t "

. .

Verso

Immanuel allerstein I5J

Verso Editions
Ib Greek Stret London I
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Comset Graphic Designs
Printed by
The Thetford Press Limited
Thetford, Norfolk
ISBN U50UI 70I4Pbk
U50UIMI 7
?

l
'

Contents

1Uoductou 7
be Lommodcatou ot LVOrtbu:
roductou ot Lagta

be otc8 ot Bccumulatou:
Uue tor euOt8 47

rutb a8 LgatO:

atouat aud atoualzatou 75

Loucu8ou:
Lu rore88 aud rau8tou8 7

Introduction
4

_, Thisbookhaditsimmediateoriginintwosuccessiverequests .
| theautumnolVb, Thierry Paquotinvitedmetowritea
shortbookloraserieshewaseditinginParis. Hesuggestedas

y topic ' Capitalism' . l replied that lwas,inprinciple, will-

ing to do it, but that l wished my topic to be 'Historical

_ CapitaIism'.
+
leltthatmuchhadbeenwrittenaboutcapitalismbyMarx-

ists and others on the political lelt, but that most ol these

ookssulleredlromoneoltwolaults. Onevarietywerebasic-
dIy logico-deductive analyses, starting lrom dehnitions ol
hatcapitalismwasthoughttobeinessence, and thenseeing

howlarithaddevelopedinvariousplacesandtimes .Asecond
ariety concentrated on presumed major translormations ol

:hecapitalist systemasolsomerecentpointintime,inwhich

the whole earlier point ol time served as a mythologized loil

egainst which to treat the empirical reality olthe present .
What seemedurgent to me, a task towhich in a sense the
*_

whole corpus olmy recent work hasbeen addressed, was to

scc capitalism as a historical system, over the whole ol its

historyandinconcreteuniquereality. l, therelore, setmysell

thetaskoldescribingthisreality,oldelineatingpreciselywhat
was always changing and what had not changed at all [such
that we couId denote the entire reality under one name).

T
l (

believe, likemanyothers, that thisrealityisan integrated

whole. ut manywhoassert thisviewargueitinthelorm ol
an attack on others lor their alleged ' economism' or their
cultural ' idealism' ortheirover-emphasison political, 'volun-
taristic'lactors . Suchcritiques, almostbytheirnature,tendto
lall by rebound into the sin opposite to the one they are at-
tacking. l have therelore tried to present quite straight-
lorwardly the overall integrated reality, treating successively
its expression in the economic, political, and cultural-ideo-
logical arenas.
Shortlyalterlagreedinprincipletodothisbook, received
an invitation lrom the Department olPolitical Science at the
University olHawaii to give a series ollectures. l seized the
opportunity to write this book as those lectures, givenin the
springolIVdZ. The.rstversionolthehrstthreechapterswas
presented in Hawaii, and l am gratelul to my lively audience
lor their manycomments and criticisms which enabled me to
improve the presentation considerably.
One improvement l made was to

add thelourth chapter. l

realized in the course ol the lectures that one problem ol
exposition persisted: the enormous subterranean strength oI
the laith in inevitable progress. l realized too that this laith
vitiated our understanding ol the real historical alter-
nativesbelore us. l, therelore, decided toaddress thequestion
directly.
Finally, let me say a word about Karl Marx. He ws a
monumental .gure in modern intellectual and political
history. Hehasbequeathedus agreat legacywhich isconcep-
tually rich and morally inspiring. When he said, however,
that he was not a Marxist, we should takehim seriously and
not shrug this aside as a bon rot.
.
.
Introduction
Heknew, asmany o his sel-proclaimeddisciples oten do
not, that he was a man o the nineteenth century, whose vi-
sion was inevitably circumscribed by that social reality. He
knew, asmany do not, that a theoretical ormulation is only
understandable and usable in relation to the alternative or-
mulation it is explicitly or implicitly attacking, and that itis
cntirelyirrelevantvis-avisormulationsaboutotherproblems
based on other premisses. He knew, as many do not, that
there was a tension in the presentation o his work between
the exposition ocapitalism asa perected system (which had
never in act existed historically and the analysis o the con-
crete day-to-day reality o the capitalist world.
!et us, thereore, use his writings in the only sensible

way thatoacomradeinthestrugglewhoknewasmuchas
he knew.

.
1
'

The Commodifcation of
Everything:
Production of Capital

Capitalism is hrst and oremost a historical social system. To

understand itsorigins, itsworkings, oritscurrent prospects,

we have to look at its existingreality. Ve may olcourse at-

tempttosummarizethatrealityinasetoabstractstatements,
.

but it wouldbeoolish to use such abstractions tojudge and

cIassiy the reality. I propose thereore instead to try

to des-

cribe

wbatcapitalismhasactuallybeenlikeinpractice, howit

haslunctionedasasystem,whyithasdevelopedinthewaysit

has, and where it is presently heading.

_ The word capitalism is derived lrom capital. It would be

Iegitimatethereloretopresumethatcapitalisakeyelementin

capitalism. ut what is capital? Inone usage, itismerely ac-

cumulatedwealth. utwhen usedin thecontext olhistorical
capitalism it has a more speci.c dehnition. It is notjust

the
stock o consumable goods, machinery, or authorized claims
tomaterial things in theorm
olmoney. Capitalin historical
capitalismdoes o coursecontinuetoreerto thoseaccumula-
tionsotheelortsopast labourwhichhavenotyetbee

iex-
pended, but ithiswereall

, then allhistoricalsystemsbackto
thoseoNeanderthalmancouldbesaidtohavebeencapitalist,
.
since they all had some such accumulated stocks that incar-
nated past labour.
Vhat distinguishes the historical social system weare call-

inghistoricalcapitalismis thatinthishistorical systemcapital

J1
came tobeused(invested)inaveryspeciaway. Itcametobe
usedwiththeprimaryobjectiveorintentolsel-expansion. In
this system, past accumuations were 'capita' ony tothe ex-
tendtheywereusedtoaccumuatemoreolthesame.Thepro-
cesswasnodoubtcompex,evensinuous,asweshasee. ut
it was this reentess and curiousy sel-regarding goa olthe
hoder olcapita, the accumuation olsti more capita, and
the reations this hoder olcapita had therelore to estabish
with other persons in order to achieve this goa, which we
denominate as capitais.To be sure, this object was not ex-
cusive. Otheronsiderations intruded upon the production
process. Sji_ theuestionis_Dl

Iit

ratio Wgevr ovq1

e
,it
as
a

ation
,7|

[i|
a

r
l!) !r. rir L|t
4
vjustiL3Jy0_ thatwarpby
y
!
|
}
stem in
ogeration.
_
An individua or a group ol individuas might ol course
decide at any time that theywoud ike toinvestcapitawith
theobjective olacquiring stimorecapita. ut,beloreacer

t,Inbutoi|gq,it@

a
i
"
di
"
i

J
In previous systems, the
ong and compex process ol the accumuation olcapita was
amost aways bocked at one or another point , even in those
cases where its initia condition the ownership, or ama-
gamation, ola stock olpreviousy unconsumed goods in the
handsolalew existed.Ourputativecapitaistawaysneeded

toobtain theuseolabour, whichmeanttherehad tobeper-

sonswhocoudbeuredorcompeed todo suchwork. Once
workers ere obtained and goodsproduced, thesegoods had
to be marketed in some way, which meant there had tobe
both asystem oldistribution and a group olbuyers with the
wherewithatopurchasethegoods. Thegoodshad tobesod

Production of Ca
p
ital J'

at aprice thatwasgreater than the totacosts(asolthepoint

olsae) incurred by the seer, and, lurthermore, this margin
o|
diherencehadtobcmorethantheseerneededlorhisown
subsistence. Thcre had, in our modern anguage, tobeapro-
t.Theowneroltheprohtthenhadtobeabeto

retainitun-
t| areasonabe opportunity occurred to invest it, whereupon

:hewhoe process had to renewitselat the point olproduc-

tton.

In lact, belore modern times, this chain ol processes

[sometimes caed the circuit ol capita) was sedom com-

qIctcd. For one thing many ol the inks in the chain were
nsidered, in previous historica socia systems, to be irra-
1|ona and/or immora by the hoders olpoitica and mora

uthority. ut even in the absence oldirect interlerence by

thosewho had thepower tointerlere, theprocesswasusuay

abortedbythenon-avaiabiityoloneormoreeementsolthe

qrocess the accumuated stockin amoneylorm, theabour-

pwer to be utiized by the producer, the network ol dis-
tr|butors , the consumers who were purchasers.

One or more eements were missing because, in previous
h|storica socia systems, one or more ol these eements was
not' commodihed' orwasinsulhcienty'commodihed' . What

th|s means is that the process was not considered one that
l*

coud or shoud be transacted through a 'market' . Historica

capitaisminvovedtherelore thewidespreadcommodihcation

olprocesses not merey exchange processes, but production
qrocesses, distribution processes, and investment pro-
ccsses that had previousy been conducted other than via a
_

'markct' . And, in the course olseeking to accumuate more

and more capita, capitaists have sought to commodilymore

and more olthese socia processes in a spheres oleconomic

I|lc. Sincecapitaismisasel-regardingprocess , itloowsthat

J
no socta ttansactton has bccn tntttnstcay cxcmQt ttom Qosst

bctncuston. Jhattsvhyvcmay say thatthchtstottcadcvc-

oQmcnt ot caQttatsm has tnvovcd thc thtust tovatds thc
. commodtttcatton otcvctythtng.
Not has tt bccn cnough to commodtty thc socta Qtoccsscs .
Ptoductton Qtoccsscs vctc tnkcd to onc anothct tn comQcx
commodtty chatns . ot cxamQc, constdct a tyQtca Qtoduct
that has bccn vtdcy Qtoduccd and sod thtoughout thc
htstottca cxQcttcncc ot caQttatsm, an ttcm ot cothtng. Jo
Qtoducc an ttcm otcothtng, onc tyQtcay nccds at thc vcty
cast coth, thtcad, somc ktnd ot machtncty, and about-
Qovct. but cach otthcsc ttcms tn tutn has to bc Qtoduccd.
And thc ttcms that go tnto thctt Qtoductton tn tutn havc aso
M
to bc Qtoduccd. lt vas not tncvttabc tt vas not cvcn com
mon that cvcty subQtoccss tn thts commodtty chatn vas
commodthcd. lndccd, as vc sha scc, Qtoht ts ottcn gtcatct
vhcn not a tnks tn thc chatn atc tn tactcommodthcd. hat
tsccat tsthat, tnsuch achatn, thctctsavctyatgcand dtsQcts
cd sct otvotkcts vho atctccctvtngsomc sott ottcmunctatton
vhtchtcgtstctsonthcbaancc-shcct ascosts. Jhctctsasoatat
smact, but aso usuaydtsQctscd, sctotQctsons [vho atctut
thctmotc usuay not unttcd as cconomtc Qattncts but oQctatc
as dtsttnct cconomtc cnttttcs}, vho shatc tn somcvay tn thc
uttmatc matgtn that cxtsts tn thc commodtty chatn bctvccn
thc totacostsotQtoductton otthcchatn and thc tota tncomc
tcatzcd by thc dtsQosa otthc tina Qtoduct.
Lncc thctc vctc such commodtty chatns tnktng muttQc
Qtoductton Qtoccsscs, tt ts ccat that thc tatc otaccumuatton
tot a thc 'caQttatsts' Qut togcthct bccamc a tunctton othov
vtdc amatgtn coudbcctcatcd, tn a sttuatton vhctc thts mat-
gtn coud tuctuatc constdctaby. Jhctatc otaccumuatton tot
` Qatttcuat caQttatsts, hovcvct, vas a tunctton ota Qtoccss ot
Production of Cap
ital J7
'comQctttton' , vtth htghct tcvatds gotng to thosc vho had
grcatct QcrsQtcactty ot]udgcmcnt , gtcatct abttty to contto

thctr
votk-totcc, and gtcatct acccsstoQotttcay-dcctdcd con-

sttatn
ts on Qatttcuat matkct oQctattons [knovn gcncttcay as
'monoQotcs' } .
Jhts ctcatcd a htst ccmcntary conttadtctton tn thc systcm.

htc thc tntctcst otacaQttatsts, takcn as acass, sccmcd to

bc to tcducc a costs otQtoductton, thcsc tcducttons tn tact

bcguc
nty tavoutcd Qatttcuat caQtttsts agatnst othcts, and
somc thcrctotc Qtctcttcd to tnctcascthctt shatc

ota smact

globa margtn tathct than acccQt a smact shatc ot a atgct

goba matgtn. uthctmotc, thctc vas a sccond tundamcnta
contradtcttontn thcsystcm. AsmotcandmotccaQttavasac-
" cumuatcd, motc and motc Qtoccsscs commodtttcd, and motc
znd motccommodtttcsQroduccd, oncotthckcy rcguttcmcnts

to matntatn thc ov vas that thctc bc motc and motc Qut

chascts. Movcvct, at thcsamcttmc,cttottstotcducc thccosts
olQroductton ottcn tcduccd thc ov and dtstttbutton ot

moncy, and thustnhtbttcdthcstcady cxQanstonotQutchascrs,

nccdcd tocomQctc thc Qroccss otaccumuatton. Ln thcothct
'
hznd, rcdtstttbuttons otgoba Qtottt tn vays that coud havc

cxQandcd thc nctvotk otQutchascts ottcn tcduccd thc goba

margtn otQtoht . Mcncctndtvtdua cnttcQtcncurs tound thcm

,scvcs Qushtng tn onc dttcctton tot thctt ovn cntctQttscs [tot

cxamQc, by rcductng thctt ovn about costs} , vhtc stmuta-
n

cousy Qushtng [as mcmbcts ota coccttvc cass} to tnctcasc

tbc ovcta nctvotk otQutchascts [vhtch tncvttaby tnvovcd,

or somc Qtoduccts at cast , an tnctcasc tn about costs}.

Jhc cconomtcs otcaQttatsm has thus bccn govctncdby thc

rzttona tntcnt to maxtmtzc accumuatton. but vhat Was ta
' tonatot thccnttcQtcncursvasnotncccssartytattonatot thc
Wotkcrs . And cvcn motc tmQottant, vhat vastattona tot a
`-

J
cnttcQtcncuts as acoccttvcgtouQvas notncccssattytattona
tot any gtvcn cnttcQtcncut. lt ts thctctotc not cnough to say
that cvctyonc vas Qutsutngthctt ovntntctcsts. LachQctson' s
ovntntctcsts ottcn Qushcdthcm, guttc 'tattonay' , tocngagc
tn conttadtctoty acttvtttcs . Jhc cacuatton ot tca ong-tctm
tntctcst thctcby bccamc cxcccdtngy comQcx, cvcn ttvc tg
notc, at Qtcscnt, thc dcgtcc to vhtch cvctyonc' s QctccQttons
otthctt ovntntctcsts vas coudcd ovct anddtstottcdbycom
Qcx tdcoogtcavcts. ot thc momcnt, l Qtovtstonayassumc
that htstotica caQttatsm dtd tn tact btccd a homo economicus,
but l am addtng that hcvas amost tncvttaby abtt contuscd.
Jhts ts hovcvct onc 'ob]ccttvc' consttatnt vhtch tmttcd
thc contuston. lta gtvcn tndtvtdua constanty madc cttots tn
cconomtc]udgcmcnt, vhcthct bccausc ot tgnotancc, tatutty,
ot tdcoogtca Qtc]udtcc, thts tndtvtdua [htm} tcndcd not to
sutvtvc tn thc matkct . banktuQtcy has bccn thc hatsh ccans
tng utd ot thc caQttatst systcm, constanty totctng a cco
nomtc actots o kccQ motc ot css to thc vc-ttoddcn tut ,
Qtcssuttngthcmto act tnsuchavaythatcoccttvcy thctchas
bccn cvcn tutthct accumuatton otcaQtta .
MtstottcacaQttatsm, ts, thus , thtconctctc, ttmc-boundcd,
sQacc-boundcd tntcgtatcd ocus otQtoducttvcacttvtttcs vtthtn
vhtch thc cndcss accumuatton otcaQtta has bccn thc cco
nomtcob]ccttvcot ' av` thathasgovctncdotQtcvatcdtntun
damcnta cconomtc acttvtty. lt ts that socta systcm tn vhtch
thoscvhohavcoQctatcdbysuchtucshavchadsuchgtcattm
Qact on thc vhoc as to ctcatc condtttons vhctctn thc othcts
havc bccn totccd to contotm to thc Qattctns ot to suttct thc
conscgucnccs. lt ts that socta systcm tn vhtch thc scoQc ot
thcsc tucs [thc av ot vauc} has gtovn cvct vtdct, thc cn
totccts otthcsc tucs cvct motc tnttanstgcnt, thc Qcncttatton
ot thcsc tucs tnto thc socta tabttc cvct gtcatct, cvcn vhtc
7
Production of Cap
ital J
#
A
socta oQQosttton to thcsc tucs has gtovn cvct oudct and

motc otgantzcd.

Lstng thts dcscttQtton ot vhat onc mcans by htstottca

,<zQttatsm, cach otus can dctctmtnc tovhtch conctctc, ttmc
-- boundcd, sQacc-boundcd tntcgtatcd ocus thts tctcts. Ny ovn
_ vcv ts that thc gcncsts otthts htstottca systcm ts ocatcd tn
I
ztc-httccnth-ccntuty LutoQc, that thc systcm cxQandcd tn

sQaccovct ttmctocovct thccntttcgobcbythcatcntnctccnth

<cntuty, andthattt stttodaycovctsthccntttcgobc. ltcatzc

*
tbat such a cutsoty dctncatton ot thc ttmc-sQacc boundattcs
cvokcs doubts tn many mtnds . Jhcsc doubts atc hovcvct ot
tWo dtttctcnt ktnds. ttst, cmQtttca doubts. as Hussta in
tdc ot outstdc thc LutoQcan votd-cconomy tn thc stxtccnth

<cntuty: Lxactyvhcnvas thcLttomanLmQttctncotQotatcd

nto thc caQttatst votd-systcm: Lan vc constdct a gtvcn tn
tcrtotzoncotagtvcn statcata gtvcn ttmcasttuy ' tntcgtatcd'

ntothccaQttatstvotd-cconomy: JhcscgucsttonsatctmQot
Ut,bothtn thcmscvcs, andbccausctnattcmQttngtoansvct

tbcm vc atc totccd to makc motc Qtcctsc out anayscs otthc

roccsscs othtstottca caQttatsm. but thts ts nctthct thc mo

1C t not Qacc to addtcss thcsc numctous cmQtttca gucttcs
tbat arc undct conttnutng dcbatc and cabotatton.
bc sccond ktnd otdoubt ts that vhtch addtcsscs thc vcry
utty ot thc tnducttvc cassthcatton l havc ust suggcstcd.
ctc arc thosc vho tctusc to acccQt that caQttatsm can cvcr
~satd to cxtst uncss thctc ts a sQccthc totmotsoctatcatton
n thc votkQacc, that ot a Qttvatc cnttcQrcncut cmQoytng
Wzgc-aboutcts. Jhctc atcthosc vho vtsh to saythatvhcna
B

statc has nattonatzcd tts tndustttcs and Qtocatmcd tts

Hcgtancc to soctatst doctttncs, tt has, by thosc acts and as a
tHult ot thctt conscgucnccs, cndcd thc QatttctQatton ot that
$tztc tn thc caQttatst votd-systcm. hcsc atc not cmQtttca
2J
gucrtcs but thcorcttca oncs, and vc sha try to addrcss thcm
tn thc coursc otthts dtscusston. Addrcsstng thcm dcducttvcy
voud bc Qotntcss hovcvcr as tt voud cad not to a rattona
dcbatc, but mcrcy to a cash ot oQQostng

tatths. c sha
thcrctorc addrcss thcm hcurtsttcay, argutng that our tnduc-
ttvc cassthcatton ts morc usctu than atcrnattvc oncs, bccausc
tt comQrchcnds morc casty andccgantyvhatvccoccttvcy
knov at Qrcscnt about htstortcarcatty, andbccausctt attords
us an tntcrQrctatton ot thts rcatty vhtch cnabcs us to act
morc ctticactousy on thc Qrcscnt .
Lct us thcrctorc ook at hov thc caQttatst systcm actuay
has tuncttoncd. Jo say that a Qroduccr' s ob]ccttvc ts thc ac-
cumuatton otcaQtta ts to say that hc vt scck to Qroducc as
much ota gtvcn good as Qosstbc and ottcr tt tor sac at thc
htghcst Qrottt margn to htm. Mcvtdothtshovcvcrvtthtn
a scrtcs otcconomtcconstratnts vhtch cxtst, asvcsay, ' tn thc
markct' . Mts tota Qroductton tsQcrtorcc tmttcd by thc [rca-
ttvcytmmcdtatc}avatabtttyotsuch thtngsas matcrtatnQuts,
a vork-torcc, customcrs , and acccss to cash to cxQand hts tn-
vcstmcntbasc. Jhc amount hccan QrotitabyQroducc andthc
Qrottt margtn hc can catm ts aso tmttcd by thc abttty othts
' comQctttors' to ottcr thc samc ttcm at ovcr sacs Qrtccs, not
tn thts casc comQctttors anyvhcrc tn thc vord markct, but
thoscocatcdtn thc samctmmcdtatc, morcctrcumscrtbcdoca
markcts tn vhtch hc actuay scs [hovcvcr thts markct bc
dchncd tn a gtvcn tnstancc} . Jhc cxQanston othts Qroductton
vt aso bc constratncd by thc dcgrcc to vhtch hts cxQandcd
Qroductton vt crcatc such a Qrtcc-rcductng cttcct tn thc
'oca' markct astoactuay rcducc thcrca totaQrohtrcatzcd
on hts tota Qroductton.
Jhcscarcaob]ccttvcconstratnts , mcantng thcycxtsttnthc
abscncc otany Qarttcuar sct otdcctstons by a gtvcn Qroduccr
Production of Ca
p
ital 2J
or by othcrs zcttvc tn thc mzrkct. Jhcsc constrztnts zrc thc

conscgucnccotthc totz soctzQroccss thztcxtststn zconcrctc

ttmc znd Qzcc. Jhcrc zrc zvzys tn zddttton otcoursc othcr

constrztnts, morc oQcn to mzntQuztton. Lovcrnmcnts mzy
zdoQt, mzy zrczdy hzvc zdoQtcd, vzrtous rucsvhtchtn somc
vzy trznstorm cconomtc oQttons znd thcrctorc thcczcuus ot
1
Qroht . A gtvcn Qroduccr mzy bc thc bcnchctzry or thc vtcttm
otcxtsttngrucs. A gtvcn Qroduccr mzy scck to QcrsuzdcQot-
ttcz zuthortttcs to chzngc thctr rucs tn hts tzvour.
Movhzvc Qroduccrs oQcrztcd so zs to mzxtmtzc thctr zbtt-
_

ty tozccumuztcczQttz : zbour-Qovcrhzs zvzysbccnzccn

trz

znd guzntttzttvcy stgnthcznt ccmcnt tn thc Qroductton-

Qroccss. Jhc Qroduccr sccktng to zccumuztc ts conccrncd

vtthtvo dtttcrcnt zsQccts otzbour-Qovcr. ttszvztzbttty znd

its cost. Jhc Qrobcm otzvztzbttty hzs usuzybccn Qoscd tn
thctoovtngmznncr. soctz rczttonsotQroductton thztvcrc w
hxcd [zstzbcvork-torcc tor zgtvcn Qroduccr} mtghtbcov
cost ttthc mzrkct vcrc stzbc znd thc stzc othts vork-torcc
oQttmz tor z gtvcn ttmc. but tt thc mzrkct tor thc Qroduct
dcctncd, thc tzct thzt thc vork-torcc vzs hxcd voud tn
crczscttsrczcosttor

thcQroduccr. And shoudthcmzrkct tor

thc Qroduct tncrczsc, thc tzct thzt thc vork-torcc vzs ttxcd
voud mzkc tt tmQosstbc tor thc Qroduccr to tzkc zdvzntzgc
otthc Qroht oQQortuntttcs .
Ln thcothcrhznd,vzrtzbcvork-torccs zso hzddtszdvznt-
-
zgcs tor thc czQttztsts. Vzrtzbc vork-torccsvcrc by dchnt-
ttonvork-torccsthztvcrcnotncccsszrtyconttnuousyvork
tng tor thc szmc Qroduccr buch vorkcrs must

thcrctorc, tn

tcrms ot survtvz , hzvc bccn conccrncd vtth thctr rztc ot

1

rcmuncrzttontn tcrmsotz ttmc-sQznongcnough to cvc out

vzrtzttons tn rcz tncomc. Jhzt ts, vorkcrs hzd to bc zbc to
mzkc cnough trom thc cmQoymcnt to covcr Qcrtods vhcn
#

22
thcy dtd not rccctvc rcmuncrztton. Lonscgucnty, vzrtzbc
vorktorccsottcncostQroduccrsmorcQcr hour Qcrtndtvtduz
thzn hxcd vorktorccs.
hcnvchzvczcontrzdtctton, zndvc hzvconchcrctnthc
vcry hczrtotthc czQttztst Qroductton Qroccss, vccznbcsurc
6 -
thztthcrcsutvtbc zhtstortczyunczsycomQromtsc. Lctus

rcvtcv vhzt tn tzct hzQQcncd. ln htstortcz systcms Qrcccdtng

htstortcz czQttztsm, most [ncvcr z} vorktorccs vcrchxcd.
ln somc czscs, thcQroduccr' svorktorcc vzs ony htmsctor
hts tzmty, hcncc by dchnttton hxcd. ln somc czscs, z non
ktnrcztcd vork-torcc vzs bondcd to z Qzrttcuzr Qroduccr
throughvzrtouscgzznd/orcustomzryrcguzttons[tncudtng
vzrtous torms ot szvcry, dcbt bondzgc, scrtdom, Qcrmzncnt
tcnzncy zrrzngcmcnts, ctc. }. bomcttmcs thcbondtng vzsttc-
ttmc. bomcttmcstt vzstor tmttcdQcrtods, vtth zn oQtton ot
rcncvz, but such ttmctmttztton vzs ony mczntngtu tt
rcztsttc ztcrnzttvcs cxtstcd zt thc momcnt otrcncvz. Pov
thc hxtty otthcsc zrrzngcmcntsQoscd Qrobcms not ony tor
thc Qzrttcuzr Qroduccrs to vhom z gtvcn vork-torcc vzs
bondcd. ltQoscd Qrobcms to z othcrQroduccrs zsvc, stncc
obvtousyothcrQroduccrscoudonycxQzndthctrzcttvtttcsto
thc cxtcnt thzt thcrccxtstcd zvztzbc, nonhxcd vork-torccs.
hcsc constdcrzttons tormcd thc bzsts, zs hzs so ottcn bccn
dcscrtbcd, otthcrtscotthctnstttuttonotvzgczbour, vhcrc-
tn z grouQ otQcrsons cxtstcd vho vcrc Qcrmzncnty zvztzbc
tor cmQoymcnt, morc orcss tothchtghcst btddcr. crctcr
to thts Qroccss zs thcoQcrztton otz zbour mzrkct, znd to thc
Qcrsons vho sc thctr zbour zs Qroctzrtzns . l donottc you
znythtng novc to szy thzt, tn htstortcz czQttztsm, thcrc hzs
bccn tncrczstng Qroctzrtzntzztton ot thc vorktorcc. Jhc
stztcmcnt ts not ony not novc, tt ts not tn thc czst sur-
Qrtstng. Jhc zdvzntzgcs to Qroduccrs otthc Qroccss otQro-

Production of Ca
p
ital 2J
^
ctztzntzztton hzvcbccn zmQy documcntcd. hzttssutQtts-

ngts not thzt thctc hzs bccn so much Qtoctzttzntzztton, but

W
thzt thctc hzs bccn so tttc. out hundtcd yczts zt czst tnto
tbccxtstcncc otzhtstottcz soctz systcm, thczmount ottuy

gtoctzttzntzcd zbout tn thc czQttztst votd-cconomy todzy

cznnot bc sztd to totz cvcn htty Qct ccnt .

obc sutc thts stzttsttc ts z tunctton othovyoumczsutctt

d vhom you ztc mczsuttng. lt vc usc othctz govctnmcnt

1
stzttsttcs on thc so-czcdcconomtczy zcttvczbout-totcc, Qtt

mztty zdut mzcsvhomzkcthcmscvcstotmzyzvztzbctot

tcmunctztcdzbout, vcmzyhndthztthcQctccntzgcotvzgc
` WOtkcts ts sztd todzy to bc tczsonzby htgh [zthough cvcn
tbcn, vhcn czcuztcd votd-vtdc, thc zctuz Qctccntzgc ts

smzct thzn mostthcotcttcz stztcmcntsQtcsumc}. lthovcvct

Wc constdct z Qctsons vhosc votk ts tncotQotztcd tn onc
^
Wzy ot znothct tnto thc commodtty chztns thus cmbtzctng

vttuzy z zdut vomcn, znd z vcty ztgc QtoQottton otQct-

sOns zt thcQtc-zdut zndQost-Qttmczduthood zgctzngc[thzt

s, thc young znd thc od} zs vc thcn out Qctccntzgc ot

gtoctzttzns dtzsttczy dtoQs.
Lct us tutthctmotc tzkc onc zddtttonz stcQ bctotc vc do
Out mczsuttng. ls tt conccQtuzy usctu to zQQy thc zbc

'
gtoctzttzn` to zn tndtvtduz: l doubt tt. Lndct b:stottcz
' czQttztsm, zs undct Qtcvtous htstottcz systcms, tndtvtduzs
bzvc tcndcd to tvc thctt tvcs vtthtn thc ttzmcvotk ot
tczttvcy stzbc sttuctutcsvhtchshztczcommontundotcut
tcnt tncomc znd zccumuztcd czQttz, vhtch vc mzy cz
bOuschods. hc tzct thzt thc boundzttcs otthcsc houschods
ztcconstznty chzngtng by thccntttcs znd cxtts ottndtvtduzs
0ocs nOt mzkc thcsc houschods cssthcuntt ottzttonzczcu
ztton tn tctms ottcmunctztton znd cxQcndttutc. PcoQcvho
Wtshto sutvtvccount zthctt Qotcnttztncomc,homnomzt-

21
cr vhzt sourcc, znd zsscss tt tn tcrms otthcrcz cxQcndtturcs
thcy must mzkc. Jhcy scck mtntmzy to survtvc, thcn vtth
morc tncomc, to cnoy z ttc-styc vhtch thcy hnd szttstytng;
znd uttmztcy, vtth stt morc, tocntcr thcczQttztst gzmc zs
zccumuztors otczQttz . or z rcz QurQoscs, tt ts thc housc-
hod thzthzsbccn thccconomtcuntt thzthzscngzgcdtnthcsc
zcttvtttcs. Jhts houschod hzs usuzy bccn z ktn-rcztcd untt,
but somcttmcs not or, zt czst, not cxcustvcy. Jhts housc-
hod hzs tor thc most Qzrt bccn co-rcstdcnttz, but css so zs
commodthcztton Qrocccdcd.
|
lt ts tn thc contcxt ot such z houschod structurc thzt z
soctz dtsttnctton bctvccn Qroducttvc znd unQroducttvc vork _
` bcgzn to bc tmQoscd on thc vorktng czsscs . Lc tzcto, Qro

ducttvc vork czmc to bc dchncd zs moncy-czrntng vork

[Qrtmzrty vzgc-czrntng vork}, znd non-Qroducttvc vork zs
vork thzt, zbctt vcry ncccsszry, vzs mcrcy ' subststcncc' zct

-
tvtty znd thcrctorc vzs sztd to Qroducc no ' surQus' vhtch
znyonc csc coud Qosstby zQQroQrtztc. Jhts vork vzs ctthct
totzy non-commodthcd or tnvovcd Qctty [but thcn truy
Qctty} commodtty Qroductton. Jhc dtttcrcnttztton bctvccn
ktnds otvork vzs znchorcdby crczttng sQccthcrocs zttzchcd
to thcm. Producttvc [vzgc} zbour bcczmc thc tzsk Qrtmzrty
ot thc zdut mzc/tzthcr znd sccondzrty ot othcr [youngcr}
zdut mzcs tn thc houschod. Non-Qroducttvc [subststcncc}
zbour bcczmc thc tzsk Qrtmzrty otthc zdut tcmzc/mothcr
znd sccondzrty ot othcr tcmzcs, Qus thc chtdrcn znd thc
cdcry. Producttvc zbour vzs donc outstdc thc houschodtn
thc ' vork Qzcc' . Non-Qroducttvc zbour vzs donc tnstdc thc
houschod.
Jhctncs otdtvtston vcrc not zbsoutc, tobcsurc,butthcy
bcczmc undcr htstortcz czQttztsm guttc cczr znd comQctng.
Production of Ca
p
ital 2'
dtvtston otrczzbourby gcndcr znd zgc vzs not otcoursc
zn
tnvcntton ot htstortcz czQttztsm. lt hzs Qrobzby zvzys
cxtstcd, ttonybcczusctor somc tzsks thcrczrc btoogtcz Qrc-
rcgutsttcszndtmttzttons [otgcndcr, but zso otzgc} . Norvzs
z htcrzrchtcz tzmty znd/or houschod structurc zn tnvcntton
otczQttztsm. Jhzt too hzd ong cxtstcd.
hzt vzs ncv undcr htstortcz czQttztsm vzs thc corrcz-

tton ot dtvtston ot zbour znd vz!tion

o!

vork.

Ncn mzy
ottcn hzvc donc dt!tcrcnt vork trom vomcn [znd zduts dttt-
cr cntvork tromchtdrcnzndthccdcr y},butundcrhtstortcz

czQttztsm thcrc hzs bccn z stczdy dcvzuztton ot thc vork ot'

vomcn [znd otthcyoung znd od}, znd z corrcsQondtng cm-
Qhzsts On thc vzuc ot thc zdut mzc's vork. hcrczs tn
othcr systcms mcn znd vomcn dtd sQccthcd [but normzy
cggz} tzsks, undcr htstortcz czQttztsm thc zdut mzc vzgc-
czrncrvzsczssthcdzsthc'brczdvtnncr' , zndthc zduttcmzc
homc-vorkcr zs thc 'houscvttc. ' Jhus vhcn nzttonz stz-
ttsttcs bcgzn to bc comQtcd, ttsct z Qroduct ot z czQttztst
systcm, zbrczdvtnncrsvcrcconstdcrcd mcmbcrs otthccco-

nomtczy zcttvc zbour-torcc, but no houscvtvcs vcrc. Jhus

vzsscxtsmtnstttuttonztzcd. JhccgzzndQzrzcgzzQQzrztus
ot gcndcr dtsttnctton znd dtscrtmtnztton toovcd guttc
ogtczy tn thc vzkc ot thts bzstc dtttcrcnttz vzuztton ot
zbour.
c mzy

notc hcrc thzt thc conccQts ot cxtcndcd chtd-

hood/zdocsccncc znd otz ' rcttrcmcnt ' trom thc vorktorcc
not tnkcd to tncss or trztty hzvc bccn zso sQccthc con-
comttznts otthc cmcrgtng houschod structurcs ot htstortcz
czQttztsm. Jhcy hzvc ottcn bccn vtcvcd zs ' Qrogrcsstvc' cx
cmQttons trom vork. Jhcy mzy hovcvcr bc morc zccurztcy
vtcvcd zsrcdchntttons

otvork zs non-vork. lnsut hzs bccn

2
addcd to tnury by abctng chtdrcn' s tratntng acttvtttcs and
thc mtsccancous tasks ot rcttrcd aduts as somchov ' tun' ,

and thcdcvauattonotthctrvorkcontrtbuttons as thcrcason-

abc countcrQart otthctr rccasc hom thc ' drudgcry' ot' rca'
vork.
As an tdcoogy, thcsc dtsttncttons hcQcd cnsurc that thc
commodthcatton otabourvas cxtcnstvcbut atthcsamc ttmc
tmttcd. or cxamQc, tt vc vcrc to cacuatc hov many
houschods tn thc vord-cconomy havc obtatncd morc than
htty Qcr ccnt ot thctr rca tncomc [or tota rcvcnuc tn

a
torms} trom vagc-vork outstdc thc houschod, l thtnk vc
voud bc gutcky amazcd by thc ovncss ot thc Qcrccntagc,
thts ts thc casc not ony tn cartcr ccnturtcs but cvcn today,
athough thc Qcrccntagc has Qrobaby bccn stcadty grovtng
ovcr

thc htstortca dcvcoQmcnt ot thc caQttatst vord-

cconomy.
Mov can vc account tor thts: l don' t thtnk tt' s vcry dttt-
tcut. Ln thc assumQtton that a Qroduccr cmQoytng vagc-
abour voud Qrctcr to Qaycss rathcr than morc, avays and
cvcryvhcrc, thc ovncss otthc cvc at vhtch vagc-vorkcrs
coud ahord to acccQt cmQoymcnt hasbccn a tunctton otthc
ktnd ot houschods tn vhtch thc vagc-vorkcrs havc bccn
ocatcd throughout thctr ttc-sQans. Put vcry stmQy, tor tdcn-
ttca vork at tdcnttca cvcs ot cthctcncy, thc vagc-vorkcr
ocatcdtn ahouschodvtth a htghQcrccntagcotvagctncomc
[ct us ca thts a Qroctartan houschod} had had a htghcr
monctary thrcshod bcov vhtch hc voud havc tound tt
manttcsty trrattona tor htm to do vagc vork than a vagc-
vorkcr ocatcd tn a houschod that has a ov Qcrccntagc ot
vagc tncomc [ct us ca thts a scmt-Qroctartan houschod}.
hc rcason tor thts dtttcrcncc otvhat vc mtght ca thc
mtntmum-acccQtabc-vagc thrcshod has to do vtth thc cco-
7
Production of Ca
p
ital Z7
nomtcs otsurvtva . hcrc a Qroctartan houschod dcQcndcd
`

Qrtmarty uQonvagc-tncomc, thcn that hadtocovcrthcmtnt-

macostsotsurvtva andrcQroductton. Movcvcr, vhcnvagcs
tormcd acsstmQortant scgmcntottotahouschodtncomc, tt
voud ottcn bc rattona tor an tndtvtdua to acccQt cmQoy-

mcnt at aratcotrcmuncrattonvhtchcontrtbutcd css thantts

QroQorttonatc sharc [tn tcrms ot hours vorkcd} ot rca tn-_

comc vhtst ncvcrthccss rcsuttng tn thc carntng ot

ncccssarytgutdcash[thcncccssttytrcgucntybctngcgaytm-
Qoscd} or csc tnvovcd thc substttutton ot thts wagc-
rcmuncratcd vork tor abour tn stt css rcmuncrattvc tasks.
J
hat haQQcncd thcn tn such scmt-Qroctartan houschodsts
that thosc vho vcrc Qroductng othcr torms otrca tncomc
.
that ts, bastcay houschod Qroductton tor sct-consumQtton,
or sac tn a oca markct, or ot coursc both vhcthcr thcsc
vcrcothcrQcrsonstn thchouschod [otany scxoragc} or thc
samc Qcrson at othcr momcnts othts ttc-sQan, vcrc crcattng
surQuscs vhtch ovcrcd thc mtntmum-acccQtcd-vagc thrcs-
hod. ln thts vay, non-vagc vork Qcrmtttcd somcQroduccrs
torcmunctatc thctr vork-torcc at ovcr ratcs, thcrcby rcduc-

tng thctr cost ot Qroductton and tncrcastng thctr Qrottt

4
margtns. No vondcr thcn, as a gcncra ruc, that any _
cmQoycr ot vagc-abour voud Qrctcr to havc hts vagc-
vorkcrs ocatcd tn scmt-Qroctartan rathcr than tn Qroctartan
houschods. lt vc nov ook at goba cmQtrtca rcatty
throughout thcttmc-sQaccothtstortcacaQttatsm, vcsuddcn-
y dtscovcr that thc ocatton ot vagc-vorkcrs tn scmt-Qro-
ctartan rathcr thantnQroctartan houschods hasbccn thc sta-
ttsttcanorm. lntccctuay, ourQrobcm suddcnygctsturncd
uQstdcdovn. romcxQatntngthcrcasons tor thccxtstcnccot
Qroctartantzatton, vchavcmovcdtocxQatntngvhythcQro-
ccss vas s tncomQctc. c nov havc to go cvcn turthcr
2
vhy has Qroctartantzatton Qrocccdcd at a:
Lctmcsaytmmcdtatcy that tttsvcry doubttu thattncrcas-
tngvord Qroctartantzatton canbc attrtbutcdQrtmarty to thc
socto-Qotttca Qrcssurcs ot cntrcQrcncutta strata. Quttc tnc
contrary. lt voud sccm thcy havc had many mottvcs to dra_
thctr tcct . trst ota, as vc havcust argucd, thc transtorma-
ttonotastgnthcantnumbcrotscmt-Qroctartanhouschodstn-
to Qroctartan houschods tn a gtvcn zonc tcndcd to ratsc thc
rca mtntmum-vagc-cvc , Qatd by thc cmQoycrs ot vagc-

abour. bccondy, tncrcascd Qroctartantzatton had Qotttca

conscgucnccs, as vc sha dtscuss atcr, vhtch vcrc both
ncgattvc tor thccmQoycrs and aso cumuattvc, thcrcbycvcn-
tuay tncrcastng stt turthcr thc cvcs ot vagc-Qaymcnts tn
gtvcn gcograQhtco-cconomic zoncs. ndccd, so much vcrc
cmQoycrs otvagc-abouruncnthustasttcaboutQroctartantza-
tton that, tn addttton to tostcrtng thc gcndcr/agc dtvtston ot
abour, thcy aso cncouragcd, tn thctr cmQoymcnt Qattcrns
and throughthctr tnucncctn thc Qotttca arcna, rccognttton
otdchncd cthntcgrouQs, sccktngtotnk thcm to sQccthc ao-
catcd rocs tn thc abour-torcc, vtth dtttcrcnt cvcs ot rca
rcmuncratton tor thctrvork. Lthntcttycrcatcdacuturacrust
vhtchconsotdatcd thcQattcrns otscmt-Qroctartan houschod
structurcs. Jhat thc cmcrgcncc otsuch cthnictty aso Qaycd a
Qottcay-dtvtstvc roc tor thc vorktng casscs has bccn a
Qotttca bonus tor thc cmQoycrs but not, l t

htnk, thc Qrtmc

movcr tn thts Qroccss.
bctorc hovcvcr vc can undcrstand hov thcrc has comc to
bc any tncrcasc at a tn Qroctartantzatton ovcr ttmc tn
htstortca caQttatsm, vc havc to rcturn to thc tssuc ot thc
commodtty chatns tn vhtch thc muttQc sQccthc Qroductton
acttvtttcs arc ocatcd. c must rtd ourscvcs otthc stmQtsttc
m
Poduction of Ca
p
ital 2
tmagc that thc 'markct` ts a Qacc vhcrc tnttta Qroduccr and
L
uttmatc consumcr mcct . No doubt thcrc arc and avays havc
bccn such markct-Qaccs. but tn htstortca caQttatsm, such
markct-Qacc transacttons havc constttutcd a sma Qcrccntagc
ot thc vhoc. Nost transacttons havc tnvovcd cxchangc bc-!

tvccn tvo tntcrmcdtatc Qroduccrs ocatcd on a ong com-

modttychatn. hcQurchascrvasQurchastng an 'tnQut ' tor hts
QroducttonQroccss. hcsccrvassctnga ' scmt-hntshcdQro-
duct ' , scmt-hntshcd that ts tn tcrms ot tts uttmatc usc tn
dtrcct tndtvtdua consumQtton.
hc struggc ovcr Qrtcc tn thcsc 'tntcrmcdtatc markcts'
rcQrcscntcd an c!tort by thc buycr to vrcst trom thc sccr a
.
QroQorttonotthcQrohtrcatzcdtromaQrtorabourQroccsscs
tbroughout thc commodtty chatn. hts struggc to bc surc
vas dctcrmtncd at QarttcuarsQacc-ttmcncxuscsby suQQy and
dcmand, but ncvcr untgucy. lnthchrst Qacc, otcoursc, suQ-
Qy

and dcmand can bc mantQuatcd through monoQotsttc

constratnts, vhtch havcbccncommonQaccrathcr thancxccQ-
ttna. bccondy, thc sccr can attcct thc Qrtcc at thc ncxus
tbrougb vcrttca tntcgratton. hcncvcr thc ' sccr' and thc

' buycr` vcrc tn tactuttmatcy thc samc hrm, thc Qrtcc coud
bc arbttrartyuggcd tn tcrms ot hsca and othcr constdcra-
ttons, but such a Qrtcc ncvcr rcQrcscntcd thc tntcrQay otsuQ-
Qy and dcmand. Vcrttca tntcgratton, ust tkc thc ' hortzon-
ta' monoQoy, has not bccn rarc. c arc otcoursc tamttar
vttbttsmostsQcctacuartnstanccs . thcchartcrcdcomQantcs ot
tbc stxtccnth to ctghtccnth ccnturtcs, thc grcat mcrchant
houscs otthc ntnctccnth, thc transnattonacorQorattons otthc
tvcnttcth. hcscvcrcgoba structurcs sccktng tocncomQass

as manytnkstnaQarttcuarcommodttychatn asQosstbc. but

smacr tnstanccs otvcrttca tntcgratton, covcrtng ony a tcv
JJ
[cvcn tvo} tnks tn a chatn, havcbccn cvcn morc vtdcsQrcad.
lt sccms rcasonabc to arguc that vcrttca tntcgratton has bccn
thc stattsttca norm ot htstortca caQttatsm rathcr than thosc
' markct' ncxuscs tn commodtty chatns tn vhtch sccr and
buycr vcrc truy dtsttnct

and antagontsttc.
Novcommodttychatns havcnotbccnrandomtnthctrgco-
graQhtca dtrccttons . crc thcy a Qottcd on maQs, vc
voud nottcc that thcy havc bccn ccntrtQcta tn torm. hctr
Qotnts otortgtn havcbccn manttod, but thctr Qotnts otdcstt-
natton havc tcndcd toconvcrgc tn a tcv arcas. hat ts to say,
thcyhavctcndcdtomovctrom thcQcrtQhcrtcsotthccaQttatst
_vord-cconomy to thc ccntrcs or corcs. lt ts hard to contcst
thts as an cmQtrtca obscrvatton

. hc rca gucstton tsvhy thts

has bccn so. o tak otcommodttychatnsmcans to takotan

cxtcndcd socta dtvtston ot abour vhtch, tn thc coursc ot

caQttatsm' s htstortca dcvcoQmcnt, has bccomc morc and
morc tuncttonay and gcograQhtcay cxtcnstvc, and stmut-
ancousy morc and morc htcrarchtca. hts htcrarchtzatton ot
sQacctnthcstructurcotQroducttvcQroccsscshascdtoancvcr
grcatcr Qoartzatton bctvccn thc corc and QcrtQhcra zoncs ot
thc vord-cconomy, not ony tn tcrms otdtstrtbutvc crttcrta
[rca tncomc cvcs, guatty otttc} but cvcn morc tmQortanty
tn thc oct ot thc accumuatton otcaQtta.
lntttay, as thts Qroccssbcgan, thc sQatta dtttcrcnttas vcrc
rathcr sma, and thc dcgrcc ot sQatta sQcctatzatton tmttcd.
tthtn thc caQttatst systcm, hovcvcr, vhatcvcr dtttcrcnttas
cxtstcd [vhcthcr tor ccoogtca orhtstortca rcasons} vcrccx-

aggcratcd, rctntorccd, and cncrustcd. h

atvascructa tn thts

Qroccss vas thc tntruston ot torcc tnto thc dctcrmtnatton ot

Qrtcc. o bc surc, thc usc ottorcc by onc Qarty tn a markct
transactton tn ordcr to tmQrovc hts Qrcc vas no tnvcntton ot

-
Production of Capital JJ
caQttatsm. Lncgua cxcbangc ts an anctcnt Qracttcc. bat
vasrcmarkabcabout caQttatsm as abtstortca systcmvas tbc

vay tn vbtcb tbts uncgua cxcbangccoudbc btddcn, tndccd,

btddcn so vc tbat tt ts ony attcr hvc bundrcd ycars ot tbc

oQcratton ottbts mccbantsm tbat cvcn tbc avovcd oQQoncnts

ottbc systcm bavc bcgun to unvct tt systcmattcay.

Jbc kcy to btdtng tbts ccntra mccbantsm ay tn tbc vcry

structurc ot tbc caQttatst vord-cconomy, tbc sccmtng scQa-

ratton tn tbc caQttatst vord-systcm ottbc cconomtc arcna [a
vord-vtdc socta dtvtston otabour vttb tntcgratcd Qroduc-
tton Qroccsscs a oQcrattng tor tbc cndcss accumuatton ot
caQtta} and tbc Qotttca arcna [conststtng ostcnstby ot scQa-
ratc sovcrctgn statcs, cacb vttb autonomous rcsQonstbtttytor
Qotttcadcctstonsvttbtnttsurtsdtctton, andcacb dtsQostngot
armcd torccs to sustatn tts autbortty} . n tbc rca vord ot

btstortca caQttatsm, amost a commodtty cbatns ot any__

tmQortancc bavc travcrscd tbcsc statc tronttcrs. Jbts ts not a
rcccnt tnnovatton. tbasbccn truc trom tbcvcrybcgtnntngot
btstortca caQttatsm. Norcovcr, tbc transnattonatty otcom-
modttycbatns ts as dcscrtQttvcy truc ottbc stxtccntb-ccntury
caQttatst vord as ot tbc tvcnttctb-ccntury.
Mov dtd tbts uncgua cxcbangc vork: btarttng vttb any
rca dtttcrcntta tn tbc markct , occurrtng bccausc otcttbcr tbc
[tcmQorary} scarctty ot a comQcx Qroductton Qroccss, or ar-
tthcta scarctttcs crcatcd manu militari, commodtttcs movcdbc-
tvccn zoncs tn sucb a vay tbat tbc arca vttb tbc css ' scarcc'
ttcm ' sod' ttsttcms totbc otbcrarcaat aQrtcc tbattncarnatcd
morc rca tnQut [cost} tban an cguay-Qrtccd ttcm movtng tn
thcoQQosttcdtrcctton. bat rcaybaQQcncdtstbat tbcrcvas
atranstcrotQartottbctotaQroht[orsurQus}bctngQroduccd
trom onc zonc to anotbcr. bucb a rcattonsbtQ ts tbat otcorc-
J2
ncss-QcrtQhcratty. bycxtcnston, vccan ca thc ostngzonc a
'QcrtQhcry' and thcgatntng zonca 'corc' . hcscnamcstn tact
rccct thc gcograQhtca structurc ot thc cconomtc ovs.
c hnd tmmcdtatcy scvcra mcchantsms that htstortcay
havctncrcascdthcdtsQartty. hcncvcra 'vcrttcatntcgratton'
otanytvotnksonacommodttychatnoccurrcd, ttvasQosst-
bc to shttt ancvcnargcrscgmcntotthctotasurQus tovards
thc corc than had Qrcvtousy bccn Qosstbc. Aso, thc shttt ot
surQus tovards thc corc conccntratcd caQtta thcrc and madc
avatabc dtsQroQorttonatc tunds tor turthcr mcchantzatton,
bothaovtngQroduccrs tn corc zoncs togatn addtttona com
Qcttttvc advantagcs tn cxtsttng Qroducts and Qcrmttttng thcm
to crcatc cvcr ncv rarc Qroducts vtth vhtch to rcncv thc
Qroccss.
hc conccntratton otcaQtta tn corc zoncs crcatcd both thc
hsca basc and thc Qotttca mottvatton to crcatc rcattvcy
strong statc-machtncrtcs, among vhosc many caQactttcs vas
that otcnsurtng that thc statcmachtncrtcs otQcrtQhcra zoncs
bccamc or rcmatncd rcattvcy vcakcr. hcy coud thcrcby
Qrcssurc thcsc statc-structurcs to acccQt, cvcn Qromotc,
grcatcr sQcctatzatton tn thctrurtsdtctton tn tasks ovcrdovn
thc htcrarchy ot commodtty chatns, utttztng ovcr-Qatd
vork-torccs and crcattng [rctntorctng} thc rccvant houschod
structurcs to Qcrmtt such vork-torccs to survtvc. hus dtd
htstortca caQttatsm actuay crcatc thc so-cacd htstortca
cvcs otvagcs vhtch havc bccomc so dramattcay dtvcrgcnt
tn dtttcrcnt zoncs ot thc vord-systcm.
csay thtsQroccss tshtddcn. by that vcmcan that actua
Qrtccs avays sccmcd to bc ncgottatcd tn a vord markct on
thc basts ot tmQcrsona cconomtc torccs. hc cnormous aQ-
Qaratus ot atcnt torcc [oQcny uscd sQoradtcay tn vars and
e
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Production of Ca
p
ital JJ
coontzatton} has not had tobctnvokcd tncach scQaratc tran
sactton to cnsurc that thc cxchangc vas uncgua. Hathcr, thc
aQQaratus ottorcccamc tntoQay ony vhcn thcrcvcrc stgnt-
hcant chacngcs to an cxtsttng cvc ot uncgua cxchangc.
Lncc thc acutc Qotttca contct vas Qast, thc vord' s cntrc-
Qrcncurta casscs coud Qrctcnd that thc cconomyvas oQcrat-
tng socy by constdcrattons ot suQQy and dcmand, vtthout
acknovcdgtng hov thc vord-cconomy had htstortcay ar-

rtvcd at a Qarttcuar Qotnt ot suQQy and dcmand, and vhat

structurcs ottorcc vcrc sustatntng at that vcry momcnt thc
'customary' dtttcrcnttas tn cvcs ot vagcs and ot thc rca
guatty ot ttc ot thc vord' s vork-torccs.
c may nov rcturn to thcgucstton otvhythcrchasbccn -

anyQroctartantzattonat a. Lctusrcmcmbcrthctundamcnta
contradtctton bctvccn thc tndtvtdua tntcrcst ot cach cntrc-
Qrcncur and thccoccttvc tntcrcst ota caQttatst casscs. Ln-
cgua cxchangc by dchnttton scrvcd thcsc coccttvc tntcrcsts
butnotmanytndtvtduatntcrcsts. lttoovs that thoscvhosc
tntcrcsts vcrc not tmmcdtatcy scrvcd at an)gtvcn ttmc [bc-

causc thcy gatncd css than thctr comQctttors} constanty trtcd

to atcr thtngs tn thctr tavour. Jhcy trtcd, thatts, to comQctc
morc succcsstuy tn thc markct, ctthcr by maktng thctr ovn
Qroductton morc cthctcnt, or by ustng Qotttca tnucncc to

crcatc a ncv monOQotsttc advantagc tor thcmscvcs.

.
AcutccomQctttton amongcaQttatstshasavaysbccnoncot v
thc.dif erentia speciica ot htstortca caQttatsm. Lvcn vhcn tt
sccmcd to bc vountarty rcstratncd [by cartc-tkc arrangc-
mcnts}, thts vas Qrtmarty bccausc cach comQctttor thought
that such rcstratnt oQttmtzcd hts ovn margtns. ln a systcm
Qrcdtcatcd on thc cndcss accumuatton otcaQtta, no Qarttct-
Qant coud attord to droQ thts cndurtng thrust tovards ong-

w
J1
run grObtzblty cxccgt zt thc rtk Ot tcltdcttructOn.
chut mOnOgOlttc grzctcc znd cOmgcttVc mOtVztOn
hzVc bccn z gzrcd rczty Ot httOrcz czgtztm. ln tuch cr-
cumttzncct, t t cVdcnt thzt nO tgccbc gzttcrn nkng thc
grOductVc grOccttct cOud bc ttzblc. Qutc thc cOntrzry: t
wOud zwzyt bc n thc ntcrcttt Ot z lzrgc numbcr Ot cOm-
gctng cntrcgrcncurt tO try tO zltcr thc tgccbc gzttcrn Ot
gVcn tmcglzcct wthOut thOrttcrm cOnccrn tOr thc

glObzl
mgzct Ot tuch bchzVOur. Adzm bmth`t 'untccn hznd` un-
gucttOnzbly Ogcrztcd, n thc tcntc thzt thc 'mzrkct` tct cOn-
ttrzntt On ndVduz bchzVOut, but t wOuld bc z Vcry
curOut rczdng Ot httOrcz czgtztm thzt tuggcttcd thzt thc
OutcOmc hzt bccn hzrmOn,
Hzthcr, thc OutcOmc hzt tccmcd, Oncc zgzn zt zn cmgrczl
ObtcrVztOn, tO bc zn zltcrnztng cycc Ot cxgzntOnt znd
ttzgnztOnt n thc tyttcm zt z whOc. hctc cycct hzVc nVOV-
cd buctuztOnt Ot tuch tgnbczncc znd rcguzrty thzt t t
hzrd nOt tO bccVc thzt thcy zrc ntrntc tO thc wOrkngt Ot
thc tyttcm. hcy tccm, t thc znzOgy bc gcrmttcd, tO bc thc
brczthng mcchzntm Ot thc czgtzltt Orgzntm, nhzng thc
gurqng Oxygcn znd cxhzng gOtOnOut wzttc. AnzOgct zrc
zwzyt dzngcrOut but tht Onc tccmt gzrtcuzry zgt. hc
wzttct thzt zccumuztcd wcrc thc ccOnOmc ncmccncct thzt
rccurrcnty gOt gOtczy cncruttcd thrOugh thc grOcctt Ot
uncguz cxchzngc dctcrbcd zbOVc. hc gurqng Oxygcn wzt

thc mOrc cthccnt zOcztOn Ot rctOurcct [mOrc cthccnt n
tcrmt Ot gcrmttng hrthcr zccumuztOn Ot czgtz} whch thc
rcguzr rcttructurng Ot thc cOmmOdty chznt gcrmttcd.
' hzt tccmt tO hzVc hzggcncd cVcry htty yczrt Or tO t thzt
n thc cttOrtt Ot mOrc znd mOrc cntrcgrcncurt tO gzn tOr
thcmtcVct thc mOrc grOhtzbc ncXutct Ot cOmmOdty chznt,

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Prduction of Ca
p
ital JJ
dtgrOgOrtOnt Ot nVcttmcnt Occurrcd tuch thzt wc tgczk,
tOmcwhzt mtczdngy, Ot OVcrgrOductOn. hc Ony tOutOn
tO thctc dtgrOgOrtOnt hzt bccn z thzkcdOwn Ot thc grOduc
tVc tyttcm, rctutng n z mOrc cVcn dttrbutOn. ht tOundt
Ogcz znd tmglc, but tt tzlOut hzt zlwzyt bccn mzttVc. lt
hzt mcznt czch tmc hrthcr cOnccntrztOn Ot OQrztOnt n
thOtc nkt n thc cOmmOdty chznt whch hzVc bccn mOtt
cOggcd. ht hzt nVOVcd thc clmnztOn Ot bOth tOmc

..v
cntrcgrcncurt znd tOmc wOrkcrt [thOtc whO wOrkcd tOr cntrc
grcpcurt whO wcnt Out Ot butnctt znd ztO thOtc whO wOrk-
cd tOr Othcrt whO hrthcr mcchznzcd n Ordcr tO rcducc thc
cOttt Ot unt grOductOn}. buch z thh ztO cnzbcd cntrc
grcncurt tO 'dcmOtc` OgcrztOnt n thc hcrzrchy Ot thc cOm
mOdty chzn, thcrcby cnzbng thcm tO dcVOtc nVcttmcnt
hndt znd chOrt tO nnOVztVc nkt n thc cOmmOdty chznt
whch, bcczutc ntzly Ottcrng 'tczrccr` ngutt, wcrc mOrc
grObtzbc. 'LcmOtOn` Ot gzrtcuzr grOccttct On thc hcr
zrchczl tczlc ztO Ohcn cd tO gcOgrzghczl rcOcztOn n gzrt .
buch gcOgrzghcz rcOcztOn tOund z mz]Or zttrzctOn n thc
mOVc tO z Owcr zbOurcOtt zrcz, thOugh bOm thc gOnt Ot
Vcw Ot thc zrcz ntO whch thc nduttry hzt mOVcd thc ncw
nduttry utuzy nVOVcd zn ncrcztc n thc wzgclcVc tOr
tOmc tcgmcntt Ot thc wOrktOrcc. c zrc Vng thrOugh grc|

ctcy tuch z mzttVc wOrld-wdc rcOcztOn rght nOw Ot thc

wOrd`t zutOmObc, ttcc, znd ccctrOnct nduttrct. ht
ghcnOmcnOn Ot rcOcztOn hzt bccn gzrt znd gzrcc) Ot
httOrcz czgtztm bOm thc Outtct.
hcrc hzVc bccn thrcc mz]Or cOntcgucncct Ot thctc rc-
thumct.(Lnc t thc cOnttznt gcOgrzghcz rcttructurng ttct
Ot thc czgtzltt wOrldtyttcm NOncthcctt, zlthOugh cOm
mOdty chznt hzVc bccn tgnbcznty rcttructurcd cVcry btty
J
yczrt Or tO, z tyttcm Ot hcrzrchczly-Orgznzcd cOmmOdty
chznt hzt bcn rctzncd. zrtcuzr grOductOn grOcttct hzVc
mOV d dOwn thc hcrzrchy, zt ncw Onct zrc ntcrtcd zt thc
tOg. And gzrtcuzr gcOgrzghc zOnct hzVc hOutcd cVcrthtt-
ng hcrzrchcz cVclt Ot grOccttct.hut, gVcn grOductt hzVc
hzd 'grOduct cyclct` , ttzrtng Ott zt cOrc grouctt znd cVcn-
tuzy bccOmng Qrtghcrz grOductt. turthcmOrc, gVcn Oc
hzVc mOVcd ug Or dOwn, n tcrmt Ot cOmgzrztVc wc-bcng
Ot thcr nhzbtzntt. Uut tO czl tuch rcthumct 'dcVclOgmcnt` ,
wc wOuld brtt hzVc tO dcmOnttrztc z rcductOn Ot thc glObz
gOlzrzztOn Ot thc tyttcm. bmgrczy, tht tmgy dOct nOt
tccm tO hzVc hzggcncd, rzthcr gOzrzztOn hzt httOrczy n-
crcztcd. hctc gcOgrzghcz znd grOduct rcOcztOnt thcn mzy
b tzd tO hzVc bccn truy cyccz.
OwcVcr, thcrc wzt z tccOnd, gutc dhcrcnt cOntcgucncc
Ot thc rcthuthngt. Lur mtczdng wOrd, 'OVcrgrOductOn` ,
dOct czll

zttcntOn tO thc tzct thzt thc mmcdztc dcmmz hzt
zwzyt Ogrztcd thrOugh thc zbtcncc Ot tumccnt wOrldwdc
chcctVc dcmznd tOr tOmc kcy grOductt Ot thc tyttcm. t t n
tht ttuztOn thzt thc ntcrcttt Ot thc wOrk-tOrcct cOncdcd
wth thc ntcrcttt Ot z mnOrty Ot cntrcgrcncurt. Ork-tOrcct
hzVc zwzyt tOught tO ncrcztc thcr thzrc Ot thc turgut, znd
mOmcntt Ot ccOnOmc brczkdOwn Ot thc tyttcm hzVc Ottcn
grOVdcd bOth cxtrz mmcdztc nccntVc

znd tOmc cxtrz

_ OggOrtunty tO gurtuc thcr cztt ttruggct. Lnc Ot thc mOtt

cttcctVc znd mmcdztc wzyt tOr wOrk-tOrcct tO ncrcztc rczl
ncOmc hzt bccn thc mrthcr cOmmOdbcztOn Ot thcr Own
zbOur. hcy hzVc Ohcn tOught tO tubtttutc wzgc-lzbOur tOr
thOtc gzrtt Ot thc hOutchOd grOductOn grOcttct whch hzVc
brOught n Ow zmOuntt Ot rczl ncOmc, n gzrtculzr tOr
VzrOut kndt Ot gctty cOmmOdty grOductOn. Lnc Ot thc mz-
]Or tOrcct bchnd grOlctzrznzztOn hzt bccn thc wOrld`t
g wOrk-tOrcct thcmtclVct. hcy hzVc undcrttOOd, Ottcn bcttcr
`

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Prdutun of Ca
p
ital J
thzn thcr scltgrOlzmcd ntclcctuzl sgOkcsmcn, hOw much
grcztcr thc cxglOtztOn s n scmgrOlctzrzn thzn n mOrc
mllygrOlctzrznzcd hOuschOlds.

lt s zt mOmcnts Ot stzgnztOn thzt sOmc OwncrgrOduccrs,
'
n gzrt rcsgOndng tO gOltczl grcssurc bOm thc wOrkkrccs,
n gzrt bclcVng thzt structurzl chzngcs n thc rclztOns Ot gO-
ductOn wOuld bcncbt thcm VszVs cOmgctng Owncr grO-
duccrs, hzVc ]Oncd tOrccs, bOth n thc grOductOn znd gOltczl
zrcnzs, tO gush )Or thc mrthcr grOctzrznzztOn Ot z lmtcd
scgmcnt Ot thc wOrktOrcc, sOmcwhHc. lt s ths grOccss
~

whch gVcs us thc mz]Or cluc zs tO why thcrc hzs bccn zny n-
crczsc n grOlctzrznzztOn zt zll, gVcn thzt grOlctzrznzztOn
hzs n thc Ong tcrm cd tO rcduccd grObt cVcs n thc czgtzl
st wOrldccOnOmy_
lt s n ths cOntcxt thzt wc shOuld cOnsdcr thc grOcss Ot
tcchnOlOgcz chzngc whch hzs bccn css thc mOtOr thzn thc
cOnscgucncc Ot hstOrczl czgtzlsm. bzch mz]Or tcchnOlOgcz
'nnOVztOn` hzs bn grmzrly thc crcztOn Ot ncw 'sczrcc`
grOducts, zs such hghly grObtzblc, znd sccOndzrly Ot zbOur-
rcducng grOccsscs. hcy wcrc rcsgOnscs tO thc dOwnturns n
thc cyclcs, wzys Ot zggrOgrztng thc 'nVcntOns` tO mrthcr
thc grOcss Ot czgtz zccumuztOn. hcsc nnOVztOns nO
dOubt bcgucnty zhcctcd thc zctuzl OrgznzztOn Ot grouc
tOn. hcy gushcd hstOrczly tOwzrds thc ccntrzzztOn Ot
mzny wOrk grOccsscs [thc tzctOry, thc zsscmbly lnc]. Uut t s
czsy tO cxzggcrztc hOw much chzngc thcrc hzs bccn. rOcsscs
.
Ot cOnccntrztOn Ot ghyscz grOductOn tzsks hzVc bcgucntly
bccn nVcstgztcd wthOut rcgzrd tO cOuntcrzctng dcccn
trzzztOn grOccsscs.

hs s csgcczly truc t wc gut ntO thc gcturc thc thrd
cOnscgucncc Ot thc cyclczl rcshumng. NOtcc thzt, gVcn thc
twO cOnscgucnccs zlrczdy mcntOncd, wc hzVc z sccmng gzrz-
dOx tO cxgzn. Ln thc Onc hznd, wc sgOkc Ot thc cOntnuOus
J
cOnccntrztOn Ot czgtzl zccumulztOn n httOrczl gOlzrzztOn
Ot dttrbutOn. bmutzncOutly, hOwcVcr, wc tgOkc Ot z tlOw,
but nOncthcctt ttczdy, grOcctt Ot

grOctzrznzztOn whch,
wc zrgucd, zctuzy hzt rcduccd grObt cVct. Lnc czty rctOu-
tOn wOud bc tO tzy thc brtt grOcctt t tmgly grcztcr thzn thc
tccOnd, whch t truc. Uut n zddtOn thc dccrcztc n grObt
cVct OccztOncd by ncrcztcd grOlctzrznzztOn hzt hthcrtO
bccn mOrc thzn cOmQntztcd by z hrthcr mcchzntm mOVng
n thc OggOttc drcctOn .
| AnOthcr czty cmgrcz ObtcrVztOn tO mzkc zbOut httOrczl
czgtztm t thzt tt gcOgrzghczl ttut hzt grOwn ttczdy
zrgcr OVcr tmc. Lncc zgzn, thc gzcc Ot thc grOctt Ottcrt thc
bctt cuc tO tt cxgznztOn. hc ncOrgOrztOn Ot ncw zOnct
ntO thc tOcz dVtOn Ot zbOur Ot httOrcz czgtztm dd
nOt Occur zl zt Oncc. lt n tzct Occurrcd n gcrOdc tgurtt,
zthOugh czch tucccttVc cxgzntOn tccmcd tO bc mtcd n
tcOgc. LndOubtcdy gzrt Ot thc cxgznztOn ct n thc Vcry

chnOOgcz dcVclOgmcnt

Ot httOrcz czgtztm ttct.
~mgrOVcmcntt n trzntgOrt, cOmmuncztOnt, znd zrmzmcntt
mzdc t ttczdy ctt cxgcntVc tO ncOrgOrztc rcgOnt

hrthcr
znd hrthcr bOm thc cOrc zOnct. Uut tht cxgznztOn zt bctt
gVct ut z ncccttzry but nOt tutbccnt cOndtOn tOr thc
grOcctt.
lt hzt tOmctmct bccn zttcrtcd thzt thc cxgznztOn ct n
thc cOnttznt tczrch tOr ncw mzrkctt n whch tO rczzc thc
grObtt Ot czgtzltt grOductOn. ht cxglznztOn hOwcVcr
g tmgy dOct nOt zccOrd wth thc httOrcz tzctt. Arczt cxtcrnzl
tO httOrcz czgtzltm hzVc On thc whOc bccn rcluctznt gur-
chztcrt Ot tt grOductt, n gzrt bcczutc thcy ddn't 'nccd` thcm
n tcrmt Ot thcr Own ccOnOmc tyttcm znd m gzrt bcczutc
thcy Ottcn zckcd thc rclcVznt whcrcwthz tO gurchztc thcm.
O bc turc thcrc wcrc cxccgtOnt. Uut by znd zrgc t wzt thc

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Prduction of Ca
p
.ital J
czgtztt wOrd thzt tOught Out thc grOductt Ot thc cxtcrnzl
zrcnz znd nOt thc Othcr wzy zrOund. hcncVcr gzrtcuzr Oc
wcrc mltzry cOngucrcd, czgtztt cntrcgrcncurt rcguzry
cOmgzncd Ot thc zbtcncc Ot rcz mzrkctt thcrc znd Ogcrztcd
thrOugh cOOnz gOVcmmcntt tO 'crcztc tzttct`.
, . , {
hc tczrch tOr mzrkctt zt zn cxgznztOn tmgy dOct nOt` ,
hOd. A much mOrc gzutbc cxgznztOn t thc. tczrch tOr

OwcOtt zbOur tOrcct. lt t httOrczy thc cztc thzt Vrtuzy

cVcry ncw zOnc ncOrgOrztcd ntO thc wOrdccOnOmy cttzb-

thcd cVct Ot rcz rcmuncrztOn whch wcrc zt thc bOttOm Ot
thc wOrdtyttcm`t hcrzrchy Ot wzgccVct. hcy hzd Vr
tuzy nO hy grOctzrzn hOutchOdt znd wcrc nOt zt z cn-
cOurzgcd tO dcVcOg thcm. Ln thc cOntrzry, thc gOcct Ot hc
cOOnz ttztct [znd Ot thc rcttructurcd tcm-cOOnz ttztct n
thOtc ncOrgOrztcd zOnct thzt wcrc nOt tOrmzy cOOnzcd}
tccmcd dctgncd grcctcy tO grOmOtc thc cmcrgcncc Ot thc
Vcry tcmgrOctzrzn hOutchOd whch, zt wc hzVc tccn, mzdc
gOttbc thc Owctt gOttbc wzgccVc thrcthOd. ygcz ttztc
gOcct nVOVcd cOmbnng tzxztOn mcchzntmt, whch
tOrccd cVcry hOutchOd tO cngzgc n tOmc wzgczbOur, wth
rcttrctOnt On mOVcmcnt Or tOrccd tcgzrztOn Ot hOutchOd
mcmbcrt, whch rcduccd cOntdcrzby thc gOttbty Ot h
grOctzrznzztOn.
1 wc zdd tO tht znzytt thc ObtcrVztOn thzt ncw ncOr`

gOrztOnt ntO thc wOrd-tyttcm Ot czgtztm tcndcd tO cOr-
rcztc wth ghztct Ot ttzgnztOn n thc wOrd-ccOnOmy, t
bccOmct cczr thzt gcOgrzghcz cxgzntOn Ot thc wOrd-
tyttcm tcrVcd tO cOuntcrbzzncc thc grOht-rcducng grOcctt Ot
ncrcztcd grOctzrznzztOn, by ncOrgOrztng ncw wOrk-
tOrcct dcttncd tO bc tcm-grOctzrznzcd. hc tccmng
gzrzdOx hzt dtzggczrcd. hc mgzct Ot grOctzrznzztOn On
thc grOcctt Ot gOzrzztOn hzt bccn mztchcd, gcrhzgt mOrc

1J
than matchcd, at cast htthcrto, by thc tmQact ot tncorQora-
ttons. And tactory-tkc vork Qroccsscs as a Qcrccntagc otthc
vhoc havc cxQandcd css than ts usuay asscrtcd, gtvcn thc
stcadty cxQandtng dcnomtnator otthc cguatton.
c havc sQcnt much ttmc on dctncattng hov htstortca
caQttatsm has oQcratcd tn thc narrovy cconomtc arcna. c
arc nov rcady to cxQatn vhycaQttatsm cmcrgcd as a htstor-
tca socta systcm. hts ts not as casy as ts ottcn thought . Ln
thctacc ottt, tar hombctnga ' natura' systcm, as somc aQo- _
ogtstshavctrtcdtoarguc, htstortcacaQttatsmtsaQatcntyab-\
surd onc. Lnc accumuatcs caQtta tn ordcr to accumuatc
morc caQtta . LaQttatsts arc tkc vhttc mtcc on a trcadmt,

runntng cvcr tastcr tn ordcr to run stt tastcr. ln thc Qroccss,

no doubt , somc QcoQc tvc vc, but othcrs tvc mtscraby,
and hovvc , and torhovong, do thoscvho tvcvctvc:
hc morc l havc rctcctcd uQon tt thc morc absurd tt has

sccmcd to mc. Notony do l bctcvc that thcvast ma]ortty ot
thc QoQuattons ot thc vord arc ob]ccttvcy and sub]ccttvcy
css vc-ottmatcrtaythantn Qrcvtous htstortca systcmsbut ,

as vc sha scc, l thtnk tt can bc argucd that thcy havc bccn

Qotttcay css vc ottaso. bo tmbucd arc vc a by thc sct-
]ustttytngtdcoogyotQrogrcssvhtch thtshtstortca systcmhas
tashtoncd, that vc hnd tt dttttcut cvcn to rccogntzc thc vast
htstortca ncgattvcs ot thts systcm. Lvcn so stavart a dc-
nounccr ot htstortca caQttatsm as Kar Narx atd grcat cm-
Qhasts ontts htstortcayQrogrcsstvcroc. l do not bctcvc thts

at a, uncss by ' Qrogrcsstvc' onc stmQy mcans that vhtch ts

htstortcay atcr and vhoscortgtns can c cxQatncdby somc-
thtng that Qrcccdcd tt. hc baancc-shcct othtstortca caQtta-
tsm, to vhtch l sha rcturn, ts QcrhaQs comQcx, but thc tn-
ttta cacuus tn tcrms ot matcrta dtstrtbutton ot goods and
aocatton otcncrgtcs ts tn my vtcv vcry ncgattvc tndccd.
ltthts ts so, vhydtd such a systcm artsc: PcrhaQs,Qrcctscy
.

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Production of Ca
p
ital 1J
to achtcvc thtscnd. hatcoud bcmorc Qaustbc thana tnc
otrcasontngvhtchargucsthatthccxQanattonotthcortgtnot
asystcmvastoachtcvcancndthathastntactbccnachtcvcd: l
knov that modcrn sctcncc has turncd us hom thc scarch tor
hna causcs and trom a constdcrattons ot tntcnttonatty
[csQcctaystnccthcyarc so tnhcrcntydtthcut todcmonstratc
cmQtrtcay} . butmodcrnsctcnccandhtstortcacaQttatsmhavc
bccn tn cosc atancc as vc knov, thus, vc must susQcct thc
authorttyotsctcncconQrcctscy thtsgucstton: thcmodattyot
knovtng thc ortgtns otmodcrn caQttatsm. Lct mc thcrctorc
stmQy outtnc a htstortca cxQanatton ot thc ortgtns ot
htstortca caQttatsm vtthout attcmQttng to dcvcoQ hcrc thc
cmQtrtca basc tor such

an argumcnt.
ln thc vord ot thc tourtccnth and httccnth ccnturtcs,
LuroQc vas thc ocus ota socta dtvtston otabour vhtch, tn
comQartsonvtthothcrarcasotthcvord, vas,tntcrmsotthc
torccs otQroductton, thccohcston otttshtstortca systcm, and
ttsrcattvc statc othuman knovcdgc, an tn-bctvccn zonc~
nctthcr as advanccd as somc arcas nor as Qrtmtttvc as thcrs.
Narco Poo, vc must rcmcmbcr, comtng hom onc ot thc
most cuturaly and cconomtcay ' advanccd' subrcgtons ot
LuroQc, vasguttcovcrvhcmcdvtthvhathccncountcrcdon
hts Astan voyagcs.
hc cconomtc ar

na ot LuroQc vas gotng through a

vcry mndamcnta, tntcrnay gcncratcd, crtsts tn thts Qcrtod
that vas shaktngttssoctatoundattons. ltsrutngclasscs vcrc
dcstroytng cach othcr at a grcat ratc, vhtc tts and-systcm
[thc basts ottts cconomtc structurc} vas comtng oosc, vth
constdcrabc rcorgantzatton movtng tn thc dtrcctton ot a tar
morc cgattartan dtstrtbutton than had bccn thc norm. ur-
thcrmorc, sma Qcasant tarmcrs vcrcdcmonstrattng grcat ct-
hctcncy as Qroduccrs. hc Qotttca structurcs vcrc tn gcncra
gctttng vcakcr and thctr QrcoccuQatton vtth thc tntcrncctnc

J

12
struggcs otthcQotttcayQovcrtumcant thattttcttmcvas
ctt tor rcQrcsstng thc grovtng strcngth ot thc masscs otthc
QoQuatton. Jhc tdcoogtca ccmcnt otLathotctsm vas undcr
grcat stratnandcgattartanmovcmcntsvcrcbctngborn tn thc
vcry bosom otthc Lhurch. Jhtngs vcrc tndccd tatng aQart .
Mad LuroQcconttnucd on thc Qath aong vhtch tt vas gotng,
tt ts dtthcut to bctcvc that thc Qattcrns ot mcdtcva tcuda
LuroQc vtth tts htghy structurcd systcm ot ' ordcrs' coud
havcbccn rcconsotdatcd. ar morc Qrobabc ts that thc Luro-
Qcan tcuda socta structurc voud havc cvovcd tovards a
systcm ot rcattvcy cgua sma-scac Qroduccrs, turthcr at-
tcntng out thc artstocractcs and dcccntratztng thc Qotttca
structurcs .
hcthcrthtsvoudhavcbccn goodorbad, andtorvhom,
ts a mattcr otsQccuatton and ottttc tntcrcst. but tt ts ccar
that thc QrosQcct must havc aQQacd LuroQc's uQQcr strata
aQQacd and trtghtcncd thcm, csQcctay as thcy tct thctr
tdcoogtca armour vas dtstntcgrattng too. tthout sug-
gcsttng that anyonc consctousy vcrbatzcd any such attcmQt,
vccan scc by comQartng thc LuroQc ot Ibvtth I4b that _
thc toovtng thtngs had occurrcd. by Ib, thc bastc struc-'

turcs othtstortcacaQttatsm as avtabc socta systcm hadbccn

cstabtshcd and consotdatcd. Jhc trcnd tovards cgattartan-
tzatton ot rcvard had bcn drasttcay rcvcrscd. Jhc uQpcr)
strata vcrc oncc agatn tn ttrm contro Qotttcay and tdco-
ogtcay. Jhcrc vas a rcasonaby htgh cvc otconttnuttybc
tvccn thctamttcs that hadbccn htgh stratatn I4band thosc
thatvcrc htgh stratatn Ib. urthcrmorc, ttonc substttutcd
IV tor Ib, onc voud hnd that most otthc comQartsons
vtth I4b stt hod truc. lt ts ony tn thc tvcnttcth ccntury `
that thcrc arc somc stgnthcant trcndstn adtttcrcnt dtrcctton, a
stgn as vc sha scc that thchtstortcasystcmotcaQttatsmhas,

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Production of Ca
p
ital 1J
attcrtour to hvc hundrcdycarsottourtshtng, hnaycomctn-
to structura crtsts.
No onc may havc vcrbatzcd thc tntcnt, but tt ccrtatny
sccms to havc bccn thc casc that thc crcatton ot htstortca
caQttatsm as a socta systcm dramattcay

rcvctscd a trcnd that

thc uQQcr strata tcarcd, and cstabtshd tn tts Qacc onc that
scrvcd thctr tntcrcsts cvcn bcttcr. ls that so absurd: Lny to
thosc vho vcrc tts vtcttms.

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The Politics
of Accumulation:
Struggle for Benefts

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Jhccndcss accumuattonotcaQttatorttsovn sakcmaysccm

p
rima fcie tobcasoctayabsurdobccttvc. lthas had hovcvcr
tts dctcndcrs, vho usuayusttttcd tt by thc ong-tcrm socta
bcnchts tn vhtch ttQurQortcd torcsut . c sha dtscussatcr
thc dcgrcc to vhtch thcsc socta bcnchts arc rca . Quttc astdc
hovcvcr trom any coccttvc bcnchts tttsccar that thc amas-
stng ot caQtta attords thc oQQortuntty and thc occaston tor
much tncrcascd consumQtton by many tndtvtduas [and/ or
sma grouQs} . hcthcr tncrcascd consumQtton actuay tm-
Qrovcs thc guatty otttc otthcconsumcrstsanothcrgucstton
and onc vc sha aso QostQonc.
Jhc hrst gucstton vc sha addrcss ts. vho gcts thc tm-
mcdtatc tndtvtdua bcnchts: lt sccms rcasonabc toasscrt that
most QcoQc havc not vattcd uQon cvauattons ot long-term
bcnchtsor thcguatty otttc rcsuttng trom suchconsumQtton
[ctthcrtor thccoccttvtty or tor thctndtvtduas} to dcctdc that
tt ts vorthvhtc to struggc tor thc tmmcdtatc tndtvtdua
bcncttts that vcrc so obvtousy avatabc. lndccd thts has bccn
thcccntra tocus otQotttca struggc vtthtn htstortca caQtta-
tsm. Jhtsts tn tactvhat vcmcan vhcn vcsay that htstortca
caQttatsm ts a matcrtatst ctvttzatton.
ln matcrta tcrms, not ony havc thc rcvards bccn grcat to
thosc vho havc comc out ahcad, but thc dtttcrcnttas tn
matcrta rcvards bctvccn thc toQ and thc bottom havc bccn
1
grcat and grovtng grcatcr ovcr ttmc tn thc vord-systcm
takcn as a vhoc. c havc arcady dtscusscd thc cconomtc
Qrocc

sscs thataccountcdtor thtsQoartzattonotdtstrtbuttonot

rcvard. c shoud nov turn our attcntton to hov QcoQc
havc manocuvrcd vtthtn such an cconomtc systcm to gct thc
advantagcs tor thcmscvcs and thcrcby dcny thcm to othcrs.
c shoud aso ook at hov thosc vho vcrc thc vtcttms ot
such madtstrtbutton manocuvrcd, tirst ot a to mtntmtzc
thctr osscs tn thc oQcratton ot thc systcm, and sccondy to
transtorm thts systcmvhtchvasrcsgonstbctor suchmanttcst
tnusttccs.
Mov tn htstortca caQttatsm dtd QcoQc, grouQs otQcoQc,
conduct thctr Qottica struggcs: Potttcs ts about changtng
Qovcr rcattons tn a dtrcctton morc tavourabc to onc' s tn-
tcrcsts and thcrcby rcdtrccttng socta Qroccsscs. lts succcsstu
Qursutt rcgutrcs hndtngcvcrs otchangc that Qcrmtt thcmost
advantagc tor thc cast tnQut . hc structurc ot htstortca
'' caQttatsm has bccn such that thc most cttcctvc cvcrs ot
Qotttca adustmcnt vcrc thc statc-structurcs, vhosc vcry
constructtonvas ttsct, as vchavc sccn, onc otthc ccntra tn-
stttuttona achtcvcmcnts othtstortca caQttatsm. t ts thus no
acctdcnt that thc contro otstatcQovcr, thccongucst otstatc
Qovcr ttncccssary, has bccn thc ccntra stratcgtc obccttvc o
a thc maor actors tn thc Qotttca arcna throughout thc
htstory ot modcrn caQttatsm.
.
hc cructa tmQortancc ot statc Qovcr tor cconomtc Qro-
ccsscs, cvcn ttdctincd vcry narrovy ts strtktng thc momcnt
onc ooks coscy at hOv thc systcm actuay oQcratcd. hc
ttrst and most ccmcntary ccmcnt ot statc Qovcr vas tcr-
rttortaurtsdtctton. btatcs had boundartcs . hcsc boundartcs
vcrcurtdtcay dctcrmtncd, Qarty by statutory Qrocamatton
l

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Strggle for Benets

1
on thc Qart ot thc statc tn gucstton, Qarty by dtQomattc
rccogntttononthcQart ototgcr statcs. obcsurc,boundartcs
coud bc, and rcguary vcrc, contcstcd, that ts, thc]urtdtca
rccogntttons comtng tromthc two sourccs [thc statcttsctand
othcr statcs} vcrc contcttng. buchdthcrcnccs vcrc uttmatc-
y rcsovcd ctthcr by ad]udtcatton or by torcc [and a rcsuttng
cvcntua acgutcsccncc} . Nany dtsQutcs cndurcd a atcnt torm
tor vcryongQcrtods, thoughvcry tcv such dtsQutcs survtvcd
morc than a gcncratton. hat ts cructa vas thc conttnutng
tdcoogtca QrcsumQtton on cvcryonc' s Qart thatsuch dtsQutcs
coud and voud bc rcsovcd cvcntuay. hat vas conccQ-
tuay tmQcrmtsstbc tn thc modcrn statc-systcm vas an cx-
Qtctt rccognttton ot Qcrmancnt ovcraQQtng ]urtsdtcttons.
bovcrctgnty as a conccQt varbascd on thc Artstotctan av ot
thc cxcudcd mtqdc.
hts QhtosoQhtca-]urtdtca doctrtnc madc tt Qosstbc 1o hx
rcsQonstbttty tor thccontrootmovcmcnt across tronttcrs, tn
and out otgtvcn statcs . Lach statc had torma]urtdtctton ovcr
tts ovn tronttcrs ot thc movcmcnt ot goods, moncy-caQtta ,
and abour-Qovcr. Mcncc cach statc coud attcct to somc
dcgrcc thcmodatttcsbyvhtch thc socta dtvtston otabour ot
thc caQttatst vord-cconomy oQcratcd. urthcrmorc, cach
statc coud onstanty ad]ust thcsc mcchantsms stmQy by
changtng thc rucs govctntng thc ov otthc tactors otQro-
ductton across tts ovn tronttcrs.
c normay dtscuss such tronttcr contros tn tcrms otthc
anttnomy bctvccn tota abscncc ot contros [trcc tradc} and
tota abscncc ot trcc movcmcnt [autarky}. ln tact, tor most
countrtcs and tor most momcnts otttmc, statc Qotcy has atn
tn Qracttcc bctvccn thcsc tvo cxtrcmcs. urthcrmorc, thc
gotctcshavcbccn guttcsQccthcaydtttcrcnt tor thcmovcmcnt
'J
ot goods, ot moncy-caQtta, and otabour-Qovcr. n gcncra,
thc movcmcnt otabour-Qovcr has bccn morc rcstrtctcd than
thc movcmcnt otgoods and otmoncy-caQtta.
rom thc Qotnt otvtcv ot a gtvcn Qroduccr ocatcd somc-
vhcrc on a commodtty chatn, trccdom ot movcmcnt vas
dcstrabc vhtst thts Qroduccr vas cconomtcay comQcttttvc
vtth othcr Qroduccrs otthc samcgoods tn thc vord markct .
but vhcn thtsvas not thc casc, vartous boundary constratnts
agatnst rtva Qroduccrscoudratscthcattcr` s costs andbcncttt
an othcrvtsc css cthctcnt Qroduccr. btncc, bydchnttton, tn a
markct tn vhtch thcrc vcrc muttQc Qroduccrs otany gtvcn
good, a maorttyvoud bc css ctttctcnt than a maortty, thcrc
has cxtstcd a constant Qrcssurc tor mcrcantttst constratnts on
trcc movcmcnt across tronttcrs. btncc hovcvcr thc mtnortty
vho vcrc morc ctttctcnt vcrc rcattvcy vcathy and Qovcr-
tu, thcrc has bccn a constant countcr-Qrcssurc to oQcn tron-
ttcrs, or morc sQcctttcay, to oQcn somc tronttcrs. Mcncc thc

hrst grcat struggc a tcroctousandconttnutngonc hasbccn

ovcr thc tronttcr Qotcyotstatcs. btncc turthcrmorcany gtvcn

sct otQroduccrs (but Qarttcuarybtg and Qovcrtu oncs} vcrc

dtrccty attcctcd by thc statc tronttcr Qotctcs ot not ony thc
statcs tn vhtch

thctr cconomtc basc vas Qhystcay ocatcd

[vhtch may or may not havc bccn thc oncs ot vhtch thcy
vcrc ctttzcns} but aso thosc otmany othcr statcs, gtvcn cco-
nomtc Qroduccrs havc bccn tntcrcstcd tn Qursutng Qotttca
obccttvcs stmutancousy tn scvcra, tndccd ottcn tn vcry
many, statcs. Jhc conccQt that onc ought to rcstrtct onc` s
Qtttca tnvovcmcnt to onc` s ovn statc vas dccQy antt-
thcttca to thosc vho vcrc Qursutng thc accumuatton ot
caQtta tor tts ovn sakc.
Lnc vay, otcoursc, to attcct thc rucs about vhat may or
may notcross tronttcrs , andundcrvhat tcrms, vas to changc
w

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Struggle for Benets 'J
thc actua tronttcrs through tota tncorQoratton by onc statc
otanothcr[unthcatton,Anschluss, coontzatton} , throughsctz-
urc ot somc tcrrttory, through scccsston or dccoontzatton.
Jhc tact that tronttcr changcs havc had tmmcdtatc tmQacts on
thc Qattcrns ot thc socta dtvtston otabour tn thc vord-cco-
nomy has bccn ccntra to thc constdcrattons ota thosc vho
tavourcd or oQQoscd Qarttcuar tronttcr changcs. Jhc tact that
tdcoogtca mobttzattons around thc dchnttton ot nattons
coud makc morc, or css, Qosstbc ccrtatn sQccthc tronttcr
changcs has gtvcn tmmcdtatc cconomtc contcnt to nattonatst
movcmcnts , tnsotar as QarttctQants and othcrs Qrcsumcd thc
tkcthood ot sQccthc statc Qotctcs toovtng uQon thc Qro-
cctcd tronttcr changcs.

Jhc sccond ccmcnt otstatc Qovcr ot tundamcnta conccrn

to thcoQcrattonsothtstortcacaQttatsm vas thccga rtght ot

statcs to dctcrmtnc thc rucs govcrntng thc socta rcattons ot

Qroductton vtthtn thctr tcrrttortaurtsdtctton. Nodcrn statc
structurcs arrogatcd to thcmscvcs thts rtght to rcvokc or
amcnd any customary sct otrcattons . As a mattcr otav thc
statcsrccogntzcdno constratntsonthctrcgtsattvcscoQcothcr
than thosc thatvcrc sct-tmQoscd. Lvcn vhcrcQarttcuar statc
constttuttons Qatd tdcoogtca tQ scrvtcc to constratnts dcrtv-
tng trom rctgtous or natura av doctrtncs, thcy rcscrvcd to
somc constttuttonaydchncd body or Qcrson thc rtght to tn-
tcrQrct thcsc doctrtncs.
Jhts rtght to cgtsatc thc modcs otabour contro vas by
no mcans mcrcy thcorcttca. btatcs havc rcguary uscd thcsc
rtghts, ottcn tn vays that tnvovcd radtca transtormattons ot
cxtsttng Qattcrns. As vc voud cxQcct , tn htstortca caQtta-
tsm, statcs havc cgtsatcd tn vays that tncrcascd thc com-
modtttcatton otabour Qovcr, by abotshtng vartous ktnds ot
customary constratnt on thc movcmcnt otvorkcrs trom onc
'2
.
ktnd ot cmQoymcnt to znothcr. hcy turthcrmorc tmQoscd
on thc vork-torcc hscz czsh obtgzttons vhtch ottcn torccd
ccrtztn vorkcrs to cngzgc tn vzgc-zbour. but, on thc othcr
hznd, zs vc hzvc zrczdy sccn, thc stztcsby thctrcgz zcttons
ottcn zso dtscourzgcd tu-hcdgcd Qroctzrtzntzztton by tm
Qostng rcstdcnttz tmttzttons or tnststtng thzt thc ktn grouQ
rctztn ccrtztn ktnds otvctzrc obtgzttons to tts mcmbcrs.
hc stztcscontrocd thc rczttons otQroductton. hcy hrst
cgztzcd, ztcr outzvcd, Qzrttcuzr torms ot cocrccd zbour
[szvcry, Qubtc zbour obtgzttons, tndcnturc, ctc. }. hcy
crcztcdrucs govcrntng vzgc-zbourcontrzcts, tncudtngguz
rzntccs otthccontrzct, znd mtntmum zndmzxtmum rcctQro
cz obtgzttons. hcy dccrccd thc tmtts ot thc gcogrzQhtcz
mobtttyotthczbourtorcc, notonyzcross thctrhonttcrsbut

vtthtn thcm.
A thcsc stztcdcctstons vcrc tzkcn vtth dtrcct rctcrcncc to
thc cconomtc tmQtczttons tor thc zccumuztton ot czQttz.
hts czn bc czsty vcrthcd by gotng through thc cnormous
numbcr otdcbztcs, rccordcd zs thcyoccurrcd, ovcrztcrnzttvc
stztutory or zdmtntstrzttvc chotccs. urthcrmorc, thc stztcs
hzvc rcguzry sQcnt constdcrzbc cncrgy tn cntorctng thctr
rcguzttonszgztnstrcczcttrznt grouQs,mostQzrttcuzryrccz
cttrznt vork-torccs. orkcrs vcrc scdom ctt trcc totgnorc
cgzconstrztntson thctr zcttons. Quttcthccontrzry vorkcr
rcbcton,tndtvtduz orcoccttvc, Qzsstvcor zcttvc, hzsusuzy
brought torth z rczdy rcQrcsstvc rcsQonsc trom thc stztc
mzchtncrtcs. o bc surc, orgzntzcd vorktng-czss movcmcnts
vcrc zbc, tn ttmc, to sctccrtzn tmttzttons torcQrcsstvczctt-
vtty, zs vc zs cnsurc thzt thc govcrntng rucs vcrcmOthcd
somcvhzttn thctrtzvour, but suchmovcmcntsobtztncd thcsc
rcsuts zrgcy by thctr zbttty to zttcct thc Qotttcz com
Qosttton otthc stztc-mzchtncrtcs.
!

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4
Struggle for Benefts >J
A thtrd ccmcnt tn thc Qovcr ot thc statcs has bccn thc
Qovcr to tax. axatton vas by no mcans an tnvcntton ot
htstortca caQttatsm, Qrcvtous Qotttca structurcs aso uscd
taxatton as a sourcc otrcvcnuc tor thc statc-machtncrtcs. but

htstortca caQttatsm transtormcd taxatton tn !vo vays. axa-

ttonbccamcthcmatn [tndccdovcrvhcmtng|rcguarsourccot
statc rcvcnuc, as oQQoscd to statc rcvcnuc dcrtvtng trom tr-
rcguar rcgutstttonby torcc trom Qcrsons tnstdc or outstdc thc
torma urtsdtctton ot thc statc [tncudtng rcgutsttton trom
othcr statcs} . bccondy, taxatton hasbccn a stcadty cxQandtng

Qhcnomcnon ovcr thc htstortca dcvcoQmcnt ot thc caQttatst

vord-cconomy as a Qcrccntagc ottotavauccrcatcd or accu-
muatcd. hts has mcznt that thc statcs havc bccn tmQortant
tntcrmsotthcrcsourccsthcycontrocd,bccauscthcrcsourccs
notonyQcrmtttcdthcmtoturthcrthcaccumuattonotcaQtta
but vcrc aso thcmscvcs dtstrtbutcd and thcrcby cntcrcd
dtrccty or tndtrccty tnto thc turthcr accumuatton otcaQtta .
axatton vas a Qovcr vhtch tocuscd hostttty and rcsts-
tancc uQon thc statc-structurc ttsct, as a sort otdtstncarnatcd
vtatn, vhtch vas sccn as aQQroQrtattng thc trutts ot thc
abours otothcrs. hat must avaysbcbornctn mtnd ts that
thcrc vcrc torccs outstdc thc govcrnmcnt Qushtng tor Qartt-
cuar taxattons bccausc thc Qroccss voud ctthcr rcsut tn
dtrcct rcdtstrtbutton to thcm, or Qcrmtt thc govcrnmcnt to
crcatc cxtcrna cconomtcs vhtch voud tmQrovc thctr ccono-
mtc Qosttton, or Qcnatzc othcrs tnvays thatvoudbc ccono-
mtcay tavourabc to thc hrs grouQ. n short , thc Qovcr to
tax vas onc otthc most tmmcdtatc vays tn vhtch thc statc
dtrccty asststcd thc Qroccss ot thc accumuatton ot caQtta tn
tavour otsomc grouQs rathcr than othcrs.
hc rcdtstrtbuttvc Qovcrs ot thc statc havc bccn dtscusscd
tor thcmostQart onytn tcrms otthctrcguatzatton Qotcntta.

>1
Jhtststhc thcmcotthcvctarcstatc. butrcdtstrtbuttonhas tn
tact bccn tar morcvtdcy uscd as a mcchantsm to goartzc dts-
trtbutton than to makcrcatncomcsconvcrgc. Jhcrc arc thrcc
matn mcchantsms that havc tncrcascd thc goartzatton ot rc-
vards over and above that goartzatton arcady rcsuttng trom
thc ongotng ogcrattons ot thc cagttatst markct .
Lovcrnmcnts hrst ota havc bccn abc to amass, through

:
thc taxatton groccss, argc sums otcagttavhtch thcyhavcrc-
dtstrtbutcd to gcrsons or grougs, arcady argc hodcrs ot
cagtta, throughothcta substdtcs. Jhcsc substdtcs havc takcn
thc torm otoutrtght grants, usuay on thtn cxcuscs otgubtc
scrvtcc [tnvovtng csscnttay ovcrgaymcnts tor scrvtccs} . but
thcy havc aso takcn thc css dtrcct torm otthc statc bcartng
thc costs otgroduct dcvcogmcnt vhtch coud grcsumabybc
amorttzcd by atcr grohtabc sacs, ony to turn ovcr thc cco-
nomtc acttvtty to non-govcrnmcnta cntrcgrcncurs at nomtna
.
cost at grcctscy thc gotnt otcomgctton otthc costydcvcog-
mcnta ghasc.
bccondy, govcrnmcnts havc bccn abc to amass argc sums

otcagtta through tormay cga and ottcn cgtttmatcd chan-

ncs ot taxatton vhtch havc thcn bccomtng sttttng ducks tor
argcscac tcgtttmatcbut dc tactounconstratncd abscondtngs
ot gubtc tunds. buch thctt otgubtc rcvcnucs as vc as thc
corrcatc corrugt grtvatc taxatton groccdurcs havc bccn a ma-
or sourcc ot grtvatc accumuatton ot cagtta throughout
htstortca cagttatsm.
tnay, govcrnmcnts havc rcdtstrtbutcd to thc vcathy by
` utttztng thc grtnctgcotthctndtvtduatzattonotgrohtbut thc
soctatzatton otrtsk. Lvcr thc vhoc htstory otthc cagttatst
systcm, thc argcr thcrtsk and thc osscs thc morctkcy tt
has bccn tor govcrnmcnts to tcg tn to grcvcnt bankrugtctcs
~
'
Struggle for Benets >>
znd cvcn torcstttutc osscs ttonybccauscotthcttnanctz tur-
mot thcy vtshcd to avotd.
htc thcsc Qracttccs otantt-cgattartan rcdtstrtbutton havc
bccn thc shamctu stdc ot statc Qovcr [shzmctu tn thc scnsc
thzt govcrnmcnts vcrc somcvhat cmbarrasscd about thcsc
1cttvtttcs and sought to kccQ thcm htddcn} , thc Qrovtston ot
soctaovcrhcadcaQitabygovcrnmcntshasbccnoQcnyaunt-
cd, znd tndccd advocatcd asancsscnttarocotthc statctn thc
matntcnancc othtstortca caQttatsm.
LxQcndtturcs cructa to thc rcductton ot costs ot muttQc
grouQs ot ovncr-Qroduccrs that ts, thc bastc cncrgy, trans-
Qort, and tntormattona tntrastructurc ot thc vord-cco-
nomy havc argcy bccn dcvcoQcd and suQQortcd by Qubtc
tunds. htc tt has no doubt bccn thccasc that most Qcrsons
havcdcrtvcd some bcncttt trom such socta ovcrhcad caQtta , tt
bzs not bccn thc casc that a havc dcrtvcd cguz bcncht . hc
_ zdvantagc has accrucd dtsQroQorttonatcy to thosc arcady
largc hodcrs ot caQtta vhtc bctng Qatd out ot a tar morc
cgattartan systcm ot taxatton. Mcncc socta ovcrhcad caQtta
constructton has scrvcd to turthcr thc accumuatton otcaQtta
znd tts conccntratton.
tnay, statcshavc monoQoizcd, or sought to monoQotzc,
zrmcd torcc. htc Qotcc torccs vcrc gcarcd argcy to thc
matntcnancc ottntcrna ordcr [that ts, thc acccQtancc by thc

vork torcc ot thctr aottcd rocs and rcvards} , armtcs havc

bccn mcchantsms vhcrcby Qroduccrs tn onc statc havc bccn
zbc to attcct dtrccty thc Qosstbttttcs that thctr comQctttors
ocatcdtn othcr statcshavchadtotnvokcthcQrotccttvccovcr-
tngotthctrovn statc-machtncrtcs. htststactbrtngsus to thc
lzst tcaturc otstatc Qovcr vhtch has bccn cructa . htc thc
ktnds otQovcr cach statc has cxcrctscd havcbccn stmtar, thc
>0
dcgrcc ot Qovcr gtvcn statcmachtncrtcs havc had has vartcd
cnormousy. btatcshavcbccnocatcdtnahtcrarchyotcttccttvc
Qovcr vhtch can bc mcasurcd nctthcr by thc stzc and co-
hcrcncc ot thctr burcaucractcs and armtcs nor by thctr tdco-
ogtca tormuattons about thcmscvcs but by thctr cttccttvc
caQactttcs ovcr ttmc to turthcr thc conccntratton ot accu-
muatcd caQtta vtthtn thctr tronttcrs as agatnst thosc rtva
statcs . Jhts cttccttvc caQactty has tnvovcd thc abttty to con-
stratn hosttcmtttarytorccs, thcabttty tocnact advantagcous
rcguattonsathomcandtoQrcvcntothcrstatcstromdotngthc
samc, and thc abttty to constratn thctr ovn vork torccs and
to undcrmtnc thc caQactty ot rtvas to do as vc . Jhc truc
mcasurcmcnt ot thctr strcngth ts tn thc mcdtum-tcrm cco-
nomtcoutcomc. Jhcovcrt uscottorccbythcstatc-machtncry
to contro thc tntcrna vork torcc, a costy and dcstabttztng
tcchntguc, ts morc ottcn thc stgn ot tts vcakncss than tts
strcngth. Jruy strong statc-machtncrtcs havc bccn abc, by
onc mcans or anothcr, to contro thctr vork-torccs by subtcr
mcchantsms.
Jhus thcrc arc many dtttcrcnt vays tn vhtch thc statc has
bccna cructa mcchantsm tor thc maxtma accumuatton ot
caQtta . Accordtng tottstdcoogy, caQttatsm vas suQQoscd to
tnvovcthcacttvttyotQrtvatc cntrcQrcncurs trccd trom thctn-
tcrtcrcncc otstatc-machtncrtcs. ln Qracttcc, hovcvcr, thts has
ncvcrbccnrcaytrucanyvhcrc. lttstdc tosQccuatcvhcthcr
caQttatsm coud havc hourtshcd vtthout thcacttvcroc otthc
modcrn statc. ln htstortca caQttatsm, caQttatsts rctcd uQon
thctr abttty to utttzc statc-machtncrtcs to thctr advantagc tn
thc vartous vays vc havc outtncd.

A sccond tdcoogtca myth has bccn that otstatc sovcrctgn-

ty. Jhc modcrn statc vas ncvcr a comQctcy autonomous
Qotttca cnttty. Jhc statcs dcvcoQcd and vcrc shaQcd as tn-

.
Struggle for Benets >
tcgra Qarts ot an tntcrstatc systcm, vhtch vas a sct otrucs
vtthtn vhtch thc statcshad tooQcratc and a sctotcgtttmtza
tons vtthout vhtch statcs coud not survtvc. rom thc Qotnt
otvtcv otthc statc-machtncrtcs otany gtvcn statc, thc tntcr-
statc systcm rcQrcscntcdconstratnts onttsvt . hcscvcrc to

bc tound tn thc Qracttccs ot dtQomacy, tn thc torma rucs
govcrntngurtsdtcttons and contracts [tntcrnatona av} , and
n thc tmtts on hov and undcr vhat ctrcumstanccs vartarc
mght bc conductcd. A ot thcsc constratnts ran countcr to
thcothcta tdcoogy otsovcrctgnty. bovcrctgntyhovcvcr vas

ncvcr rcay tntcndcd to mcan tota autonomy. hc conccQt

vas rathcr mcant to tndtcatc that thcrc cxtstcd tmtts on thc
lcgttmacyottntcrtcrcnccbyoncstatcmachtncrytnthcoQcra-
tons otanothcr.
hcrucsotthctntcrstatcsystcmvcrcotcourscnotcntorc-
c
d by conscnt or conscnsus, but by thc vtngncss and thc
zbttty otthcstrongcr statcs totmQosc thcsc rcstrtcttons, hrst
uQon thc vcakcr statcs, and sccond uQon cach othcr. hc
statcs, rcmcmbcr, vcrc ocatcd tn a htcrarchy ot Qovcr. hc
vcry cxtstcncc otthts htcrarchy Qrovtdcd thc maormttatton
on thc autonomy ot statcs. o bc surc, thc ovcra sttuatton
coud ttQ tovards thc dts

aQQcaranccotthcQovcr otthc statcs

zltogcthcr to thc cxtcnt that thc htcrarchy vas constructcd
Wtth a Qyramda Qcak rathcr than a Qatcau at thc toQ. hts
Qosstbttyvas nothyQothcttca as thcdynamtc otthcconccn-
traton otmtttaryQovcrcd to rccurrcnt thruststotranstorm
thc tntcrstatc systcm tnto a vord-cmQtrc.
lt such thrusts ncvcr succccdcd tn htstortca caQttatsm, tt
vasbccauscthcstructurabascotthccconomtcsystcmand thc

clczry-Qcrcctvcdtntcrcstsotthcmaoraccumuators otcaQtta

WcrctundamcntayoQQoscd to a transtormatonotthcvord-

cconomy tnto a vord-cmQrc.

>
trstota, thcaccumuattonotcaQttavasagamctn vhtch
thcrc vas constant tnccnttvc tor comQcttttvc cntry, and thus
thcrc vas avays somc dtsQcrston otthc most Qrotttabc Qro-
ducttvc acttvtttcs. Mcncc at any ttmc numcrous statcs tcndcd
to havc an cconomtc basc that madc thcm rcattvcy strong.
bccondy, accumuators otcaQtta tn any gtvcn statc utttzcd
thctr ovn statc structurcs to asstst thcm tn thc accumuatton
ot caQtta , but thcy aso nccdcd somc cvcr otcontro against
thctrovnstatc-structurcs. orttthctrstatc-machtncrybccamc
too strong, tt mtght, tor rcasons ot tntcrna Qotttca cgut-
tbrtum, tcc trcc to rcsQond to tntcrna cgattartan Qrcssurcs .
Agatnst thts thrcat, accumuators otcaQtta nccdcd thc thrcat
ot ctrcumvcnttng thctr ovn statc-machtncry by maktng a-
tanccsvtth othcrstatc-machtncrtcs . htsthrcatvasonyQos-
stbc as ong as no onc statc domtnatcd thc vhoc.
~
hcsc constdcrattons tormcd thc obccttvc basts ot thc so-
cacdbaanccotQovcr,byvhtchvcmcan thatthcnumcrous
strong and mcdtum-strong statcs tn thc tntcrstatc systcm at
anygtvcnttmchavctcndcdto matntatnatanccs[otttnccdbc,
shttt thcm} so that no stngc statc coud succcsstuy congucr
a thc othcrs.
+
hat thc baancc ot Qovcr vas matntatncd by morc than

Qotttca tdcoogy can bc sccn ttvc ook at thc thrcc tnstanccs

tnvhtchoncotthcstrongstatcsachtcvcdtcmQorartyaQcrtod
otrcattvc domtnancc ovcr thc othcrs a rcattvc domtnancc
that vcmayca hcgcmony. hc thrcc tnstanccs arc thchcgc-
monyotthcLnttcdProvtnccs [Ncthcrands} tn thcmtd-scvcn-
tccnth ccntury, that ot Lrcat brttatn tn thc mtd-ntnctccnth,
and that ot t

hc Lnttcd btatcs tn thc mtd-tvcnttcth.

n cach casc, hcgcmony camc attcr thc dctcat ota mtttary
Qrctcndcr to congucst [thc MaQsburgs, rancc, Lcrmany}.
Lach hcgcmonyvas scacdby a ' vordvar` a masstvc, and-
Struggle for Benefts 'Y
ccntrcd, htghy dcstructtvc, thtrty-ycar-ong tntcrmtttcnt
struggc tnvovtng a thc maor mtttary Qovcrs otthc ttmc.
hcsc vcrc rcsQccttvcy thc htrty Ycars' ar ot lld-4d,
thc NaQocontc ars [lZ-ldlb}, and thc tvcnttcth-ccntury
contcts bctvccn ll4 and l4b vhtch shoud QroQcry bc
concctvcd as a stngcong ' vord var' . t ts tobcnotcd that ,
tn cach casc, thc vtctor had bccn Qrtmarty a martttmc Qovcr
Qrtor to ' vord var' , but had transtormcd ttsct tnto a and
Qovcr tn ordcr to vtn thts var agatnst a htstortcay strong
and Qovcr vhtch sccmcd to bc trytng to transtorm thc
vord-cconomy tnto a vord-cmQtrc.
hcbasts otthcvtctoryvas not hovcvcrmtttary. hcQrt-
mary rcatty vas cconomtc: thc abttty ot accumuators ot
caQtta ocatcd tn thc Qarttcuar statcs to outcomQctc a othcrs
tn a thrcc maor cconomtc sQhcrcs agro-tndustrta Qroduc-
tton, commcrcc, and ttnancc. bQccthcay, tor brtct Qcrtods,
thc accumuators otcaQtta tn thc hcgcmontc statcvcrc morc
cthctcnt than thctr comQctttors ocatcd tn othcr strong statcs,
and thus von markcts cvcn vtthtn thc attcr's ' homc' arcas .
Lach ot thcsc hcgcmontcs vas brtct. Lach camc to an cnd
argcy tor cconomtc rcasons morc than tor Qotttco-mtttary
rcasons . ncachcasc, thctcmQorarytrtQccconomtcadvantagc

camc uQ agatnst tvo hard rocks otcaQttatst rcatty. trst, thc

v
tactors that madc tor grcatcr cconomtc cthctcncycoudavays
bccoQtcdbyothcrs notbythc

truyvcakbut thoscvhohad
mcdtum strcngth andatccomcrstoanygtvcncconomtcQro-
ccss tcnd to havc thc advantagc ot not havtng to amorttzc
odcrstock. bccondy, thchcgcmontcQovcrhadcvcrytntcrcst

tn matntatntng untntcrruQtcd cconomtc acttvtty and thcrctorc

tcndcd to buy abour Qcacc vtth tntcrna rcdtstrtbutton. Lvcr
ttmc, thtscd torcduccd comQcttttvcncss thcrcbycndtnghcgc-
mony. n addttton, thcconvcrston otthchcgcmontcQovcr to
0J
onc vtth tar-ung and and martttmc mtttary ' rcsQon-
stbttttcs' tnvovcd a grovtng cconomtc burdcn on thc hcgc-
montc statc, thus undotng tts Qrc-' vord var' ov cvc cx-
Qcndtturc on thc mtttary.
Mcncc, thc baancc otQovcr constratntng both thc vcak
statcs and thc strong vas not a Qotttca cQtQhcnomcnon
vhtch coud bccasty undonc. ltvas rootcd tn thcvcry vays
tn vhtch caQttavas accumuatcdtn htstortcacaQttatsm. Nor
vas thcbaanccotQovcr mcrcy arcattonshtQbctvccn statc-
machtncrtcs, bccausc thctntcrna actorsvtthtn anygtvcn statc

rcguary actcdbcyond thctrovnboundartcs ctthcrdtrcctyor

vta atanccs vtth actors cscvhcrc. hcrctorc, tn asscsstng thc
Qotttcs ot any gtvcn statc, thc tntcrna/cxtcrna dtsttnctton
vasguttctormaandtttsnottoohcQtu toourundcrstandtng
othov thc Qotttca struggcs actuay occurrcd.

but vho tn tactvas struggtngvtth vhom: hts ts not as

obvtous a gucstton asonc mtght thtnk, bccausc otthccontra-

dtctory Qrcssurcs vtthtn htstortca caQttatsm. hc most cc-

mcntary struggc, and tn somc vays thc most obvtous, vas
that bctvccn thc sma grouQ ot grcat bcncttctartcs

ot thc
systcm and thc argc grouQ ottts vtcttms . hts struggc gocs
by many namcs and undcr many gutscs. hcncvcr thc tncs
havc bccn dravn tatry ccary bctvccn thc accumuators ot
caQtta and thctr vork torcc vtthtn any gtvcn statc, vc havc
tcndcd toca thts a cass struggcbctvccn caQtta andabour.
buch cass struggcs took Qacc tn tvo ocacs thc cconomtc
arcna[both at thcocusotactuavorkandtnthcargcr amor-
Qhous ' markct' } and thc Qotttca arcna. lt ts ccar that tn thc
cconomtcarcna thcrchasbccn adtrcct,ogtca, andtmmcdtatc
contctottntcrcsts. hcargcrthcrcmuncrattonotthcvork-
torcc thccss surQus vasctt as ' Qrottt ' . obcsurc, thtscon-
tct has bccn ottcn sottcncd byongcr-tcrm, argcr-scaccon-

v
Strggle for Benets J
stdcrattons. both thc Qarttcuar accumuator otcaQtta and hts
vork-torcc sharcdtntcrcstsagatnstothcrQatrtngscscvhcrctn
thc systcm. And grcatcr rcmuncratton to vork-torccs coud
undcr ccrtatn ctrcumstanccs rcturn to thc accumuators ot
caQtta as dctcrrcd Qrottt , vtathctncrcascdgobacashQurchas-
tng Qovcr tn thc vordcconomy. Noncthccss, nonc otthcsc
othcrconstdcrattonscoudcvcrctmtnatcthctactthat thcdtvt-
ston ota gtvcn surQus vas a zcro-sum, and thus thc tcnston
hasbccnQcrtorccaconttnutngonc. lthasthctctorctoundcon-
ttnutng cxQrcsston tn comQctttton tor Qotttca Qovcr vtthtn
thc vartous statcs.
v +

btncc, hovcvcr, as vc knov, thc Qroccss otthc acumua--

tton otcaQtta has cd to ttsconccntratton tn somc gcograQhtc
zoncs, stncc thcuncguacxchangc vhtch accounts tor thts has

bccn madc Qosstbc by thc cxtstcncc ot an tntcrstatc systcm

contatntng a htcrarchy ot statcs, and stncc statc-machtncrtcs

havc somctmttcdQovcr to atcrthc oQcrattons otthc systcm,
thc struggc bctvccn vordvtdc accumuators otcaQtta and
thc vordvtdc vork-torcc has tound consdcrabc cxQrcsston
too tn thccttorts otvartous grouQs to comc to Qovcr vtthtn
gtvcn [vcakcr} statcstnordcr toutttzcstatcQovcragatnst ac-
cumuatorsotcaQttaocatcdtnstrongcr3tatcs. hcncvcrthts

has occurrcd, vc havc tcndcd to sQcak ot antt-tmQcrtatst
' +
struggcs. No doubt , hcrc too, thc gucstton vas ottcn
obscurcd by thctact that thc tncs tntcrna to cach otthctvo
statcs tnvovcd dtd not avays cotnctdc Qcrtccty vtth thc
undcrytng thrust otthccass struggc tn thc vord-cconomy
as a vhoc. bomc accumuators otcaQtta tn thc vcakcr statc
and somc ccmcnts ot thc vork-torcc tn thc strongcr tound
sbort-tcrm advantagcs tn dctintng thcQotttcatssucs tn Qurcy
nattona rathcr than tn cass-nattona tcrms. but grcat mobt-
tzattona thrusts ot ' antt-tmQcrtatst ' movcmcnts vcrc ncvcr
!
2
Qosttbc, and thcrctorc cvcn tmttcd obccttvcs vcrc scdom
achtcvcd, tt thc cass contcnt ot thc struggc vcrc not thcrc
and uscd, at cast tmQtctty, as an tdcoogtca thcmc.
chavcnotcdasothat thcQroccssotcthntc-grouQtorma-
tton vas tntcgray tnkcd vtth that otabour-torcc tormatton
tn gtvcn statcs, scrvtng as a rough codc otQostttontn thccco-
nomtcstructurcs. hcrctorc, vhcrcvcr thts has occurrcdmorc
sharQy or ctrcumstanccs havc torccd morc acutc short-tcrm
Qrcssurcson survtva , thccontctbctvccn thcaccumuatorsot
caQtta and thc morc oQQrcsscd scgmcnts ot thc vork-torcc
havctcndcd to takcthc tormottngutsttc-racta-cuturastrug-
gcs, stncc such dcscrtQtors havc a htgh corrcatton vtth cass
mcmbcrshtQ. hcrcvcr and vhcncvcr thts has occurrcd, vc
havc tcndcd to takotcthntc or nattonatty struggcs. Lxacty,
hovcvcr, as tn thc casc otthc antt-tmQcrtatst struggcs, thcsc
struggcs vcrc rarcy succcsstu uncss thcy vcrc abc to
mobttzc thc scnttmcnts that cmcrgcd out ot thc undcrytng
cass struggc tor thc aQQroQrtatton ot thc surQus Qroduccd
vtthtn thc caQttatst systcm.
Noncthccss, ttvc Qay attcntton ony to thccass struggc,

bccausctttsbothobvtous andtundamcnta , vcshaosctrom

vtcv anothcr Qotttca struggc that has absorbcd at cast as
much ttmc and cncrgy tn htstortcacaQttatsm. or thccaQtta-

tst

systcm tsasystcmthathasQtttcdaaccumuatorsotcaQtta
agatnstoncanothcr. btnccthcmodcbyvhtchoncQursucdthc
cndcssaccumuattonotcaQttawasthatotrcatztngthcQrohts
comtng trom cconomtcacttvtty agatnst thccomQcttttvccttorts
otothcrs, no tndtvtdua cntrcQrcncur coud cvcr bcmorc than
thc hckc ay ot any othcr cntrcQrcncur, on Qatn ot bctng
ctmtnatcd trom thc comQcttttvc sccnc atogcthcr.
LntrcQrcncur agatnst cntrcQrcncur, cconomtc scctor agatnst
cconomtc scctor, thc cntrcQrcncurs ocatcd tn onc statc, or

Strggle for Beneits 0J
cthntcgrouQ, agatnst thosc,tn anothcr thcstruggc hasbccn
by dchnttton ccasccss. And thts ccasccss struggc has con-
stanty takcn a Qotttca torm, Qrcctscy bccausc otthc ccntra

roc ot thc statcs tn thc accumuatton ot caQtta . bomcttmcs

thcsc struggcs vtthtnstatcs havc mcrcy bccn ovcr Qcrsonnc
tn thc statcmachtncrtcs and shortrun statc Qotctcs.
bomcttmcs, hovcvcr, thcy havc bccn ovcr argcr ' constttu-
ttona' tssucs vhtch dctcrmtnc thc rucs govcrntng thc con
duct otshortcrrun struggcs, and thus thc tkcthood otonc
tactton or anothcr Qrcvattng. hcncvcr thcsc struggcs vcrc
' constttuttona' tn naturc, thcy rcgutrcd grcatcr tdcoogtca
mobttzatton. ln thcsc cascs, vc hcard tak ot ' rcvouttons'
.
and ' grcat rctorms' and thc ostng stdcs vcrc ottcn gtvcn oQ-
Qrobrtous [but anayttcaytnaQQroQrtatc} abcs. Jothccxtcnt
that thc Qotttca struggcs tor,say,

' dcmocracy' or 'tbcrty'

agatnst ' tcudatsm' or ' tradttton' havc not bccn struggcs ot
thc vorktng casscs agatnst caQttatsm, thcy havc bccn csscn-
ttay struggcs among thc accumuators otcaQtta tor thc ac-
cumuatton otcaQtta . buch struggcsvcrcnot thctrtumQhot
a 'Qrogrcsstvc' bourgcotstc agatnst rcacttonary stratabut intra
bourgcots struggcs.

Ltcoursc, ustng ' untvcrsatztng' tdcoogtca sogans about

Qrogrcss has bccn Qotttcay usctu . lt has bccn a vay ot as-
soctattng cass struggc mobttzatton to onc stdc ottntraaccu-
muator struggcs. but such tdcoogtca advantagc has ottcn
bccn a doubccdgcd svord, uncashtng Qasstons and vcakcn-
tng rcQrcsstvc rcstratnts tn thc cass struggc. hts vas ot
coursc onc ot thc ongotng dtcmmas otthc accumuators ot
caQttatn htstortca caQttatsm. hcyvcrctorccdbythcoQcra-
ttons otthc systcm to act tn cass sotdartty vtth onc anothcr
agatnst thc cttortsotthcvork-torcc to Qursucttscontrary tn-
tcrcsts, but stmutancousy to hght cach othcr ccasccssy tn
1
both thc cconomtc and Qotttca arcnas. hts ts cxacty vhat
vc mcan by a contradtctton vtthtn thc systcm.
Nany anaysts, nottctng that thcrc arc struggcs othcr than
cass struggcsvhtch absorb much otthc totaQotttcacncrgy
cxQcndcd, havcconcudcdthatcass anaysts tsotdubtousrcc-
vancc to thc undcrstandtng ot Qotttca struggc. hts ts a
curtous tntcrcncc. lt voud sccm morc scnstbc to concudc
that thcscnon-cass-bascdQotttca struggcs, that ts, struggcs
among accumuators tor Qotttca advantagc, arc cvtdcncc ota
scvcrc structuraQotttca vcakncss tn thc accumuatorcass tn
tts ongotng vordvtdc cass struggc.
hcsc Qotttca struggcs can bc rcQhrascd as struggcs to
shaQc thc tnstttuttona structurcs ot thc caQttatst vord-cco-
nomy so as to construct thc ktnd ot vord markct vhosc
oQcratton voud automattcay tavour Qarttcuar cconomtc ac-

tors . hccaQttatst ' markct' vas ncvcr agtvcn, andcvcncssa

constant. ltvas acrcattonthatvasrcguaryrccrcatcdandad-
ustcd.
Atany gtvcn ttmc, thc ' markct' rcQrcscntcdasctotrucsor
constratntsrcsuttng trom thccomQcxtntcrQayottour maor
scts ot tnstttuttons . thc muttQc statcs tnkcd tn an tntcrstatc
systcm, thc muttQc ' nattons' , vhcthcr tuy rccogntzcd or
struggtngtor suchQubtc dcttnttton [and tncudtng thosc sub-
nattons, thc ' cthntc grouQs'}, tn uncasyand unccrtatnrcatton
to thc statcs, thccasscs, tncvovtng occuQattonacontourand
tn osctattng dcgrccs ot consctousncss, and thc tncomc-
Qootng untts cngagcd tn common houschodtng, combtntng
muttQc Qcrsons cngagcd tn muttQc torms otabour and ob-
tatntng tncomc trom muttQc sourccs, tn uncasy rcattonshtQ
to thc casscs.
hcrcvcrcnohxcdodcstarstnthtsconstcattonottnstttu-
ttona torccs . hcrc vcrc no ' Qrtmordta' cnttttcs that tcndcd

Struggle for Benets 0>

toQrcvat agatnst thctnstttuttonatorms Qrcsscdtorby thc ac-

cumuators ot caQtta tn tandcm vtth, and tn oQQosttton to,

tbc struggc ot thc vork-torcc to rcstst aQQroQrtatton otthctr

cconomtc Qroduct. hc boundartcs ot cach vartant ot an tn-
stttuttona torm, thc 'rtghts' vhtch tt vascgay and dc tacto
zbc to sustatn, vartcd trom zonc to zonc ot thc vord-cco-
nomy, ovcr both cyctca and sccuar ttmc. lt thc carctu
znzyst ' s hcad rccs tn rcgardtng thts tnstttuttona vortcx, hc

czn stccraccarQathbyrcmcmbcrtngthattnhtstortcacaQtta-
sm accumuators had no htghcr obcct than turthcr accu-

muaton,andthatvork-torccscoudthcrctorchavcnohtghcr

Obcct than survtva and rcductng thctr burdcn. Lncc that ts

tcmcmbcrcd, onc ts abc to mzkc a grcat dca otscnsc out ot

tbc Qotttca htstory ot thc modcrn vord.

nQarttcuar, onccanbcgtn toaQQrcctatc tn thctr comQcxt-
ty thc ctrcumocutory and ottcn Qaradoxtcz or contradtctory
gostttons ot thc antt-systcmtc movcmcnts that cmcrgcd tn

btstortca caQttatsm. Lct us bcgtn vtth thc most ccmcntary

dtlcmma ot a. Mtstortca caQttasm has oQcratcd vtthtn a `

WOrld-cconomybut not vtthtn a vord-statc. Quttc thc con

ttzty. As vc havc sccn, structura Qrcssurcs mtttatcd agatnst

y constructton ot a vord-statc. tthtn thts systcm, vc

bzvcundcrtncd thccructarocotthcmuttQcstatcs at oncc
thc most Qovctu Qotttca structurcs, and yct ot tmttcd

gOWcr. McnccrcstructurtnggtvcnstatcsrcQrcscntcdtorvork-

tOtccs at onc and thc samc ttmc thc most Qromtstng Qath ot
mQrovtng thctr Qosttton, and a Qath ottmttcd vauc.

c must bcgtn by ooktng at vhat vc mtght mcan by an

tt-systcmtc movcmcnt. hc vord movcmcnt tmQtcs somc

cOllccttvcthrust ota morc than momcntary naturc. ln tact, ot

cOursc, somcvhat sQontancous Qrotcsts or uQrtstngs otvork-

tccs havc occurrcd tn a knovn htstortca systcms . hcy

^
00
havc scrvcd as satcty-vaucs tor Qcnt-uQ angcr, or somcttmcs,
somcvhatmorccttccttvcy, as mcchantsmsthathavc sctmtnor
tmtts to cxQottattvc Qroccss . but gcncray sQcaktng, rcbc-
ton as a tcchntguc has vorkcd ony at thc margtns otccntra
authortty, Qarttcuary vhcn ccntra burcaucractcs vcrc tn
Qhascs otdtstntcgratton.
Jhc structurcothtstortca caQttatsmchangcdsomcotthcsc
gtvcns. Jhc tact that statcs vcrc ocatcd tn an tntcrstatc
systcm mcant that thcrcQcrcusstons otrcbctons or uQrtstngs
vcrc tct , ottcn guttc raQtdy, bcyond thc conhncs otthc tm-
mcdtatc Qotttcaurtsdtctton vtthtn vhtch thcy occurrcd. bo-
cacd ' outstdc` torccs thcrctorchad strongmottvcstocomcto
thc atd ot assatcd statc-machtncrtcs . Jhts madc rcbctons
morc dtmcut. Ln thc othcr hand, thctntruston ot thc accu-
muators ot caQtta , and hcncc ot statc-machtncrtcs, tnto thc
daty ttc otthc vork-torccs vas tar morc tntcnstvctn gcncra
undcr htstortca caQttatsm than undcr Qrcvtous htstortca
systcms. Jhc cndcss accumuatton ot caQtta cd to rcQcatcd
Qrcssurcs to rcstructurc thc organtzatton [and ocatton} ot
vork, to tncrcascthcamount otabsoutc abour, and to brtng
about thc Qsycho-socta rcconstructton otthc vork-torccs . ln
thts scnsc, tor most ot thc vord` s vork-torccs, thc dtsruQ-
tton, thc dtscombobuatton, and thc cxQottatton vas cvcn
grcatcr. At thc samc ttmc, thc socta dtsruQtton undcrmtncd
Qacatory modcs ot soctatzatton. A tn a, thcrctorc, thc
mottvattons to rcbc vcrc strcngthcncd, dcsQttc thc tact that
thc Qosstbttttcs ot succcss vcrc QcrhaQs obccttvcy csscncd.
lt vas thts cxtra stratn vhtch cd to thcgrcat tnnovatton tn
thc tcchnoogy ot rcbcton that vas dcvcoQcd tn htstortca
caQttatsm. Jhts tnnovatton vas thc conccQt ot Qcrmancnt
organtzatton. lt ts ony tn thc ntnctccnth ccntury that vc
St
rg
le for Benets
bcgtn to scc thc crcatton otconttnutng, burcaucrattzcd struc-
turcs tn thctr tvo grcat htstortca vartants: abour-soctatst
movcmcnts, and nattonatst movcmcnts . both ktnds otmovc-
mcnt takcd a untvcrsa anguagc csscnttay that ot thc
rcnch Hcvoutton: tbcrty, cguatty, and tratcrntty. both
ktnds otmovcmcnt cothcd thcmscvcs tn thc tdcoogy otthc
Lntghtmcnt thc tncvttabttty ot Qrogrcss, that ts human
cmanctQattonustthcd by tnhcrcnt human rtghts. both ktnds

otmovcmcnt aQQcacd to thctuturc agatnst thc Qast , thcncv
zgatnst thc od. Lvcn vhcn tradttton vas tnvokcd, tt vas as
thc basts ot a rcnatssancc, a rcbtrth.

Lach ot thc tvo ktnds otmovcmcnt had, tt ts truc, a dttt-

crcnt tocus, and hcncc at ttrst a dtttcrcnt ocus. Jhc abour-

tOctatst movcmcnts tocuscd on thcconttctsbctvccn thc urb-

,

zn, andcss, vagc vorkcrs [thcQroctartat} and thc ovncrs ot

thc cconomtc structurcs tn vhtch thcy vorkcd [thc bour-
gcotstc} . Jhcsc movcmcnts tnststcd that thc aocatton ot

tcvard tor vork vas tundamcntay tncgattartan, oQQrcsstvc,

znd unust . lt vas natura that such movcmcnts shoud ttrst

cmcrgctnthoscQartsotthcvord-cconomythathad astgnth-
cznt tndustrta vork-torcc tn Qarttcuar, tn vcstcrn LuroQc.
hc nattonatst movcmcnts tocuscd on thc conttcts bc- _

tWccn thc numcrous ' oQQrcsscd QcoQcs` [dchncd tn tcrms ot

ngutsttc and/or rctgtous charactcrtsttcs} and thc Qarttcuar

4mtnant ' QcoQcs` otagtvcn Qotttcaurtsdtctton, thc tormcr

Bzvtng tar tcvcr Qotttca rtghts, cconomtc oQQortuntttcs, and

cgttmatc torms otcutura cxQrcsston than thc attcr. hcsc

mOvcmcnts tnststcd that thc aocatton ot ' rtghts' vas tun-
_` mmcntay tncgattartan, oQQrcsstvc, and unust . t vas

uztura that such movcmcnts shoud hrst cmcrgc tn thosc

Mmt QcrtQhcrarcgtonsotthcvord-cconomy, tkcthcAustro-

Mungartan LmQtrc, vhcrc thc uncvcn asstgnmcnt ot cthno-

nattona grouQs tnthchtcrarchyotabourtorcc aocattonvas
most obvtous.
n gcncra, uQ untt guttc rcccnty, thcsc tvo ktnds ot
movcmcnt constdcrcd thcmscvcs vcry dtttcrcnt trom, somc-
ttmcs cvcn antagontsttc to, thcothcr. Atanccs bctvccn thcm
vcrc sccn as tacttca and tcmQorary. Yct trom thc bcgtnntng,
tt ts strtktng thc dcgrcc to vhtch both ktnds ot movcmcnt

sharcd ccrtatn structura stmtartttcs. n thc hrst Qacc, attcr

`
constdcrabc dcbatc, both abour-soctatst and nattonatst
movcmcnts madc thc bastc dcctston to bccomc organtzattons
andthcconcurrcntdcctstonthatthctrmosttmQortantQotttca
obccttvc vas thc sctzurc ot statc Qovcr [cvcn vhcn, tn thc
cascotsomcnattonatst movcmcnts, thtstnvovcd thccrcatton
ot ncv statc boundartcs} . bccondy, thc dcctston on thc
stratcgy thc sctzurc ot statc Qovcr rcgutrcd that thcsc
movcmcnts mobttzc QoQuar torccs on thc basts ot an antt-
systcmtc, that ts, rcvouttonary, tdcoogy. hcy vcrc agatnst
thc cxtsttng systcm htstortca caQttatsm vhtch vas butt
on thcbastccaQtta-abour, corc-QcrtQhcrystructurcdtncguat-
ttcs that thc movcmcnts vcrc sccktng to ovcrcomc.
Ltcoursc, tn an uncgua systcm, thcrcarcavays tvovays
tn vhtch a ov-ranktng grouQ can scck to gct out ottts ov
rank. t can scck to rcstructurc thc systcm such that a havc
cgua rank. Lr tt can scck stmQy to movc ttscttnto a htghcr
rank tn thc uncgua dtstrtbutton. As vc knov, antt-systcmtc
movcmcnts, no mattcr hov much thcytocuscd oncgattartan
obccttvcs, avays tncudcdccmcnts vhoscobccttvc, tntttay
or cvcntuay, vas mcrcy to bc 'uQvardy mobtc' vtthtn thc
cxtsttng htcrarchy. hc movcmcnts thcmscvcs havc avays
bccn avarc otthts too. Jhcy havc hovcvcr tcndcd todtscuss
thts Qrobcm tn tcrms ottndtvtdua mottvattons. thc Qurc ot
hcart vcrsus thcbctraycrs ot thccausc. but vhcn on anaysts

7
Struggle for Benfts Y
thc 'bctraycrs ot thc causc' sccm omntQrcscnt tn cvcry Qar-

ttcuar tnstancc ot thc movcmcnts as thcy havc htstortcay

dcvcoQcd, onctscd to ook tor structurarathcrthanmottva-
ttona cxQanattons.
hckcy to thcQrobcm may tn tact tctn thcbastc stratcgtc
dcctston to makc thc sctzurc ot statc Qovcr thc Qtvot ot thc
movcmcnt' s acttvtttcs. hc stratcgy had tvo tundamcnta
conscgucnccs. n thc Qhasc ot mobttzatton, tt Qushcd cach
movcmcnt tovardscntcrtngtnto tacttcaatanccsvtthgrouQs
that vcrc tn no vay ' antt-systcmtc` tn ordcr to rcach tts stra-
tcgtc obccttvc. hcsc atanccs modthcd thc structurc ot thc
zntt-systcmtcmovcmcntsthcmscvcs, cvcntnthcmobttzatton
stzgc. Lvcn morc tmQortanty, thc stratcgy cvcntuay suc-
cccdcdtnmanycascs. NanyotthcmovcmcntsachtcvcdQartta

or cvcn tota statc Qovcr. hcsc succcsstu movcmcnts vcrc

thcn controntcd vtth thc rcatttcs ot thc tmttattons ot statc
Qovcr vtthtn thccaQttatst vord-cconomy. hcy tound tht

tbcy vcrc constratncd by thc tuncttontng ot thc tntcrstatc

tystcm to cxcrctsc thctr Qovcr tn vays that mutcd thc ' antt-

systcmtc' obccttvcs that vcrc thctr ratson d'trc.

hts sccms so obvtous that onc must thcnvondcr vhy thc

movcmcnts bascd thctr stratcgy on such a sccmtngy sct-dc-

,

tczttng obccttvc. hc ansvcr vas guttc stmQc: gtvcn thc

_ Qotttca structurc oI htstortca caQttatsm, thcy had tttc

.

cbotcc. hcrc sccmcd to bc no morc Qromtstng atcrnattvc

stratcgy. hc sctzurc ot statc Qovcr at cast Qromtscd to

cbangc thc baancc ot Qovcr bctvccn contcndtng grouQs

sOmcvhat . hat ts to say, thc sctzurc otQovcr rcQrcscntcd a

rfor otthcsystcm. hcrctormstn tactdtd tmQrovcthcsttu-
f zton,butavaysat thcQrtccotasostrcngthcntngthcsystcm.

Lan vc thcrctorc summartzc thc vork otthc vord` s antt-

"

systcmtc movcmcnts tor ovcr onc hundrcd and htty ycars as

smQy thc strcngthcntng ot htstortca caQttatsm vta rctor-

7J
mtsm: No, but that ts bccausc thc Qotttcs ot htstortca
caQttatsm vas morc than thc Qotttcs ot thc vartous statcs. lt
hasbccn thcQotttcs otthctntcrstatcsystcm asvc. hc antt-
systcmtc movcmcnts cxtstcd trom thc bcgtnntng not ony tn-
dtvtduay but aso as a coccttvc vhoc, abctt ncvcr burcau-
crattcay organtzcd. [hc muttQc tntcrnattonas havc ncvcr
tncudcd thc totattyotthcsc movcmcnts. }A kcy tactortn thc
strcngthotanygtvcn movcmcnt hasavaysbccnthccxtstcncc
otothcr movcmcnts.
Lthcr movcmcntshavcQrovtdcdanygtvcnmovcmcnt vtth
thrcc ktnds otsuQQort . hc most obvtous ts matcrta, hcQtu,
butQcrhaQsotcast stgnthcancc. A sccondtsdtvcrstonary suQ

Qort . hc abtttyotagtvcnstrongstatctotntcrvcncagatnstan
anttsystcmtc movcmcnt ocatcd tn a vcakcr statc, tor cxam-
Qc, vas avays atunctton othov manyothcrthtngsvcrc on
tts tmmcdtatc Qotttca agcnda. hc morc a gtvcn statc vas
QrcoccuQtcd vtth a oca antt-systcmtc movcmcnt, thc css
abttty tt had to bc occuQtcd vtth a taravay antt-systcmtc
movcmcnt. hc thtrd and most tundamcnta suQQort tsat thc
cvc otcoccttvc mcntatttcs. Novcmcnts carncd trom cach
othcr's crrors and vcrc cncouragcd by cach othcr' s tacttca
succcsscs. Andthccttortsotthcmovcmcntsvordvtdcattcct

cd thc bastc vordvtdc Qotttca ambtancc thc cxQcctattons,

thc anaysts otQosstbttttcs.
As thc movcmcnts grcv tn numbcr, tn htstory, and tn tac-
ttca succcsscs, thcy sccmcd strongcr as a coccttvc Qhcno-
mcnon, and bccausc thcy sccmcd strongcr thcy vcrc.
hcgrcatcrcoccttvc strcngth vordvtdc scrvcd asachcckon
' rcvtstontst ' tcndcnctcs ot movcmcnts tn statc Qovcr no
morc, but no css, than that and thts has bccn grcatcr tn tts
cttcct on undcrmtntng thc Qotttca stabttty ot htstortca
caQttatsm than thc sum otthcsystcm-strcngthcntngcttccts ot
thcsctzurcotstatcQovcrbysucccsstvctndtvtduamovcmcnts.

A
=
Strggle for Benets 7I
tnay, onc othcr tactor has comc tnto Qay. As thc tvo

vartcttcs otantt-systcmtc movcmcnts havc sQrcad [thc abour-

soctatst movcmcntstrom atcv strong statcs to aothcrs, thc
nattonatst movcmcnts trom a tcv QcrtQhcra zoncs to cvcry-
vhcrc csc} , thc dtsttnctton bctvccn thc tvo ktnds ot movc-
mcnt has bccomc tncrcastngyburrcd. Labour-soctatst movc-
mcnts havctound that nattonatst thcmcsvcrcccntra tothctr
mobttzatton cttorts and thctr cxcrctsc ot statc Qovcr. but
nattonatstmovcmcntshavcdtscovcrcd thctnvcrsc. nordcr to
mobttzc cttccttvcy and govcrn, thcy had to canatzc thccon-
ccrns ot thc vork-torcc tor cgattartan rcstructurtng. As thc
thcmcs bcgan to ovcraQ hcavty and thc dtsttncttvc organtza-
tona tormats tcndcd to dtsaQQcar or coacscc tnto a stngc
A
structurc, thcstrcngth
o
tantt-systcmtc movcmcnts, csQcctay
zs a vordvtdc occttvc vhoc, vas dramattcay tncrcascd.
Lncotthcstrcngthsotthcantt-systcmtcmovcmcntststhat

thcyhavc comcto Qovcrtn a argc numbcr otstatcs . hts has

changcd thc ongotng Qotttcs ot thc vord-systcm. but thts
trcngth has aso bccn a vcakncss, stncc thc so-cacd Qost-
rcvouttonaryrcgtmcsconttnuctotuncttonasQartotthcsocta

dtvtston otabour othtstortca caQttatsm. hcy havc thcrcby

OQcratcd, vtynty, undcrthcrccntcssQrcssurcsotthcdrtvc

tOr thc cndcss accumuatton ot caQtta . hc Qotttca consc-
Qucncc tntcrnay has bccn thc conttnucd cxQottatton ot thc

labour-torcc, tttn arcduccd and amctoratcd torm tn many tn-

ttanccs. hts has cd to tntcrna tcnstons Qaractng thosc
, tOund tnstatcs that vcrcnot 'Qost-rcvouttonary' , and thtstn
tutn hasbrcd thccmcrgcnccotncv antt-systcmtc movcmcnts
_ wthtn thcsc statcs . hc struggctor thcbcnchts has bccn go-

ng on both vtthtn thcsc Qostrcvouttonary statcs and cvcry-

whcrc csc, bccausc, vtthtn thc tramcvork ot thc caQttatst
WOrd-cconomy, thc tmQcrattvcs otaccumuatton havcoQcrat-
m throughout thc sytcm. Lhangcs tn statc structurcs havc
72
atcrcd thc Qotttcs ot accumuatton, thcy havc not yct bccn
abc to cnd thcm.
lntttay, vc QostQoncd thc gucsttons: hov rca havc bccn
thc bcnchts tn htstortca caQttatsm: hov grcat has bccn thc
changctn thcguattyotttc: tshoudbcccar nov that thcrc

ts no stmQc ansvcr. ' or vhom: ' , vc must ask. Mtstortca

caQttatsm has tnvovcd a monumcnta crcatton ot matcrta

goods, but aso a monumcnta Qoartzatton otrcvard. Nany
havc bcnchtcd cnormousy, but many morc havc knovn a
substantta rcductton tn thctr rca tota tncomcs and tn thc
guatty otthctr tvcs . Jhc Qoartzatton has otcoursc aso bccn
sQatta, and hcncc tt has sccmcd tn somc arcas not to cxtst.

Jhat too hasbccn thc conscgucncc ota struggctor thcbcnc-

hts. Jhc gcograQhy ot bcnctit has trcgucnty shtttcd, thus
masktng thcrcattyotQoartzatton. butovcr thcvhoc otthc
ttmc-sQacc zonc cncomQasscd by htstortca caQttatsm, thc
cndcss accumuatton otcaQttahas mcantthctnccssantvtdcn-
tng ot thc rca gaQ.
+
*
^
.

4
.
+
"
3.
Truth as Opiate:
Rationality
and Rationalization

Mtstortca caQttatsm has bccn, vc knov, Promcthcan tn tts

asQtrattons. Athough sctcntthc and tcchnoogtca changc has
bccn a constant othuman htstortca acttvtty, tt ts ony vtth
htstortca caQttatsm that Promcthcus, avays thcrc, has bccn
' unbound' , tn LavtdLandcs`s Qhrasc. hcbastccoccttvctm-
agc vc nov havcotthts sctcnttttccuturcothtstortcacaQtta-
sm ts that tt vas QroQoundcd by nobc kntghts agatnst thc
staunch rcststancc otthc torccs

ot ' tradtttona` , non-sctcntthc

cuturc. ln thc scvcntccnth ccntury, tt vas Latco agatnst thc
Lhurch, tn thc tvcnttcth, thc 'modcrntzcr' agatnst thc
muah. At a Qotnts, tt vas satd to havc bccn ' rattonatty'
vcrsus 'suQcrstttton' , and 'trccdom' vcrsus 'tntccctua oQ-

_ Qrcsston' . hts vas Qrcsumcd tobcQarac to [cvcn tdcnttca

Wtth} thc rcvot tn thc arcna ot thc Qotttca cconomy otthc
bourgcots cntrcQrcncur agatnst thc artstocrattc andord.
htsbastc tmagc ota vordvtdccutura struggchas had a
hddcn Qrcmtss, namcy onc about tcmQoratty. ' Nodcrntty`
Was assumcd to bc tcmQoray ncv, vhcrcas ' tradttton' vas
tcmQorayodandQrtor to modcrntty, tndccd,tn somc strong
4
vcrstonsotthctmagcry, tradtttonvasahtstortcaandthcrctorc

vrtuay ctcrna . hts Qrcmtss vas htstortcay tasc and

, thcrctorc tundamcntay mtscadtng. hc muttQc cuturcs,
thcmuttQc ' tradtttons' thathavcourtshcd vtthtn thc ttmc-

sQacc boundartcs ot htstortca caQttatsm, havc bccn no morc

`

.
0
Qrtmordta tban tbc muttQc tnstttuttona tramcvorks. Jbcy
arc argcy tbc crcaton ottbc modcrn vord, Qart Ottts tdco-
ogtca scattodtng. Ltnksottbc vartous ' tradtttons` to grouQs
and tdcoogtcs tbat Qrcdatc btstortca caQttatsm bavc cxtstcd,
otcoursc, tn tbc scnsc tbat tbcy bavc ottcn bccn constructcd
ustng somc btstortca and tntccctua matcrtas arcady cxts-
tcnt. urtbcrmorc, tbc asscrtton ot sucb transbtstortca tnks
bas Qaycd an tmQortant roc tn tbc cobcstvcncss otgrouQs tn
tbctr Qotttco-cconomtc struggcs vttbtn btstortca caQttatsm.
but, ttvc vtsb to undcrstand tbc cutura torms tbcsc strug-
gcs takc, vc cannot attord to takc ' tradtttons' at tbctr tacc
vauc, andtnQarttcuarvccannotattord toassumctbat ' tradt-
ttons' arc tn tact tradtttona.
lt vas tn tbc tntcrcsts ottboscvbo vtsbcd to tactttatc tbc
accumuatton ot caQtta, tbat vork-torccs bc crcatcd tn tbc
rtgbt Qaccsand at tbc ovcst Qosstbc cvcs otrcmuncratton.
cbavcarcadydtscusscdbovtbcovcrratcsotQaytorQcrt-
Qbcra cconomtc acttvtttcs tn tbc vord-cconomy vcrc madc
Qosstbc by tbc crcatton otbouscbods tn vbtcb vagc abour

Qaycd a mtnortty roc as a sourcc ot tncomc. Lnc vay tn

vbtcb sucb bouscbodsvcrc 'crcatcd' , tbat ts, Qrcssurcd to
structurc tbcmscvcs, vas tbc ' ctbntctzatton' ot communtty
ttctnbtstortcacaQttatsm. batvcmcanby ' ctbntcgrouQs'
arc stzcabc grouQs otQcoQc to vbom vcrc rcscrvcd ccrtatn
occuQattona/cconomtc rocs tn rcatton to otbcr sucb grouQs
tvtng tn gcograQbtc Qroxtmtty. Jbc outvard symbotzatton
otsucb abour-torcc aocatton vas tbcdtsttncttvc 'cuturc' ot
tbc ctbntc grouQ tts rctgton, tts anguagc, tts 'vaucs' , tts
Qarttcuar sct otcvcryday bcbavtour Qattcrns.
Ltcoursc, l amnotsuggcsttngtbat tbcrcvasanytbtngtkc
a Qcrtcct castc systcm tn btstortca caQttatsm. but, Qrovtdcd
Rationality and Rationalization
vc kccQ our occuQattona catcgortcs sutttctcnty broad, l am
suggcsttng that thcrc ts, and avays has bccn, a rathcr htgh
corrcatton bctvccn cthntctty and occuQatton/cconomtc roc
throughout thc vartous timc-sQacc zoncs othtstortca caQtta-
tsm. l am turthcr suggcsttng that thcsc abour-torcc aoca-
ttons havc vartcd ovcr ttmc, and that as thcy vartcd, so dtd
cthntctty tn tcrms ot thc boundartcs and dctintng cutura
tcaturcs ot thc grouQ, and turthcr that thcrc ts amost no
corrcattonbctvccn Qrcscnt-day cthntc abour-torcc aocatton
and thc Qattcrns ot thc QurQortcd anccstors ot Qrcscnt-day
cthntc grouQs tn Qcrtods Qrtor to htstortca caQttatsm.
hc cthntctzatton ot thc vord vork-torcc has had thrcc
matnconscgucnccs that havcbccn tmQortant tor thctunctton-
tngotthcvord-cconomy. trstota, tt hasmadcQosstbcthc
rcQroductton otthcvork-torcc, not tn thcscnscotQrovtdtng
sumctcnt tncomc tor thc survtva otgrouQsbut tn thc scnsc ot
Qrovtdtng suthctcnt vorkcrs tn cach catcgory at aQQroQrtatc
cvcs ottncomc cxQcctattons tn tcrms both ottota amounts
and otthc torms thc houschod tncomc voud takc. urthcr-
morc, Qrcctscy bccausc thc vork-torcc vas cthntctzcd, tts
alocatton vas bcxtbc. Largc-scac gcograQhtca and occuQa-
ttona mobttty has bccn madc castcr, not morc dtthcut, by
cthntctty. Lndcr thc Qrcssurc ot changtng cconomtc condt-
tons, a that vas rcgutrcd to changc vork-torcc aocatton
Was tor somc cntcrQrtstng tndtvtduas to takcthc cad tn gco-
.
graQhtca or occuQattonarcscttcmcnt, andtobcrcvardcd tor

tt, thtsQromQtycxcrtcd a natura ' Qu` on othcr mcmbcrs ot

tbc cthntc grouQ to transtcr thctr ocattons tn thc vord-

oonomy.
bccondy, cthntctzatton has Qrovtdcd an tn-butt tratntng
mcchantsm otthcvork-torcc,cnsurtngthataargcQart otthc
7
soctatzatton tn occuQattona tasks voud bc donc vtthtn thc
tramcvork ot cthntcay-dchncd houschods and not at thc
cost otctthcr cmQoycrs
o
tvagc-vorkcrs, or thc statcs.
Jhtrdy, and Qrobaby most tmQortant, cthntctzatton has
cncrustcd ranktng otoccuQattona/cconomtc rocs, Qrovtdtng
an casycodctorovcratncomcdtstrtbutton cothcdvtththc
cgtttmtzatton ot ' tradttton'.

t ts thts thtrd conscgucncc that has bccn

caboratcd tn
grcatcst dctat and has tormcd onc ot thc most stgnthcant
Qtars othtstortca caQttatsm, tnstttuttona ractsm. hat vc
mcan by ractsm has tttc to do vtth thc xcnoQhobta that cx
tstcd tn vartous Qrtor htstortca systcms. XcnoQhobta vas
ttcray tcar ot thc ' strangcr ' . Hactsm vtthtn htstortca
caQttatsm had nothtng to do vtth ' strangcrs` . Quttc thc con-
trary. Hactsmvas thcmodcbyvhtchvartous scgmcntsotthc
vork-torcc vtthtn thc samc cconomtc structurc vcrc con-
stratncd to rcatc to cach othcr. Hactsm vas thc tdcoogtca
ustthcatton tor thc htcrarchtzatton otthc vork-torcc and tts
htghy uncgua dtstrtbuttons ot rcvard. hat vc mcan by
ractsmtsthat sct ottdcoogtcastatcmcntscombtncdvtth that
sct otconttnutngQracttccsvhtch havchad thc conscgucnccot

matntatntng a htgh corrcatton ot cthntctty and vork-torcc

aocatton ovcr ttmc. Jhc tdcoogtca statcmcnts havc bccn tn
thc torm ot acgattons that gcncttc and/or ong-asttng
' cutura' tratts otvartous grouQs arc thc maor causc otdtt-

tcrcntta aocatton to Qostttons tn thc cconomtc structurcs.

Movcvcr, thc bctcts that ccrtatn grouQs vcrc ' suQcrtor' to
othcrstnccrtatn charactcrtsttcs rccvant toQcrtormancc tnthc
cconomtc arcna avays camc tnto bctng attcr, rathcr than
bctorc, thcocattonotthcscgrouQstn thcvork-torcc. Hactsm
.1as avays bccn Qosthoc. t has bccn asscrtcd that thoscvho
havcbccncconomtcayandQotttcay oQQrcsscd arc cuturay
.
'
Rationality and Rationalization 7
' tntcrtor' . lt, tor any rcason, thc ocus tn thccconomtc htcrar-
chychangcd, thcocustn thc soctahtcrarchytcndcd to toov
[vtth somcag,tobc surc, stnccttavays tookagcncrattonor
tvo to cradtcatc thc cttcct otQrcvtous soctatzatton}.
Hactsm has scrvcd as an ovcratdcoogyustttytng tncguat
ty. but tt has bccn much morc. lt has scrvcd to soctatzc
grouQs tnto thctr ovn roc tn thc cconomy. Jhc attttudcs tn

-
cucatcd [thcQrcudtccs, thc ovcrty dtscrtmtnatorybchavtour
tn cvcryday ttc} scrvcd to cstabtsh thc tramcvork otaQQro-
Qrtatc and cgtttmatc bchavtour tor oncsct and tor othcrs tn
onc' sovn houschod and cthntc grouQ. Hactsm,ust tkc scx-
tsm, tuncttoncd as a sct-suQQrcsstvc tdcoogy, tashtontng cx-
Qcctattons and tmtttng thcm.
Hactsm vas ccrtatny not ony sct-suQQrcsstvc, tt vas _ .
.
oQQrcsstvc. t scrvcd to kccQ ov-ranktng grouQs tn tnc, and
utttzc mtddc-ranktng grouQs as thc unQatd sodtcrs ot thc
vord Qotcc systcm. ln thts vay, not ony vcrc thc hnancta
costs otthc Qotttca structurcs rcduccd stgntttcanty, but thc
abttty ot antt-systcmtc grouQs to mobttzc vtdc QoQuattons
vas rcndcrcd morc dtthcut, stncc ractsm structuay sct vtc-

ttms agatnst vtcttms .
Hactsmvasnot astmQcQhcnomcnon. Jhcrcvastnascnsc
abastcvord-vtdctaut tnc, marktngottrcattvc statustn thc
vord-systcm as a vhoc. Jhts vas thc ' coour' tnc. hat
Was 'vhttc` or uQQcr stratum

has otcoursc bccn a socta and

not a Qhystoogtca QhcnomcnOn, as shoud bc cvtdcnt by thc
btstortcay-shttttng Qosttton, tn vordvtdc [and nattona}
soctay-dchncd ' coour tncs', ot such grouQs as southcrn
LuroQcans, Arabs, Lattn Amcrtcan mcsttzos, and LastAstans .

Loour [or Qhystoogy} vas an casy tag to utttzc, stncc tt ts

tnhcrcntyhardtodtsgutsc, and,tnsotar as tt hasbccnhtstortc-
aly convcntcnt, gtvcn thc ortgtns ot htstortca caQttatsm tn
7
J
LuroQc, tt has bccn utttzcd. but vhcncvcr tt vas not convc
ntcnt , tt has bccn dtscardcd or modthcd tn tavour ot othcr
tdcntttytng charactcrtsttcs. ln many Qarttcuar Qaccs, thc scts
ottdcnttttcrshavcthusbccomcguttccomQcx. hcnonccon-
stdcrs thc addtttona tact that thc socta dtvtston otabour vas
constanty cvovtng, cthntc/racta tdcnttticatton turncd out to
bc ahtghy unstabcbaststor dctncattng thcboundartcs otthc
cxtsttng socta grouQs. LrouQs camc and vcnt and changcd
thctr sct-dchntttons vtth constdcrabccasc [and vcrcQcrcctv-
cd by othcrs as havtng dtttcrcnt boundartcs vtth cgua casc} .
butthcvoattttyotanygtvcn grouQ' s boundartcs vas nottn
conststcnt vtth, tndccd vas Qrobaby a tunctton ot, thc Qcr-
ststcncc otan ovcra htcrarchy otgrouQs,1hat ts, thc cthntct-
zatton otthc vord vork-torcc.
Hactsm has thus bccn a cutura Qtar ot htstortca caQtta-
tsm. ltstntccctuavacuttyhas not Qrcvcntcdtttromuncash-
tng tcrrtbc cructtcs . Noncthccss, gtvcn thc rtsc ot thc
vord' santt-systcmtcmovcmcnts tnthcQasttttty toonchun-
drcdycars, tt hasrcccntybccn undcr sharQ attack. lndccd, to-
day ractsm tn tts crudc vartants ts undcrgotng somc
dccgtttmtzatton at thcvordcvc . Hactsm,hovcvcr, has not
bccn thconytdcoogtcaQtarothtstortcacaQttatsm. Hactsm
hasbccn otgrcatcst tmQortancc tn constructton and rcQroduc-
tton ot aQQroQrtatc vork torccs. Jhctr rcQroductton
noncthccss vas tnsuthctcnt to Qcrmtt thc cndcss accumua-
ttonotcaQtta . ork-torccs coud notbccxQcctcdtoQcrtorm
cthctcnty and conttnuousy uncss thcy vcrc managcd by
1 cadrcs. Ladrcs too havc had to bc crcatcd, soctatzcd,
rcQduccd. Jhc Qrtmary tdcoogy that oQcratcd to crcatc,
soctatzc, and rcQroducc thcm vas

not thctdcoogy otractsm.

lt vas that otuntvcrsatsm.

Lntvcrsatsm ts an cQtstcmoogy. lt ts a sct otbctcts about

vhat ts knovabc and hov ttcan bc knovn. Jhc csscncc ot

Rationality and Rationalization J
, thts vtcv ts that thcrc cxtst mcantngtu gcncra statcmcnts

zbout thc vord thc Qhystca vord, thc socta vord that
zrc untvcrsay and Qcrmancnty truc, and that thc obcct ot
sctcncctsthcscarch tor thcscgcncra statcmcntstnatortn that
ctmtnatcs a so-cacd subccttvc, that ts, a htstortcay-con-
stratncd, ccmcnts trom tts tormuatton.
\
Jhcbctcttn untvcrsatsm hasbccn thc kcystoncotthctdco-
ogtca arch othtstortca caQttatsm. Lntvcrsatsm ts a tatth, as
vc asan cQtstcmoogy. lt rcgutrcs not mcrcyrcsQcct butrc
vcrcncctor thccustvcbutacgcdyrcaQhcnomcnonottruth.
hcuntvcrstttcshavcbccnboththcvorkshoQsotthctdcoogy
znd thc tcmQcs otthctatth. Marvard cmbazons Veritas on tts
cscutchcon. htc tt has avays bccn asscrtcd that onc coud
ncvcr knovtruthdchntttvcy thtstsvhat tssuQQoscd todts-
ttngutsh modcrn sctcncc trom mcdtcva cstcrn thcoogy tt
+

vzs aso constanty asscrtcd that thc scarch tor truth vas thc,
.
tztson d' trcotthcuntvcrstty, andmorc vtdcyotatntccc-

tuzacttvtty. Kcats, tousttty art, todusthat ' truthtsbcauty,

bczutytruth. ' lnthcLnttcdbtatcs, atavourttcQotttcaustth-

\

cztton ot ctvt tbcrttcs ts that truth can ony bc knovn as a

tcsut otthc tntcrQay that occurs tn thc 'trcc markct-Qacc ot

dcas' .
ruthas acuturatdcahastuncttoncdasan oQtatc,QcrhaQs'

thc ony scrtous oQtatc ot thc modcrn vord. Kar Narx satd

thztrctgton vas thcoQtatcotthcmasscs. Haymond Aron rc

tortcd that Narxtst tdcas vcrc tn turn thc oQtatc otthc tntc-

cctuzs. Jhcrc ts QcrsQtcactty tn both thcsc Qocmtca thrusts.

ut tsQcrsQtcacttytruth:l vtsh tosuggcst thatQcrhaQs truth
bzs bccn thc rca oQtatc, otboth thc masscs and thc tntccc
tuzs. LQtatcs, to bc surc, arc not unrcmttttngy cvt . hcy
czsc Qatn. hcy cnabc QcoQc to cscaQc trom hard tcatttcs
Whcn thcy tcar that controntatton vtth rcatty can ony
grcctQttatc tncvttzbc oss or dcctnc. Hut noncthccss most ot
2
us do not rccommcnd oQtatcs . Nctthcr Narx nor Haymond
Aron dtd. ln most statcs and tor most QurQoscs thcy arc t-
cga.

Lur coccttvc cducatton has taught us that thc scarch tor

truth ts a dtstntcrcstcdvtrtucvhcntn tactttts asct-tntcrcstcd
rattonatzatton. Jhcscarchtortruth,Qrocatmcdas thccorncr-
stonc otQrogrcss, and thcrctorc otvc-bctng, has bccn at thc
vcry cast consonant vtth thc matntcnancc ot a htcrarchtca,

uncgua socta structurc tn a numbcr ot sQccthc rcsQccts. Jhc

Qroccsscs tnvovcd tn thc cxQanston ot thc caQttatst vord-
cconomy thc QcrtQhcratzatton ot cconomtc structurcs, thc
crcatton ot vcak statc structurcs QarttctQattng tn and con-
stratncd by an tntcrstatc systcm tnvovcd a numbcr otQrcs

surcs at thc cvc otcuturc: LhrtsttanQroscyttzatton, thctm-

'
Qosttton otLuroQcan anguagc, tnstructton tn sQccthc tcchno
ogtcs and morcs, changcs tn thc cga codcs . Nany ot thcsc
changcs vcrc madc manu mtttart . Lthcrs vcrc achtcvcd by
thc Qcrsuaston ot' cducators' , vhosc authorttyvas uttmatcy
backcdbymtttarytorcc. Jhatts thatcomQcxotQroccsscsvc
somcttmcs abc ' vcstcrntzatton' , or cvcn morc arroganty
' modcrntzatton' , and vhtch vas cgtttmatcdby thc dcstrabtt-
tyotshartngboth thctruttsotandtatthtn thctdcoogyotunt-
vcrsatsm.
Jhcrc vcrc tvo matn mottvcs bchtnd thcsc cntorccd
cutura changcs. Lnc vas cconomtc cthctcncy. lt gtvcn Qcr-
sons vcrc cxQcctcd toQcrtorm tn gtvcn vays tn thccconomtc
arcnas, tt vas ctttctcnt both to tcach thcm thc rcgutsttc
cutura norms and to cradtcatc comQcttng cutura norms .
. Jhc sccond vas Qotttca sccurtty. lt vas bctcvcd that tt thc
so-cacd cttcs ot QcrtQhcra arcas vcrc ' vcstcrntzcd' , thcy
voud bc scQaratcd trom thctr 'masscs ` , and hcncc css tkcy
to rcvot ccrtatny css abc to organtzc a toovtng tor
rcvots. Jhts turncd out to bc a monumcnta mtscacuatton,
\
J
Rationality and Rationalization J
but tt vasQaustbcand dtdvorktor avhtc. [Athtrdmottvc
vas hybr on thc Qart otthc congucrors. l do not dtscount tt,
but ttts not ncccssary totnvokc tttn ordcr to account tor thc
cutura Qrcssurcs , vhtch voud havc bccn]ust as grcat tn tts
zbscncc. }

hcrcas ractsm scrvcd as a mcchantsm otvord-vtdc con-

tro otdtrcct Qroduccrs, untvcrsatsm scrvcd to dtrcct thcactt-
vtttcs ot thc bourgcotstc ot othcr statcs and vartous mtddc
strata vord-vtdc tnto channcs that voud maxtmtzc thc
cosc tntcgratton otQroductton Qroccsscs and thc smooth oQ-
+ +
cratton otthc tntcrstatc systcm, thcrcby tactttattng thc accu
muatton ot caQtta . Jhts rcgutrcd !hc crcatton ot a vord
bourgcots cutura tramcvork that coud bc grattcd onto ' na
ttona' vartattons. Jhts vas Qarttcuary tmQortant tn tcrms ot
sctcncc and tcchnoogy, but aso tn thcrcam otQotttcatdcas
znd thc socta sctcnccs.
Jhc conccQt ot a ncutra ' untvcrsa' cuturc to vhtch thc
czdrcs ot thc vord dtvtston otabour voud bc ' asstmtatcd'
[thcQasstvcvotccbctngtmQortanthcrc}hcncccamctoscrvcas
OncotthcQtarsotthcvord-systcmastthtstortcaycvovcd.
JhccxatattonotQrogrcss, andatcrot'modcrntzatton' , sum-
mzrtzcd thts sct ottdcas, vhtch scrvcd css as truc norms ot
socta acttonthan as status-symbosotobctsanccand otQarttct-
Qatton tn thc vord' s uQQcr strata. Jhc brcak trom thc suQ-

Qoscdy cuturay-narrov rctgtous bascs ot knovcdgc tn

_ lzvour ot suQQoscdy trans-cutura sctcntthc bascs ot
knOvcdgc scrvcd as thc sct-]ustthcatton otaQarttcuaryQcr
ntcous torm otcuturatmQcratsm. lt domtnatcdtn thcnamc

Otntccctuatbcratton; tt tmQoscdtn thcnamcotsccQttctsm.

Jhc Qroccss ot rattonatzatton ccntra to caQttatsm has rc
Qutcd thc crcatton otantntcrmcdtatc stratum comQrtstng thc
tQcctatsts ot thts rattonatzatton, as admtntstrators,

tcchnt-
czns, sccnttsts, cducators. Jhc vcry comQcxtty ot not ony

1
thc tcchnoogybut thc socta systcm has madctt csscntta that
thts stratum bc argc and, ovcr ttmc, cxQandtng. Jhc tunds
that havc bccn uscd to suQQort tt havc bccn dravn trom thc
goba surQus, as cxtractcd through cntrcQrcncurs and statcs .
ln thts ccmcntary but tundamcnta scnsc thcsc cadrcs havc
thcrctorc bccn Qart ot thc bourgcotstc vhosc catm to Qar
ttctQatton tn thc shartngout ot thc surQus has bccn gtvcn
Qrcctsc tdcoogtca torm tn thc tvcnttcthccntury conccQt ot
human caQtta. Mavtng rcattvcy tttc rca caQtta to trnsmtt
as thc hcrttagc otthctr houschod, such cadrcs havc sought to
guarantcc succcsston by sccurtng Qrctcrcntta acccss tor thctr
chtdrcn to thccducattOnachanncsvhtchguarantccQosttton.
Jhts Qrctcrcntta acccss has bccn convcntcnty Qrcscntcd as
achtcvcmcnt , suQQoscdy cgtttmatcd by a narrovydchncd
'cguatty otoQQortuntty' .
, bctcntthc cuturc thus bccamc thc hatcrna codc ot thc

vord' saccumuators otcaQtta. lt scrvcd hrst ota tousttty
both thctr ovn acttvtttcs and thc dtttcrcntta rcvards trom
vhtch thcy bcnchtcd. lt Qromotcd tcchnoogtca tnnovatton.
lt cgtttmatcd thc harsh ctmtnatton otbarrtcrs to thc cxQan
ston otQroducttvccthctcnctcs. lt gcncratcd a torm otQrogrcss
that voud bc otbcncht to a ttnot tmmcdtatcy thcncvcn
_ tuay.

1
_
tcntthc cuturc vas morc hovcvcr than a mcrc rattonat
zatton. lt vas a torm otsoctatzatton otthc dtvcrsc ccmcnts
that vcrc thc cadrcs ot a thc tnstttuttona structurcs that
vcrcnccdcd. Asa anguagccommon tocadrcsbut not dtrcct
y to thcabourtorcc, ttbccamcaso amcansotcass cohcston
tor thc uQQcr stratum, tmtttng thc QrosQccts or cxtcnt otrc

bctous acttvttyonthcQart otcadrcs vho mtghtbcso tcmQt

_
d. urthcrmorc, tt vas a cxtbc mcchantsm tor thc rcQro
ductton otthcsccadrcs. ltcntttscttothcconccQt knovnto
day as 'mcrttocracy' , Qrcvtousy 'la carrtcrc ouvcrtc aux

Rationality and Rationalization '

tzcnts' . bctcntthc cuturc crcztcd z hzmcvork vtthtn vhtch
tndtvtduz mobttty vzs Qosstbc vtthout thrcztcntng htcrzr-
W.
chtcz

vork-torcc zocztton. Ln thc contrzry, mcrttocrzcy

rctntorccd htcrzrchy. tnzy, mcrttocrzcy zs zn oQcrztton znd
sctcntthc cuturc zs zn tdcoogy crcztcd vcts thzt htndcrcd
QcrccQtton ot thc undcrytng oQcrzttons ot htstortcz czQttz-
tsm.hcgrczt cmQhzstson thcrzttonzttyotsctcntthczcttvtty

Wzs thc mzsk otthc trrzttonztty otcndcss zccumuztton.

Lntvcrsztsm znd rzctsm mzy sccm on thc surtzcc strzngc

bcdtcovs, tt not vtrtuzy znttthcttcz doctrtncs onc oQcn,

thc othcr coscd, onccguztztng, thc othcrQozrtztng, onctn-

vtttngrzttonzdtscoursc, thcothcrtnczrnzttngQrcudtcc. Yct,

stncc thcsc tvo doctrtncs hzvc sQrczd znd Qrcvztcd con-
comttznty vtth thc cvoutton ot htstortcz czQttztsm, vc
shoud ook morc coscy zt thcvzys tnvhtc

h thcy mzy hzvc

bccn comQzttbc.
hcrc vzs z cztch to untvcrsztsm. lt dtd not mzkc tts vzy
zs ztrcc-ozttngtdcoogybut zs oncQroQzgztcdby thoscvho
bcd cconomtc znd Qotttcz Qovcr tn thc vord-systcm ot

btstortcz czQttztsm. Lntvcrsztsmvzsottcrcdtothcvord zs

_ z gttt ot thc Qovcrtu to thc vczk. Timeo Danaos et dona
Jrentes! hc gttt ttscthzrbourcd rzctsm, tor tt gzvc thc rcct-
gtcnt tWochotccs: zcccQt thcgttt, thcrcbyzcknovcdgtngthzt
Onc vzs ov on thc htcrzrchy otzchtcvcd vtsdom, rctusc thc
,,

% gtt, thcrcby dcnyng oncsct vczQons thzt coud rcvcrsc thc

uncguz rcz Qovcr sttuztton.
lt ts not strzngc thzt cvcn thc czdrcs vho vcrc bctng co-
OQtcd tntoQrtvtcgcvcrcdccQyzmbtvzcnt zboutthcmcsszgc

Ot untvcrsztsm, vzctzttng bctvccn cnthustzsttc dtsctQcshtQ

znd zcuturzrcccttonbroughtonbyrcQugnzncctorrzctstzs-

sumQttons. hts zmbtvzcncc vzs cxQrcsscd tn thc muttQc

_
_
mOvcmcnts ot cuturz 'rcnztsszncc' . hc vcry vord rcnzts-
tzncc, vhtch vzs vtdcy uscd tn mzny zoncs ot thc vord,

ttscttncarnatcd thc ambtvacncc. by sQcaktng otrcbtrth, onc

atttrmcd an cra ot Qrtor cutura gory but onc aso acknov
cdgcd a cutura tntcrtortty as otthat momcnt. Jhc vord rc
btrth vas ttsct coQtcd trom thc sQccthc cutura htstory ot
LuroQc.
Lncmtghthavcthought that thcvord' s vork-torccsvcrc
morc tmmunc trom thts ambtvacncc, ncvcr havtng bccn tn
vttcd to suQ at thcord' s tabc. ln tact, hovcvcr, thcQotttca
cxQrcsstons ot thc vord' s vork-torccs, thc antt-systcmtc
movcmcnts, havc thcmscvcs bccn dccgy tmbucd vtth thc

amc ambtvacncc. Jhc anttsystcmtc movcmcnts, as vc havc

arcady rcmarkcd, cothcd thcmscvcs tn thc tdcoogy ot thc
Lntghtcnmcnt,ttscta QrtmcQroduct otuntvcrsatsttdcoogy.
Jhcy thcrcby ay tor thcmscvcs thc cutura traQ tn vhtch
thcyhavcrcmatncdcvcr stncc. sccktngtoundcrmtnc htstortca
caQttatsm, ustng stratcgtcs and

sctttng mcdtum-tcrm obcc-

ttvcs that dcrtvcd trom thc vcry ' tdcas ot thc rutng casscs'
thcy sought to dcstroy.
^ Jhc soctatst vartant otantt-systcmtc movcmcntsvas, trom
thcoutsct,commtttcd tosctcntthcQrogrcss . Narx, vtshtngto
dtsttngutsh htmsct trom othcrs hc dcnounccd as ' utoQtans ' ,
asscrtcd that hc vas advocattng ' sctcnttttc socatsm' . Mts
vrtttngs atd cmQhasts on thc vays tn vhtch caQttatsm vas
' Qrogrcsstvc' . Jhc conccQt that soctatsm voud comc hrst tn
thc most ' advanccd' countrtcs suggcstcd a Qroccss vhcrcby
soctatsmvoudgrovoutot[asvcastnrcacttonto}thctur
thcr advanccmcnt ot caQttatsm. Jhc soctatst rcvoutton
voud thus cmuatc and come afer thc 'bourgcots rcvoutton' .
bomcatcr thcortsts cvcn argucd that ttvasthcrctorcthc

duty
otsoctatsts to asststtn thcbourgcotsrcvouttontn thosccoun
trtcs tn vhtch tt had not yct occurrcd.
Jhc atcr dtttcrcnccs bctvccn thc bccond and Jhtrd lntcr
nattonas dtd not tnvovc a dtsagrccmcnt ovcr thts cQtstcmo-

Rationality and Rationalization

ogy, vhtch both sharcd. lndccd, both bocta-Lcmocrats and
LommuntststnQovcrhavc tcndcdtogtvcgrcat Qrorttyto thc
turthcr dcvcoQmcnt ot thc mcans ot Qroductton. Lcntn' s
sogan that ' Lommuntsmcguas soctatsmQusccctrtctty' stt
hangs today tn cnormous

banncrs on thc strccts ot Noscov.

lnsotar as thcsc movcmcnts, oncc tn Qovcr bocta-Lcmo-
crats and Lommuntsts atkc tmQcmcntcd btatn' s sogans ot
' soctatsm tn onc country' , thcy thcrcby ncccssarty turthcrcd
thcQroccssotthccommodthcattonotcvcrythtngthathasbccn
so csscntta to thc goba accumuatton ot caQtta. lnsotar as
thcy rcmatncd vtthtn thc tntcrstatc systcm tndccd struggcd
torcmatnvtthtnttagatnstaattcmQtstooust thcm thcyac-
ccQtcd and turthcrcd thc vord-vtdc rcatty otthc domtnancc
ot thc av ot vauc. ' boctatst man' ookcd susQtctousy tkc
ayortsm run vtd.
Jhcrc havc bccn otcoursc ' soctatst' tdcoogtcs vhtch havc
QurQortcd to rccct thc untvcrsatsm ot thc Lntghtcnmcnt,
and havc advocatcd vartous ' tndtgcnous' vartcttcs otsocatsm
torQcrtQhcra zoncs otthcvord-cconomy. Jo thccxtcntthat
thcsctormuattonsvcrcmorcthanmcrcrhctortc, thcysccmcd
to bc dc tacto attcmQts to usc as a basc untt otthc Qroccss ot
commodthcatton not thc ncv houschods that sharc tncomc
but argcr communa cnttttcs that vcrc, tt vas argucd, morc
'tradtttona' . by and argc, thcsc attcmQts, vhcn scrtous,
turncd out to bc truttcss. ln any casc, thc matnstrcam ot
vord soctatst movcmcntstcndcd to dcnouncc thcsc attcmQts
as non-soctatst , as torms ota rctrogradc cutura nattonatsm.
At hrst vtcv, thc nattonatst vartctyotantt-systcmtc movc-
mcnts, by thcvcryccntratty otthctr scQarattst thcmcs, sccm-
cd css bchodcn to thc tdcoogy ot untvcrsatsm. A coscr

ook, hovcvcr, bctcs thts tmQrcsston. Lcrtatny, nattonatsm

tncvttaby had a cutura comQoncnt, tn vhtch Qarttcuar
movcmcnts argucd tor thc rctntorccmcnt ot nattona ' tradt-

ttons' , anattonaanguagc, ottcn arctgtoushcrttagc. butvas

cutura nattonatsm cutura rcststancc to thc Qrcssurcs otthc
accumuators ot caQtta : ln tact, tvo maor ccmcnts ot
cutura nattonatsm movcd tn oQQosttc dtrccttons. trst, thc
untt choscn as thc vchtcc to contatn thc cuturc tcndcd to bc
thc statc that vas a mcmbcr otthc tntcrstatc systcm. lt vas
most ottcn thts statc that vas tnvcstcd vtth a ' nattona'
cuturc. ln vtrtuay cvcry casc, thts tnvovcd a dtstortton ot
cutura conttnutttcs, trcgucnty vcry scvcrc. ln amost a
cascs, thc asscrtton ot a statc-cncascd nattona cuturc tncvtt-
aby tnvovcd as much suQQrcsston ot conttnutttcs as rcasscr-
ttonotthcm. lnacascs,ttrcntorccd thc statcstructurcs,and
thus thctntcrstatc systcm, andhtstortcacaQttatsmasavord-
systcm.
bccondy, a comQarattvc ook at thc cutura rcasscrttons
among a thcsc statcs makcs ccar that vhtc thcy vartcd tn
torm, thcy tcndcd to bctdcnttca tn contcnt. Jhc morQhcmcs
otthc anguagcs dtttcrcdbut thcvocabuarytstbcgan tocon-
vcrgc. Jhc rttuas and thcoogtcs ot thc vord' s rctgtons
mtght a havc bccn rctnvtgoratcd but thcy bcgan to bc css
dtttcrcnt tn actua contcnt than Qrcvtousy. And thc
antcccdcntsotsctcntthcttyvcrc rcdtscovcrcd undcr manydttt-
crcntnamcs. ln short, muchotcuturanattonatsmhasbccna
gtganttc charadc. Norc than that, cutura nattonatsm tkc
' soctatst cuturc' has ottcn bccn a maor stavart ot thc unt-
vcrsatst tdcoogy ot thc modcrn

vord, Qurvcytng tt to thc

vord' s vork-torccs tn vays thcy tound morc Qaatabc. ln
thts scnsc, thc antt-systcmtc movcmcnts havc ottcn scrvcd as
thc cutura tntcrmcdtartcs ot thc Qovcrtu to thc vcak,
vtttattng rathcr than crystatztng thctr dccQ-rootcd sourccs ot
rcststancc.
Rationality and Rationalization
The contradictions inherent in the state-seizure strategy ol
anti-systemicmovementscombinedwiththeirtacitacceptance
olthe universaist epistemoogy has had seriousconsequences
lorthesemovements. Theyhavehadtodeaincreasingywith
the phenomenon ol disiusionment, to which their major

ideoogica response has been th realhrmation olthe centra

justihcation ol historica capitaism. the automatic and in-
evitabIe quaity olprogress, or as it is now popuar to say in
the U55K the ' scientihc-technoogica revoution' .
Beginning in the twentieth century, and with increasing
vehemence since the !96O' s, the theme ol the 'civiizationa
project' , as AnouarAbdeI-Maekikes to cait,hasbegunto
gain strength. Whie lor many the new anguage ol 'en-
dogenousaternatives' has servedasmereyaverbavariantol
oIduniversaizingcuIturanationaistthemes, lor othersthere
is genuiney new epistemoogica content in the theme. The
'dviizationa project' has reopened the question olwhether

transhistorica truths reay exist . A lorm ol truth, which

reected the power reaities and economic imperatives ol

historicacapitaism, hasourished and perm

eated the gobe.

That is true, aswehaveseen. But howmuch ight does this
lormoltruthshedupontheprocessoldecineolthishistorica
system, or on the existence ol rea historica aternatives to

historicasystembasedontheendessaccumuationolcapita
Therein ies the question.
This newer lorm ol lundamenta cutura resistance has a
materia base. The successive mobizations ol the word' s
mti-systemicmovementshaveincreasingyovertimerecruited
eIements, economicay and poiticay more margina to the
mnctioning olthesystem andessikey toproht, eveneven-
tuaIIy, hom the accumuated surpus. At the same time, the
J
successivedemythoogizationsolthesemovements themseves
have undermined the reproduction ol universaist ideoogy
withinthem, and themovementshavethusbegun tobeopen
tomoreandmoreoltheseeementswhohavequestionedever
more ol their premisses. Compared with the prohe ol the
membership ol the word

' s anti-systemic movements lrom

Idbto IVb, theirprohelrom IVbonwardscontainedmore
lrom periphera zones, more women, more lrom 'minority'
groups (however dehned), and more

ol the work-lorce
towards the unskied, owest-paidend olthescae. Thiswas
true both in the word as a whoe and within a the states,
bothin the membership andin the eadership. Such ashilt in
sociabasecoudnotbutaterthecutura-ideoogicaprediec-
tions olthe word' santi-systemic movements.
Wehavetriedthuslartodescribehowcapitaismhasinlact
operatedasahistoricalsystem. Historicasystemshoweverare
justthat historica . Theycomeintoexistenceandeventuay
go out olexistence, the consequence olinterna processes in
whichtheexacerbationoltheinternacontradictionseadtoa
structuracrisis. Structuracrisesaremassive, notmomentary.
They take time to pay themseves out. Historica capitaism

enteredintoitsstructuracrisisin theeary twentiethcentury
and wi probaby see its demise as a historica system
sometimein thenextcentury. Whatwiloowishazardous
topredict . What wecandonowisanayze thedimensionsol
the structuracrisisitseland try topreceive thedirections in
which the systemic crisis istaking us.
:
Thehrstandprobabymostlundamentaaspectolthiscrisis
is that we are now cose to th commodihcation ol every-
thing. That is, historica capitaism is in crisis precisey
because, inpursuing the endess accumuationolcapital, itis
beginningtoapproximatethatstateolbeingAdam Smith as-

Rationality and Rationalization 1

serted was 'natura' to man but which

has never historicay

exsted. The ' propensity [olhumanity] to truck, barter, and

`
exchangeonethingloranother' hasenteredintodomainsand
zonespreviousyuntouched, andthepressuretoexpandcom-
modihcation is reativey unchecked. Marx spoke ol the
marketasbeinga 'vei' thathidthe sociareationsolproduc-__
tion. Thiswasonytrueinthe sensethat,incomparisonwith
direct oca appropriation ol surpus, indirect market (and
therelore extra-oca) appropriation olsurpus was harder to
discem and thus more dilhcut to combat poiticay lor the
word' s work-lorce. The ' market' however operated in the
quantitativetermsolagenerameasure,money,andthiscari-
hed rather than mystihed how much was actuay being ap-
propriated. Whattheaccumuatorsolcapitahavecountedon
asapoiticaIsalety-netisthatonypart oltheabourhasbeen
someasured .

Insolarasmoreandmoreabouriscommodihed,
and househoding becomes more and

more a nexus olcom-

moityreations, thehowolsurpusbecomesmoreandmore
visibe, The poitica counterpressures thereby become more
and more mobiized, and the struture olthe economymore
and more a direct target ol the mobiization. The ac-
cumuators ol capita, lar lrom seeking to speed up pro-
etarianizatIon,trytoretardit.uttheycannotdosoentirey,
because ol the contradictions ol their own interests, being
both individua entrepreneur and members ola cass.
This is a steady ceaseess process, impossibe to contain as
Iong as the economy driven by the endess accumulation ol
capita. The system may proong its ile by sowing down
some ol the activities which are wearing it out, but death
aways ooms somewhere on the horizon.
One olt heways inwhichtheaccumuators olcapita have
proonged the system is the poitica constraints they have

Z
buit into it, which have lorced anti-systemic movements
aongthepathsolthecreationollormaorganizationsusinga
strategy ol seizurc ol state power. They had no rea choice,
but the strategy was a sel-imiting one.
However, as we have seen, the contradictions ol this
strategy have themseves bred a crisis at the poitica eve.
Thisisnotacrisisoltheinterstatesystem,whichisstimnc-
tioningveryweinitsprimarymissiontomaintainhierarchy
and contain opposition movements. The poitica crisis is the'
crisis olthe anti-systemic movements themseves. Asthe dis-
tinctionbetweensociaistandnationaistmovements
beginsto
bur, andas more andmore olthesemovementsachieve state
power [with aitsimitanons) , thewordwidecoectivityol
movements has lorced uponita reassessment olaitspieties
derivinghom theoriginaanaysesolthenineteenth century.
Asthesuccessolaccumuatorsinaccumuatinghascreatedtoo
muhcommodihcationwhichthreatensthesystemassuch,so
the success olthe anti-systemic movements in seizing power

has created too much reinlorcement ol the system which

threatens to break through the acceptance by the word' s
work-lorces ol this sel-imiting strateg.
Finay, thecrisisiscutura. Thecrisis oltheanti-systemic
movements, tbe questioning olbasic strateg, iseading to a
questioning olthe premisses oluniversaist ideoog. Thisis
going on in twoarenas. themovementswhere thesearchlor
' civiizationa' aternatives is lor the hrst time being taken
seriousy, andinteectuaile,wherethewhoeinteectuaap-
paratuswhichcameintobeinghomthelourteenthcenturyon
isbingsowypacedindoubt.Inpart,onceagain,thisdoubt
is theproductolitssuccess. Inthephysicasciences,theinter-
na processes ol enquiry generated by modem scientihc
methodseem tobeading to thequestioningoltheemsting
4
Rationality and Rationalization J
ol the universa aws which were its premiss. Today there is
taIk ol inserting ' temporaity' into science. In the soia
sciences, a poor reation at one eve, but the queen (that is,
the cumination) ol the sciences at another eve, the whoe
deveopmentaistparadigmistodaybeingepicityquestioned
at its heart.
The re-opening ol inteectua issues is on the one hand
therelore the produt ol interna success and interna con-
tradictions. But it is aso the product ol the pressures olthe
movements,themsevesincrisis,tobeabetocopwith,hght
moreehectiveyagainst,thestructuresolhistoricacapitaism,
whose crisis is the starting-point ola other activity.
The crisis olhistoricaI capitaism is olten spoken olas the
transition hom capitaism to soiaism. I agree with the lor-
mua, but itdoes not saymuch. Wedo not knowyethow a
soiaist word ordr, one that radicay narrows the gap ol

materia we-being and disparity ol rea power bctween a

prsons, woudoprate. Existing states or movementswhich
caII themseves sociaist oher itte guide to the mture. They
arephenomenaolthepresent, thatisolthehistoricaIcapitaist
word-system, andmustbeevauatedwithinthathamework.
Theymaybeagentsolthedemise olcapitaism,thoughhard-
y unilormy so, as we have indicated. But the mture word
order wi construt itselsowy, in ways we can barey im-
agine, nevcr mind predict. It istherelore somewhat a eap ol
bith tobeievethatitwibegood, orevenbetter. Butwhat '
we have we know has not been good, and as historica
1 '
capitaIism has proeeded on its historica path,it has in my
vicw by its very success got worse, not better.
9.
Conclusion:
On Progress and
Transitions
t tbcrc t Onc dcz whch t zttOcztcd wth thc mOdcm wOrd,

t ndccd tt ccntrcgccc, t t thzt Ot grOgrctt. hzt t nOt tO
tzy thzt cVcryOnc hzt bccVcd n grOgrctt. n thc grczt gubc
dcOOgcz dcbztc bctwccn cOntcrVztVct znd bcrzlt, whch
gzrty grcccdcd, but mOrc ctgcczly tOOwcd, thc trcnch

BcVOlutOn, thc cttcncc Ot thc cOntcrVztVc gOttOn zy n

dOubt thzt thc chzngct thzt burOgc znd thc wOrd wcrc undcr-
gOng cOud bc cOntdcrcd grOgrctt, Or ndccd thzt grOgrctt
wzt z rccVznt znd mcznngh cOnccgt. NcVcrthcctt, zt wc
knOw, t wzt thc brzt whO hcrzdcd thc zgc znd nczrnztcd
whzt wOuld bccOmc n thc nnctccnth ccntury thc dOmnznt
dcOOgy Ot thc lOngcxttng czgtztt wOrdccOnOmy.

t t nOt turgrtng thzt bcrzt bccVcd n grOgrctt. hc
z Ot grOgrctt ]utthcd thc cntrc trznttOn bOm tcudzltm
tO czgtztm. t cgtmztcd thc brczkng Ot thc rcmznng Og-

gstOn tO thc cOmmOdbcztOn Ot cVcrythng, znd t tcndcd

+
tO wQ zwzy z thc ncgztVct Ot czgtzltm On thc grOundt
tmt thc bcncbtt Outwcghcd, by br, thc hzrm. lt t nOt zt z
surgrtng, thcrctOrc, thzt bcrzlt bccVcd n grOgrctt.
hzt t turgrtng t thzt thcr dcOOgcz OggOncntt, thc
N8rxttt thc zntbcrzt, thc rcgtctcntztVct Ot thc Oggrctt-
cd wOrkng clzttct bcVcd n grOgrctt wth zt cztt zt much

gzttOn zt thc lbcrzt. NO dOubt, tht bclct tctVcd zn mgOr-
tznt dcOlOgcz gurgOtc tOr thcm n turn. lt ]uttbcd thc zct-
Vtct Ot thc wOrd tOczltt mOVcmcnt On thc grOundt thzt t

incarnatedtheinevitabetrendohistoricadeveopment. Fur-
thermore, it seemedvery cever topropoundthisideoogy, in
thatitpurported tousetheveqideasobourgeoisiberasto
conound them.
There were unortunatey two minor shortcomings with
theseemingyastuteandcertainyenthusiasticembrace othis
secuar aith in progress. Whie the idea o_ro_ress_usphed
siaism, i _ustica_itaism too. One coud hardy sing
hosannastotheproetariatwithoutoheringpriorpraisetothe
bourgeoisie. Marx's amous writings on India oered ampe
evidence o this, but so indeed did the Communist Manisto.
Furthermore, the measure oprogress being materiaist (and
coudMarxistsnotassent tothis) , theideaoprogresscoud
be turned, andhas been turned in thepast htyyears, against
athe'experimentsinsociaism' . Whohasnotheardthecon
demnationsotheU55R on thegroundsthatitsstandardoiv
ing is beow that o the UAr Furthermore, despite
Krusbchev's boasts, there is

itte reason to beieve that this

disparity wi cease to exist htyyears) romnow.
The Marxist embrace oanevoutionarymodeoprogress
has been an enormous trap, which sociaIists have begun to
suspect ony recenty, as one eement in the ideoogicacrisis
+

thathasbeenparoheoverastructuracrisisothecapita-
ist word-economy.
issimpynottruethatcapitaismasahistoricasystemhas
represented progress over the various previous historica
systemsthatitdestroyedortransormed. EvenasIwritethis,
( I ee thetremour that accompanies the sense obasphemy. I
ear thewrath o the gods, or I have been mouded in the
sameideoogica orgeasamycompeersandhaveworshipp
ed at the same shrines.
Oeotheprobems inanayzingprogressistheone-sided-
nessoameasuresproposed. Itissaidthatscientihcandtech-

On Press and Transitions

noogicaprogress isunquestionabeandbreathtaking, which
issureytrue,especiayinsolarasmosttechnicaknowedgeis
cmuative. Butwenever seriousydiscuss howmuchknow-
edgewehaveostintheword-widesweepoltheideoogyol
universaism. Orilwedo,wecategorizesuchostknowcdge
asmere ()wisdom.Yet,atthesimpetechnicaevesolagri-
cuturaproductivity and bioogicawhoeness, we havebeen
discovering olate that methods olhuman actiondiscarded a
century or two ago (a process enlorced by enightened eites
uponbackwardmasses) olten need tobrevivedbecause they
turn out tobe more, not ess, emcacious. Moreimportanty,
we are discovering at the very ' hontiers' oladvanced science
thetentativereinsertionolprcmissestriumphantydiscardeda
century, or hve centuries, ago.

lt is said tha historica capitaism has translormed the

mechanica outreach ol humanity. Each input ol human
energhasbeenrewardedwithsteadiygreateroutputsolpro-

duts,whichissureytrueaswe. Butwedo notcacuateto

what degree this has meant that humanity hasreducedorin-
creasedt he tota inputs olenergy that individuas separatey,
orapeope

withinthecapitaistword-economycoectivey,
have beencaed upon toinvest,whetherpr unit oltime or
priletime. Canwebe so surethatthewordisessburden- v
some under historica capitaism than under prior systems
hereisampereasontodoubtthis,asisattestedbytheincor-
poration

within our very supregos ol the compusio o

work.

1tissaidthatundernoprevioushistoricasystemdidpeope
IiveascomlortabeamateriaIileorhavesucharangeolater-
native ile-experiences at their disposa as in this present
system. Once again, this assertion rings true, is reveaed by
thosecomparisonwereguarymakewiththeivesolourim-
mediate ancestors. Sti, doubts in this domain have grown

1M
ttczdly tbtOugbOut tbc twcatctb ccatuty, zt Out aOw bc-
gat tcktcDcct tO ' guzlty O lc zad mOuatag cOaccta
wtb zaOmc, zlcaztOu, zadgtycbc mzlzdct adcztc. tazlly
t t tzd tbzt bttOtczl czgtzltm bzt btOugbt z mzttVc a-
ctcztc a tbc mztga Obumza tzcty zgzatt butt zad dcztb
bOm cadcmc dzagctt [tbc Out bOttcmca Otbc gOzlygtc]
zad zgzatt cttztcVOlcacc. Lacc zgza tbttacOatcttzblczt
zmctOlcVcl [dctgtc tbctcccatlytcdtcOVctcddza@tt Outb
zalc]. ut bzt tbt tczllybcca truc zt zmzctO lcVcl, cVca ug
tO aOw, zad cVcaOmttag tbc LzmOlczn twOtd O auclcM
wzt
w
` t t, lct mc tzy, zt tbc Vcty lcztt by aO mczat tcl-cVdcat
tbzt tbctctmOtclbctty, cguzlty, zad bztcmtya tbc wOtld
tOdzy tbza tbctc wzt Oac tbOutzad ycztt zgO. Lac mgbt
ztguzbly tuggctt tbzt tbc OggOttc t ttuc. tcck tO gzat aO
dyll O tbc wOtldt bcOtc bttOtczl czgtzltm. bcy wctc
wOtldt Olttlclbctty, lttlccguzlty, zadlttlcbztcmty.`bc
OalygucttOa t wbctbct bttOtczl czgtzltm tcgctcatcd gtO-
gtctt a tbctc tcgztdt, Ot tcgtcttO,
dO aOt tQzk Oz mcztutc OcOmgztztVc ctucltct. bt
wOuldbcbztd tOdcVtc,lugubrOut zltO, zltbOugbtbctctlt
tctcztOatObc tzaguac zbOut tbc tccOtd ObttOtczlczgtzl-
tm a tbt ztcaz. bc wOtld Otbc twcatctbccatwyczalz
clzm tO bzVccxbbtcd tOmc uautuzl tzlcatt Otcbacmcat a
tbctc zaccat zttt. MOt dO tQzk Otbc mOuatag zDd ttuly
actcdblc tOal wzttc tbzt t bca tbc tctult O tbc cOm-
QttVctzcc Ot tbc cadlctt zccumulztOa Oczgtzl, z lcVcl O
wtc tbzt mzy bcga tO bOtt O tbc m cgztzblc.
tztbctwtb tOtctt mycztcOamztctzlcOatdctztOat, aOt
tbOtc O tbc tOczl mtutc but tbOtc

O tbc zctml bttOrczl

gctOd Otbcczgtzltt wOtld-ccOaOmy. bcztgumcat t m-
glc zudzcOut. 1 wtb tOdccad tbc OacNtxtt grOgOttOa
V .
On Pogress and Transitions 1J1
which even orthodox Marxists tend to bury in shame, the
thesis olthe absoute (not reative) immiseration olthe pro-
etariat.
I hear the hiendy whispers. Surey you can' t be serious,
surey you mean reative immiseration Is not the industria
worker strikingy better oll today than in !BOO The in-
dustriaworker, yes,orateastmanyindustriaworkers. But
industriaworkers sticomprisea reativey sma part olthe
*
word' s popuation. The overwheming proportion ol the

}
word' swork-lorces,whoiveinrurazonesormovebetween
them andurbansums, areworseohthan theirancestorshve
hundredyearsago.Theyeatesswe,andcertainyhaveaess
baanced diet. Athough they are more ikey to survive the
hrst year olile(because olthe ellect olsoiahygiene under-
takentoprotecttheprivieged), Idoubt thattheileprospects
ol the majority ol the word' s popuation as of age one are
greater than previousy, I suspct the opposite is true. They
unquestionaby work harder more hours per day, per year,
pr iletime. And since they do this lor ess totareward, the
rate olexpoitation has escaated very sharpy.
Aretheypoiticayandsociaymoreoppressedormoreex-
poited economicay This is harder to anayze. As |ack
Goody once said, soia science possesses no euphorimeters.
The sma communities within which most peope ed their
ives in prior historica systems invoveda lorm olsoiacon-
tro which certainy constrained human choice and socia
variabiity. Itnodoubtappearedtomanyasaphenomenonol
active oppression. Theothers, whoweremore satished, paid
lor their content with a narrow vision olhuman possibiity.
Theconstructionolhistoricacapitaismhasinvoved,aswe
aknow, thesteadydiminution,eventhetotaeimination, ol
the roe olthese sma community structures. But what has
,~
1JZ
taken their pace In many areas, and lor ong periods, the
prior roe olthe community structures has

been assumed by
' pantations ' , that is, by the oppressive contro olarge-scae
poitico-economic structures controed by ' entrepreneurs' .
The 'pantations' olthe capitaist word-economy whether
based on savery, imprisonment, share-cropping (lorced or
contractua), or

wage-abour can scarcey be said to have

provided morc eeway lor ' individuaity' . The ' pantations'
canbeconsideredanexceptionayellectivemodeolextracting
smpus-vaue. Nodoubttheyexstedbeloreinhumanhistory,
butneverbeloreweretheyusedasextensiveylor agricutura
production as distinct hom mining and the construction ol
arge-scaeinhastructure,botholwhich, however,havetend-
ed to invove many lewer peope in goba terms.
Evenwhereonelormoranotheroldirectauthoritariancon-
troolagricuturaactivity(whatwehavejustabeed' panta-
tions ' ) was not substituted lor the prior axer community
structures ol contro, the disintegration ol the community
structuresinrurazoneswasnotexperiencedasa 'bberation' ,
sinceitwasinevitabyaccompanied, indeedhequentydirecty
caused,byaconstantygrowingcontrobytheemergentstate
strutureswhichincreasingyhavebeenunwiingtoeavethe
directproducertohisautonomous,ocadecision-makingpro
cesses. Thethrusthasabeeninthedirectionollorcinganin-
_ crease in abour-input and in the speciaization olthis abour
activity (which, hom the point ol view ol the worker,

weakened his negotiating position and increased his ennui) .

~ ~ Nor was this a. {istorica capitism deveIopd an ideo-
.
ogicahameworkoloppressive humiiationwhichhadnever

previusy exsted, ad vhich today we caed sexsm and

\..
racism. !et mebe cea. oth the dominat position olmen
+ "
On Progress and Transitions 1JJ
over women and generaized xenophobia were widespread,
virtuay universa, in prior historica systems, as we have
already noted. ut sexsmwas morethanthedominant posi-
tion olmen over women, and racism more than generaized
xenophobia.
Sexism was the reegation olwomen to the ream olnon-
productive abour, douby humiiating in that the actua
abour required ol them was ilanything intensihed, and in
that productive labour became in the capitalist word-
economy, lor the hrst timein human history, thebasis olthe

legitimationolpriviege. This setupadoubebindwhichhas

been intractabe within the system.

\
Racismwasnothatredoroppressionolastranger,olsome-
one outside the historica system. Quite the contrary, racism
was the stratihcation ol the work-lorce inside the historica
system,whoseobjectwas tokeeptheoppressedgroups inside
the system,notexpethem. Itcreated thejustihcationolow
rewardlor productiveabour,despiteitsprimacyinthedehni-
tionolthe right toreward. Itdidthisby dehningworkwith
the owest remuneration as remuneration lor the owest-
quaitywork. Sincethiswasdoneex deinitio, nochangeinthe
quaity olworkcouldeverdo more thanchange the lorm ol
the accusation, yet the ideoogy proclaimed the oher ola re-
ward olindividua mobiity lor individuaellort. This doube
bind was equay intractable.
_ oth sexsm and racism were social processes in which
' 'bioogy' dehned position. Since bioogy was in any im-
mediate sense unchangeabe soiay, we had seemingy a
structure that was sociay-created but was not amenabe to
soia dismanting. Thiswas olcourse not realyso. What is
true isthatthestructuringolsexsmandracismcoudnotand
cannotbedismantedwithoutdismantingtheentirehistorica
systemwhichcreatedthemandwhichhasbeenmaintainedin
critica ways by their operation.
Hence, in both materia and psychic terms (sexism and
racism), there was absoute immiseration. This meant ol
coursethattherehasbeenagrowing' gap'intheconsumption
olthe surpusbetweentheuppertentohlteenpercentolthe
popuationinthecapitaist word-economyandtherest. Our
impression thatthiswas not sohasbeen basedon threelacts.
First, the ideoogy ol meritoracy has truy mnctioned to
make possibe considerabe individua mobiity, even the
mobiity olspcihc ethnic and/or occupationa groups in the
work-lorce. This occurred however without translorming
mndamentay the overa statistics

ol the word-economy,
since individua (or subgroup) mobiity was counteredby an
increase in the size ol the ower stratm, either by incor-
porating

new popuations into theword-economyorbydil-

lerentia demogaphic rates olgowth.
The second reason why we haven' t obse~ed the growing
_ gap is that our historicaand soia science anayses have con-
centrated on what has been happening within the ' midde
casses' thatis, tothat tentohheen prcent olthe popua-
tionoltheword-economywhoconsumedmoresurpusthan
they themseves produced. Within this sector there reay has
bena reativey dramatic attening olthecurvebetweenthe
very top (ess than one per cent ol the totapopuation) and
the truy ' midde' segents, or cadres (the rest olthe ten to
hlteen per cent ) . A good deaolthe ' progressive' poitics ol
the past severa hundred years ol historica capitaism has
resuted in the steady diminution olthe unequa distribution
ol word surpus-vaue among that sma group who have
shared in it. The shouts ol triumph ol this ' midde' sector
On Pogress and Transitions 1JJ
over the reduction oltheir gap with the upper one per cent
have masked the reaitie olthe growing gap between them
and the other eighty-hve percent .
Finay, thereisathirdreasonwhy thephenomenonolthe
growinggaphasnotbeencentratoourcoectivediscussions .
Itis possibe that, within thepast tentotwentyyears, under
the pressure ol the coIective strength ol the word' s anti-
systemic movements, and the approach to the economic
asymptotes,theremayhavebeenasowingdownolabsoute,
though not ol reative, poarization. Even this shoud b
assertedwith cautIon, andpacedwithin thecontext olahve
hundred years historica deveopment ol increased absoute
parization.
Itiscruciatodiscussthereaitiesthathaveaccompaniedthe
ideoogyolprogressbecause,unesswedothat,wecannotin-
teIignty approach the anaysis ol transitions hom one
historica system to another. Thetheoryolevoutionarypro-
gressinvovednotmereytheassumptionthat theatersystem
wasbetter thanthe earierbut aso theassumption that some
new dominant group repaced a prior dominant group.
Hence, not ony was capitaism progress over leudaism but
this progess was essentiay achieved by the triumph the
revoutionary triumph, olthe 'bourgeoisie' over the ' anded
aristoracy' (or ' leuda eements' ). But ilcapitaism was not
progressive, what is the meaning olthe concept olthebour-
geois revoution Was thereasingebourgoisrevoution, or
did it appar in mutipeguises
Wehaveareadyarguedthattheimageolhistoricacapita-
ismhavingarisenviatheoverthrowolabackwardaristocracy
`
by a progressive bourgeoisie is wrong. Instead, the correct
^

basic image is that historica capitaism wasbrought into ex-

istencebyaandedaristocracywhichtranslormeditselintoa
1J
c
bourgeoisiebecausetheodsystemwasdisintegrating. Rather
than et the disintegration continue to uncertain ends, they
engaged in radica structura surgery themseves in order to
maintain and signiicantly expand their abiity to epoit the
direct producers.
Ilthis new image is correct however, it radicay amends
our perception ol the present transition hom capitaism to
soiaism, hom acapitaist word-economyto a

sociaword-
ordr. Op to now, the

' proetarian revoution' has been

modeed, moreoress,on the 'bourgeoisrevoution' . Asthe
bourgeoisie overthrew the aristocracy, so the proetariat
woud overthrow the bourgeoisie. This anaogy has been the
mndamenta buiding-bock ol the strategic action ol the
word sociaist movement.
Iltherewas nobourgeoisrevoution, dos thatmeanthere
hasbeenorwibenoproetananrevoution Notata,ogi-
cayorempiricay. Butitdosmeanwehavetoapproachthe
subjectoltransitionsdiherenty. Weneedhrst todistinguish
between change through disintegration and controed
changc, what Samir Amin has caed the distinction between
' dcadence' and' revoution' , betweenthekindol' dcadence'
which he asserts occurred with the la ol Rome (and is, he
says, occurring now) and that more controedchange which
occurred when going hom leudaism to capitaism.

v
But this is not a. For the controedchanges (Amin' s're-
voutions')neednotbe 'progressive' , aswehavejustargued.
Therelore,wemustdistinguishbetweenthekindolstructma
translormation that woud eave in pace (even increase) the
reaities olthe expoitationolabour, and

onethatwoudun-
do this kind ol epoitation or at east radicay reduce it.
What thismeans is that the poiticaissuolour times is not
whethertherewibeatransitionhomhistoricacapitaismto
+
.
-A
. -

On Press and Transitions 1J

something else. That is as certain as we can be about such
things. The poitica issue olour times iswhether this some-
thingelse, the outcomeolthetransition, wilbemoraymn-
damentay dillerent hom what we have now, wi be pro-
gress.

Pogressisnotinevitabe. Wearestrugginglorit.Andthe
lorm the strugge is taking is not that ol sociaism versus
capitaism, but that ol a transition to a reativey cassess'
soiety versus a transition to some new cass-based mode ol
production (dillerent hom historica capitaism but not
necessariy better) .
Thechoice lor thewordbourgeoisieis notbetweenmain-
taining historica capitaism and suicide. It is between on the
one hand a 'conservative' stance, which woud resut in the
#
continueddisintegration olthe systemand itsresultant trans-
lormation into an uncertain but probably more egaitarian
world order, and, on the other hand, abod attempt to seize
controolthe process oltransition, inwhich thebourgeoisie
itsel woud assume ' sociaist' cothing, and seek to create
therebyanalternativehistoricasystemwhichwoudleavein-
tacttheprocess olexpoitationoltheworld' s work-lorce, to
the beneht ola minority.
Itis in the ight olthese realpoitica aternatives open to
the word bourgeoisie that we shoud assess the history ol
both the word socialist movement and those states where
soiaist parties have come topower in one lorm or another.
The hrst and most important thing to remember in any
ch assessment is that theword sociaist movement, indeed
a lorms ol anti-systemic movements, as we as a revolu-
tionary and/or sociaist states, have themseves been integra
productsolhistoricacapitaism.Theywerenotstructuresex-
terna to the historica system but the excretion olprocesses

1 J
internatoit. Hencetheyhavereectedathecontradictions
andconstraints olthe system. Theycoudnot andcannot do
otherwise.
Theirlauts, theirimitations, theirnegativeellectsarepart
ol the baance-sheet ol historica capitaism, not ol a hypo-
thetica historicasystem, ola soiaistword-ordr, thatdos
not yet exst. The intensity ol the expoitation ol abour in
revoutionary and/or sociaist states, the denia ol poitica
heedoms, the persistence olsexism and racism ahave to do
mrmorewiththe lact that thesestatescontinuetob ocated
inperipheraandsemi-peripherazonesolthecapitaistword-
economy than with the proprties pcuiar to a new soia
system.Thelewcrumbsthathaveexistedinhistoricacapita-
ism lor theworkingcasses have aways beenconcentratedin
coreareas. This is sti disproportionatey true.

The assessment olboth the anti-systemic movements and

the regimes which they have had a hand in creanng cannot
therelore b evauated in terms ol the ' good soieties' they
haveorhavenot created. Theycanonybesensibyevauated
byaskinghowmuchtheyhavecontributedtotheword-wide
strugge to ensure that the transition hom capitaism is to-
wards anegaitarian soiaist word-order. Here the account-
ingis necessariymoreambiguous,becauseoltheworkingsol
thecontradictoryproesses themseves.Apositivethrustsin-
vove negativeasweaspositiveconsequences. Eachweaken-
ingolthesysteminonewaystrengthensitinothers.Butnot
necessariy to equa degrees| The whoe question is therc.
Thereis nodoubt thatthegreatestcontributionoltheanti-
systemic movementshas occurredin theirmobiizing phases.
Organizing rebeion, translorming consciousness, they hve
been iberating lorces, and the contributions ol individua
w

+"
w
.

+ .
. #

4-
4
1:
.I
+
4 `
`
. +
!
.
On Pogress and Transitions 1J
movements here have become greater over time, through a
leedback mechanism olhistorica earning.
Oncesuchmovementshaveassumedpoiticapowerinstate
structures, they have done esswe, because thepressures on
them to mutetheiranti-systemic thrusts, hombothwithout
and within the movements, have increased geometricay.
Nevertheess, this has not meant a totay negative baance-
sheet lor such 'relormism' and' revisionism' . Themovements
in power have been to some extent the poitica prisoners ol
their ideoogy and hence subject to organized pressure hom
the direct producers within the revoutionary state and hom
the anti-systemic movements outside it.
The rea danger occurs precisey now, as historicacapita-
ism approaches its most compete unloding tb

]x-
teion Ot he

commodibtmp(<tng, the growing
stregth olthewordlamiyolanti-systemicmovements, the
continuedrationaizingolhumanthought. Itisthiscompete
unlodingthatwihastenthecoapseolthehistoricasystem,
whichhasthrivedbecauseitsogichashithertobeenonypar-
tiayreaized.Andpreciseywhieandbecauseitiscoapsing,
thebandwagonolthelorcesoltransitionwiseemevermore
attractive, and therere the outcomewibe ever esscertain.
Thestruggelor iberty,equaity, andhaternityisprotracted,
comrades, an theocus olthe struggewiIbeevermorein-
side the wordwide lamiy olanti-systemic lorces themseves.
CommunismisOtopia, thatis nowhere. Itis theavatarol
aourreigiouseschatoogies. thecomingoltheMessiah, the
second coming olChrist, nirvana. It is not a historica pro-
spct, but a current mythoog. Sociaism, by contrast, is a
reaizabehistoricasystemwhichmayonedaybeinstitutedin
theword. There is nointerest in a ' soiaism' that caimsto

.
|
:
11J
bea' temporary' momentotransitiontowardsOtopia.There
is interest ony in a concretey historica sociaism, one that
meets the minimum dehning characteristics o a historica
system that maximizesequaityandequity, one that increases
humanity' s contro over its own ie (democracy) , and
ibrates the imagination.

, '
W