bring together expertise, knowledge and information about a system and its operation. In this view new and creative ideas for the system performance can be examined without harm to the current operations. Simulation is essential a four step process to formulate a valid model real world systems, develop operational scenarios, and translate and project the model output back to the real world systems.

7.8 MODEL DEVELOPMENT

The development of a system model requires both science and art. A great deal of system experience in developing models is required to obtain a valid and meaningful of the system under study. We must determine to what level of detail the system needs to be modeled and what are the essential features of the model, which are critical to the study objectives. In addition, the analyst must make an effort to involve the users of the model, in the building process. If the users of the model are not satisfied that the model solves their problems, the modeling effort will be wasted. The building of the system is atop down and often incremental process. We will begin by developing a high level model that captures the flow of entities through the system and leaves many of the finer details for future developments. The analyst continues to refine the model in an effort to ensure that the model is a true representation of the system. Before building the model we must collect the data from the real world system and represent the data with in processes of model. Model verification is used to check the correctness of the model functionality. In order to check the correctness multiple runs of the simulation model are performed to ascertain that the correct outputs are generated for the particular inputs.

CHAPTER:8 conclusion & future scope

8.1 conclusion:
A static series compensator (SSC4w) for performing a compensation of voltage dips including a zerosequence component has been presented in this thesis. Origin and classification of voltage dips have been reviewed. The control strategy, based on a feedback control of the load voltage, has been explained in detail. Simulated results demonstrate the dip mitigation performance.. The disturbance identification method identifies the characteristics of the disturbance, supplying the information that the compensator strategy needs in order to compensate voltage disturbances. Three identification methods have been presented: Network Phase Tracking Method, Fortescue Method and Instantaneous Symmetrical Components Method. The choice of one of them depends not only on its transient and steady state response but especially on the characteristics of the load and its sensitivity to phase shifts. Thus, if phase shifts can provoke the erroneous operation of the load, a pre-fault identification technique must be used. If there is single line to ground fault in case of a three phase 4 wire system the instantaneous symmetrical components are computed and detected by various detection blocks. And finally zero sequence components are extracted and injected by SSC used .In this case there is just one compensation strategy that can be used, the Zero Sequence injection technique , which avoids the unbalance in the forth wire in case of transformers Y/Y connected grounded at both sides. The simulation results showed clearly the performance of the DVR in mitigating voltage sags and swells. The DVR handled both balanced and unbalanced situations without any difficulties and

injected the appropriate voltage component to correct rapidly any anomaly in the supply voltage to keep the load voltage balanced and constant at the nominal value. The efficiency and the effectiveness in voltage sags/swells compensation showed by the DVR makes him an interesting power quality device compared to other custom power devices

8.2 future scope:

The present work demonstrate a votage dip mitigation controller for a three phase 4 wire power distribution system at low voltage level using a VSI based SSC. A further work could be of interest by using a hybrid use of prototype series and shunt voltage controllers for power quality improvement at high voltage levels.

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