14.

THE DESIGN AND WORKING STRESSES

Design stress. All criteria of strength are modified in some way in order to obtain a design criterion. In its simplest form, the design criterion is a design stress, which may also be called a safe stress, or allowable stress. The stress used in design must be a safe stress if failure is not to occur, and such a stress is said to be allowable. The design stress is the stress value which is used in the mathematical determination of the required size of the machine member. It may be considered to be the stress that the designer hopes will not be exceeded under operating conditions. When the properties of the material are definitely known and when the stress can be accurately determined, this stress may be as high as 80 per cent of the yield stress, but 50 per cent is the usual value for nonshock and nonfatique conditions. General discussion. The selection of the design stress to be used in computing the size of a machine is one of the most important problems to be met by the designer. At the same time, it is one of the most vague and difficult problems. The experienced designers arrives at the design stress by an analysis of the service conditions that must be met, by an evaluation of the strength of the material under service conditions, and by deciding on the margin of safety that he desires between service conditions and actual failure. Service conditions include such factors as the magnitude of the loads applied; the method of load application, whether steady variable, or subject to impact; the type of stress: tension, compression, shear, or combined; and the temperature at which the member is to operate. Other factors such as appearance, the use of standard parts, ease of assembly, ease of repair, and the wearing qualities must also be considered; and in many cases these may be given only minor consideration. Tensile and fatigue tests are the ones from which failure can be most readily predicted. Other tests provide information that can be used to supplement these. Failure may mean actual rupture, a sudden increase in the strain without an increase in stress, a stress producing a permanent strain, or a stress exceeding the proportional limit. The working stress, as distinguished from the design stress, is the stress actually occurring under operating conditions. The working stress for a material is the permissible stress used in the design of a machine member if it is to resist the loads applied and operate satisfactorily for a reasonable period of time. The length of this period may vary with the type of service. We do not expect an automobile or an agricultural tool to last for ever. Technical improvements go on all the time and a machine may become obsolete in ten or twenty years/ If this is the case, one would not bee justified in going to any unnecessary expense of labor and material to make its service life extend indefinitely beyond any reasonable expectations. Stress concentration. Both theoretical and experimental investigations show that notches, holes, and indentations of various kinds cause local stresses much in excess of the average stress, which for tension or compression would be the load divided by the net cross sectional area. While this stress concentration is very serious, frequently it has been neglected in the past. Yet, no breakdowns have resulted. The test of Moore on the effect of key ways in shafts show an overall strength reduction not nearly so serious as the stress concentration would lead 1

one to expect. The reason is that under steady or very slow varying load, the overstressed material can adjust itself plastically, so that the stress is transferred to adjacent, less severely stressed parts. This condition, however, holds true only for ductile materials. For brittle materials stress concentration is always serious. Many breakdowns in modern high speed machinery may be explained by stress concentration.

15. RIVETED JOINTS AND THREADED FASTENERS

Uses of riveted joints. In the assembly of the individual members to form a complete machine or structure, some form of fastening such as riveting, welding, bolting, or keying must be used. Riveting makes a permanent joint that cannot be disassembled without destruction of the rivets. Tanks, pressure vessels, bridges and building structures are commonly built of steel plates and rolled shapes riveted together. Rivets. A rivet is a permanent fastening consisting of a short round bar with a head formed at each end. Rivets are made of wrought iron or soft steel for most uses, but where corrosive resistance or light weight is a requirement, rivets of copper or aluminum alloys are used. In making up the joint, the rivet is inserted in a punched or drilled hole and the second head formed by a die or rivet set, pressure being exerted by hand hammers, air hammers, or air and hydraulic pressure machines. Types of joints. When two plates are simply laid over each other at the joint and riveted together as a Fig. 4, they form a lap joint. The tension forces acting on the plates, not being in the same plane, create a bending moment and thereby produce bending stresses in the plates and tensions in the rivets. When the plates are placed end to end and connected by cover plates, as a Fig. 5, they form a but joint. On account of the bending stresses, lap joints and single cover plate butt joints should not be used for high pressure service. Threated fasteners. Threated bolts and screws are used to hold the removable heads or cylinders, machine members that must be readily disassembled, and parts of large machines that must be built in small units for ease of manufacturing, assembling, or shipping. Screws are also used for the transmission of power; for instance, the lead screws on machine tools, screws on a presses, and similar devices. Screws are sometimes used as a means of adjustment or of obtaining accurate movement in measuring instruments such as micrometers. The pitch is the axial distance between corresponding points on adjacent threads and is equal to the reciprocal of the number of threads per inch. The lead is the axial distance a thread advances in one revolution. A single thread is one on which the lead equals the pitch; a double thread is one on which the lead equals twice the pitch; and a triple thread is one on which the lead three times the pitch. A screw thread is always understood to be single right hand unless otherwise specified.

16. MORE MACHINE MEMBERS

Shafts. The term shaft, or shafting, is applied to those machine members, mostly cylindrical and solid in cross section, although sometimes hollow, used to transmit power of motion and to furnish support for rotating elements, such as pulleys, gears, or flywheels.

The term axle may be applied to the bar on which a wheel is mounted, or to the transverse member used to connect opposite wheels of a vehicle. In general, axles are subjected to transverse loads and are stressed principally in bending. A railway car axle is a representative example. Shafts may be subjected to torsional, bending, or axial loads, or to a many combination of these loads. If the load is torsional, the principal stresses induced is shear; if bending, the principal stresses are tension and compression. Shafts are generally made a ductile materials. Keys. The function of a key is to prevent relative motion between two machine members. In its more general application, a key consists of a square or rectangular bar of steel inserted half in a shaft and half in the keyed on member, such as a gear or pulley. Keys have been standardized and are generally proportioned to the shaft diameter. Since they are relatively inexpensive and are easily replaced, keys are frequently designed to fail when subjected to unexpected overloads, so that the other more expensive machine members are protected. Couplings. Commercial shafts are limited in length by manufacturing and shipping requirements, so that is necessary to join sections of long transmission shafts couplings. Couplings are also required to connect the shaft of a driving machine to a separately built driven unit. Permanent couplings are simply called couplings, while those which may be readily engaged to transmit power, or disengaged when desired, are called clutches. Brakes. Like clutches, depend upon the friction between two surfaces for their action, the difference being that clutches are used to keep the driving and driven members moving together, whereas brakes are used to stop a moving capacity of any brake depends upon the pressure between the braking surfaces, the coefficient of friction, and the heat radiating capacity of the brake. The heat radiating capacity is important since, during the operating of the brake, the contact surfaces are sliding over each other, and the work of friction generates a large amount of heat that must be dissipated to avoid overheating the brake and burning the facing material. Springs. The problem of spring design is the application of the principle that a load applied to any member will produce a proportionate deformation. In most machine members, the deformation must be kept low. In a spring, the reverse effect is desired, and the deformation must be relatively large, the spring being a machine member built to have a high degree of resilience. Springs are used as cushions to absorb shock, as i machine supports, on automobile frames, and in airplane lending gear; as a source of power by storing up energy that is later delivered as driving power, as in clocks, trigger mechanisms, etc. ; and to maintain contact between machine members by exerting a direct force, as in clutches and brakes. Springs are also use as load measuring devices, as in spring balances, power dynamo meters, and in instruments such as gauges, meters, and engine indicators.

17. GEARING
Transmission gearing. The word gearing may be used as a general term for all machine elements used in transmitting motion. Belts, friction pulleys, and other types of 3

power transmission that depend upon friction are subject to slippage and hence do not transmit a definite and invariable speed ratio. Chains and gear are used when positive drives are necessary, and where the center distances relatively short, toothed gears are preferred. Spur gears. This is the type of gear most commonly used to connect parallel shafts, which then rotate in opposite directions. They may be straight-tooth with the teeth parallel to the axes or helical with the teeth forming helices. In practice the name spur gear is given only to cylindrical gears profile from end to end. Helical gears. In helical gears, the teeth are cut in the form of a helix about the axis of rotation, one gear having a right-hand helix, and the mating gear having a left-hand helix. When straight-tooth spur gears begin to engage, the contact theoretically extends across the entire tooth on a line parallel to the axis of rotation. This sudden application of load produces high impact stresses and excessive noise at high speeds. When helical gears begin to mesh, contact occurs only at the point of the leading edge of the tooth, gradually extending along a diagonal line across the tooth as the gears rotate. The gradual engagement and load application reduce the noise and the dynamic stress so that helical gears may be operated at higher speeds and can sustain greater tangential loads than straight-tooth spur gears of the same size. Bevel gears. All gears previously discussed have had teeth cut or cast on cylindrical pitch surfaces. When the shafts intersect, the pitch surfaces are conical, and the gears are called bevel gears. The shafts intersect at any angle, and the bevel gears may have external or internal contact, and they may have straight or spiral teeth. Unless otherwise toothed and to have the axes intersecting at right angles. Worm gears. The maximum gear ratio advisable with helical gearing is about 10:1. For larger ratios, a gear may be train or double reduction should be used, or a worm and worm gear may be used (Fig.8). Worm and gear sets with ratios from 10:1 up to 100:1 are regularly employed, and ratios as high as 500:1 have been used. The worm and worm wheel, a type of screw gears, is a special case of helical gearing with nonparallel axes, the axes being at right angles. The worm may be cut with a single, double, triple, or quadruple thread. Efficiency of gears. It is generally assumed that the friction loss in gear teeth depends on the tooth profile, pitch-line velocity, surface finish, and lubrication. However, when there is sufficient lubrication to prevent overheating and scoring, the friction appears to be practically independent of the velocity. The finish of the tooth surface is the most important factor in the efficiency of 98 per cent or more. When lubrication is poor, the efficiency may drop as low as 95 per cent. The power loss in the supporting bearings must be considered in addition to the loss in the teeth themselves. Lubrication. To obtain the maximum life, the gears must be supplied with a generous supply of the proper lubricant. The lubricant must maintain an oil film between the teeth and must also carry away the heat of friction, especially from the pinion, which, having more contacts per minute tends to heat faster than the larger gear. The lubricant must be thin enough that penetrate the space between teeth and heavy enough that the pressure will not break the oil film. Oil should be kept clean, since grit and metal dust carried in suspension in the oil will cause abrasive action on the tooth surface. With proper lubrication and correct alignment of the bearings, a good pair of gears will have an indefinite life.

18. BEARINGS
Bearing classification: A bearing is a machine part which supports a moving element and confines its motion. The most important as well as the most common applications of bearings are those in which the relative motion between the members is either a sliding action guided in a straight line as between a planer table and its bed; or the motion is rotation, as in case of a shaft with its axis held in a fixed position by journal bearings, and end wise movement prevented by thrust bearings. A journal bearing is one which forms a sleeve around a shaft and supports a load at right angles to the shaft axis. The journal is that part of the shaft which rotates in the bearing. A thrust bearing is one which takes a thrust load in the direction of the axis of the shaft. When worn, the bearing may be restored to its original condition by replacing the liner. The piston pin bearing in an automobile connecting rod is a familiar example of this type of bearing. For ordinary work, light loads, and moderate speeds, unlined cast iron bearings may be used. Ball and roller bearings. Bearings for rotating members may be still further classified into two groups according to the type of support and the relative motion involved. Thus we have plain bearings, in which the shaft journal is supported directly by the bearing surface with which it is in sliding contact, except for the film or lubricant. Another group is ball and roller bearings, in which the journal is separated from the bearing support by balls and rollers. The surface in this case are principally in rolling contact. Ball bearings were developed along with the bicycle toward the end of the last century; roller bearings appeared even later; yet today these machine elements are of tremendous importance. Characteristics of ball and roller bearings. While ball and roller bearings are commonly known as anti friction bearings, and have certain advantages in reducing friction, they have other properties of as great importance. Dependability in service is perhaps their outstanding characteristic. They are less exacting with respect to lubrication than plain bearings. If well filled with grease and protected from dirt and moisture, they will run from three months to a year without attention; they need only additional lubricant. Another characteristic of anti friction bearings is their ability to support heavy overloads for a considerable period of time without sudden failure. There is no extremely great superiority from a standpoint of low operating friction of ball and roller bearings over plain bearings, provided the latter are perfectly lubricated. With imperfect lubrication, however, which is the case for many plain bearings, a considerable reduction in friction is obtained by the use of ball or roller bearings. Lubricants. Since there is relative motion between the contact surfaces, a certain amount of power must be absorbed in overcoming friction; and, if the surfaces actually touch, there will be more or less rapid wear. It is necessary to provide a lubricant to reduce the friction and to eliminate the wear as much as possible. A lubricant is any substance that will form a film between the rubbing surfaces, preventing, to some degree, the actual contact of the surfaces. Oils and greases are the most common lubricants, although water is used in thrust bearings and in bearings of some vertical water wheels where oil lubrication tends to corrode the bearings, water lubricated bearings are usually made of rubber.

A few solids (such as graphite, mica, soapstone, talc and other greasy nonabrasive materials) are used as bearing lubricants. When properly used, they fill the cavities, smooth out the irregularities in the surfaces, and reduce the friction and wear below that produced between dry surfaces.

21. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, AND FANS

The pump is a machine that draws a fluid into itself through an entrance port and forces the fluid out through an exhaust port. A pump may serve to move liquid, as in crosscountry pipelines; to lift liquid, as from a well or to the top of a tall building; or to put fluid under pressure, as in a hydraulic brake. These applications depend predominantly upon the discharge characteristics of the pump. A pump may also serve to empty a container, as in a vacuum pump or sump pump, in which case the application depends primarily on its intake characteristics (See Fig. 10.). In mechanical pumps the fluid is conveyed by direct contact with a moving part of the pumping machinery. The two basic types are (1) velocity machines-centrifugal or turbine pumps, which impart energy to the fluid primarily by increasing its velocity, then converting part of this energy into pressure, and (2) displacement machines with pistons, cams or other confining forms which act directly on the fluid, forcing it to flow against a higher pressure. A pump located deep in a well may raise water or oil to the surface. At a ground level location a pump may deliver fluid to a nearby elevated reservoir or, through long pipelines, to a location at similar or different elevation. In a power plant, pumps circulate cooling water or oil at low pressure and transfer water from heaters at moderate pressure to steam generators at pressures of several thousand pounds per square inch. In chemical plants and refineries pumps transfer a great variety of fluids or charge them into reactors at higher pressure. In hydraulic systems, pumps supply energy to a moving stream of oil or water to move a piston or to rotate a shaft as required by the specific process. Principal parts of centrifugal pumps. Centrifugal pumps comprise a very wide class of pumps in which pumping of liquids or generation of pressure is effected by a rotary motion of one or several impellers. Every pump consists of two principal parts an impeller, which forces the liquid into a rotary motion, and the pump casing, which directs the liquid to the impeller and leads it away under a higher pressure. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is supported by bearings and driven through a flexible or rigid coupling by a driver. The compressor is a machine that increases the pressure of a gas, vapor, or a mixture of gases. The pressure of the fluid is increased by reducing the fluid specific volume during passage of the fluid through the compressor. When compared with centrifugal or axial-flow fans on the basis of discharge pressure, compressors are generally classed as high-pressure machines. Compressors are used to increase the pressure of a wide variety of gases and vapors for a multitude of purposes. A common application is the air compressor used to supply highpressure air for materials conveying, paint spraying, tire inflating, cleaning, pneumatic tools, and rock drills. Next is the refrigeration compressor, used to compress the gas formed in the evaporator. Other applications of compressors include chemical processing, gas transformation, gas turbines, and construction. A fan moves gases by producing a low compression ratio as in ventilation and pneumatic conveying of materials. Mechanical fans are used in systems for ventilating, 6

heating and air- conditioning of buildings; for cooling and drying different materials and products; for cooling internal-combustion engines; for dust exhaust; for conveying light materials; and for induced and forced draft for steam boilers. In a fan the change in fluid density is so small that the gas is regarded as incompressible. A fan develops a relatively low pressure difference of the order of a few inches of water to less than one pound per square inch. As a contrast, in an air or gas compressor the density change is appreciable; the pressure developed by the compressor is measured in pounds per square inch instead of inches of water.

24. THE GASOLINE AND DIESEL ENGINES

The gasoline engine is used in automobiles, trucks, tractors, motor-boats and airplanes. When a gasoline engine is running, use is being made of the force of expanding gases. The liquid gasoline is passed through a device called a carburetor, where it is changed from a liquid into a gas and at the same time mixed with air. This mixture of gasoline vapor and air is forced into the expanding gas, caused by the explosion of the mixture, is used to run the engine. The strokes of the piston. Practically all automobiles today are propelled by fourstroke (or four-cycle) engines; that is, there are four strokes of the piston for each explosion in the cylinder. The first stroke is the suction (or intake) stroke, during which the piston moves downward, creating a partial vacuum in the cylinder. To fill the partial vacuum a mixture of air and gasoline vapor from the carburetor is forced by air pressure through the intake valve into the top of the cylinder. The second stroke is the compression stroke. During this stroke both valves are closed, and piston moves upward and compresses the mixture of gases. In the third stroke, called the power stroke, both valves remain closed. After the mixture of gases has been compressed, an electric spark produced between the two points of a spark- plug explodes the mixture of gases, and the force of expanding gas sends the piston down with great strength. During the fourth stroke, called the exhaust stroke, the piston moves upward and the exhaust valve opens. The upward motion of the piston forces the burned gases out through the valve and an exhaust pipe containing a muffler. The cooling system. Part of the heat heats the engine. In order to remove heat from the engine so that it will not become overheated, a cooling system is necessary. The cooling system usually provides a circulation of water through a radiator and around the cylinders by means of a water pump. As the water (or some other cooling liquid) circulates, it takes heat from the engine; and as it passes through the radiator, it loses heat. Some types of gasoline engine are air-cooled. Diesel engines. The construction features of a high-speed diesel engine are almost identical with those of the gasoline engine. Diesel engines are used for trucks, buses, tractors, locomotives, and marine installations. They may also be used for passenger-car transportation. Instead of using gasoline for power, they use a heavy oil called fuel oil. Air is compressed in the cylinder, then fuel oil is injected, and ignition is instantaneous or spontaneous. Compressing air or any other gas raises its temperature. The compression pressure in the head of a gasoline engine rarely exceeds 120 pounds per square inch. In the diesel engine the pressure on the air in the cylinder head may be as great as 500 psi. This great pressure 7

makes the air very hot, and the heat is sufficient to ignite the true fuel when it is injected. No electric spark is used in the true diesel, but modified forms of diesel engines use spark ignition.