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allen, 12/25/2011

CHAPTERS
1.

From Atoms to Organisms Components of the cell, structure and function of proteins, cell metabolism, reproduction, differentiation and growth of cell. The molecular design of life Molecular biology, DNA, Translation, Transcription, essential enzymes and proteins. Catalytic Strategies The role of enzymes, Proteases, Carbonic Anhydrases, Restriction enzymes and Nucleoside Monophosphate Kinases. Biological energy production Photosynthesis, Carbon fixation, metabolism, anabolism and catabolism.

2.

3.

4. Mechanochemistry Molecular motors F1 motor of

ATP synthase, bacterial flagellar motor, chimeric kinesin motors, chimeric myosin motors.
5. Sensory and Immunosystems Cell signaling and

computer based neural network, Immune system functional properties of antibodies, MHC and T cell activation.

Levels of Organization

Levels of Organization

Levels of Organization
Atoms - All living and nonliving matter is formed of simple units called atoms. Hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur are the most common atoms. Molecules - The atoms of different elements combine with each other through ionic or covalent bonding to produce compounds. This stable form is called a molecule. Micromolecules Low molecular weight eg. CO2, H2O. Macromolecules High molecular weight. eg. Protein

Levels of Organization
Cell - Enormous number of micromolecules and macromolecules arrange themselves in a particular way to form cells and their organelles. Tissue level - In multicellular animals and plants, groups of similar cells are organized into tissues performing similar functions. e.g. muscle tissue. Organ & Organ system - Different tissues having related functions assemble together in a structure to carry out its function with great efficiency. Such structures are called organs and they are specialized to perform particular functions. e.g. Digestive system.

Cell
Basic structural and functional unit of all living 0rganisms. Building block of life. The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. The word cell comes from the Latin cellula, meaning "a small room".

Types of cells
Prokaryotic cell (Pro = Primitive or prior to, karyon or karyote = nucleus) Prokaryotic cells have only a single membrane, the plasma membrane or cell membrane. Prokaryotic cells contain no nucleus or organelles. Nevertheless, they possess a distinct nuclear area where a single circular chromosome is localized is called nucleoid. - simple, unicellular - small - lack nucleus and other cell organelles. Eg:- Bacteria

Eukaryotic cell (Eu = True, karyon or karyote = nucleus) Eukaryotic cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane and possess membrane-bounded cell organelles. Eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton composed of arrays of filaments that give the cell its shape and its capacity to move. Some eukaryotic cells also have long projections on their surfacecilia or flagella which provide propulsion. - membrane-bound compartments - multicellular Eg:- Plants, Animals

Differences between Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes 1-10 m in diameter. Internal compartments are absent. DNA is free in cytoplasm as nucleoid. Usually haploid. Simple division following DNA replication. Eukaryotes 10 100 m in diameter. Several different kinds of organelles are present. DNA is present in nucleus. Diploid or polyploid. Mitosis in somatic cell and meiosis in gametes.

Prokaryote - Bacteria

Major Features of Prokaryotic Cells

Structure
1. Outer covering Cell wall Cell membrane

Functions
Mechanical support, shape, and protection. The cell membrane is a highly selective barrier that controls the entry of most substances into the cell. Slimy capsule composed of polysaccharides. It is an additional protective layer.

Capsule 2. Cytoplasm Nuclear area or nucleoid

DNA contains the genetic information which is present in a distinct nuclear region called nucleoid. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

Ribosomes

Eukaryote Plant cell

Eukaryote Animal cell

Molecular components of cell

Lipid Phospholipid Glycolipid Phosphate Polysaccharide Carbohydrate Protein Vitamin Sugar

Differences between Plant cell and Animal cell

Plant cell
Rigid cell wall formed of cellulose is present. Plant cells are larger than animal cells. Presence of chloroplast. Centrioles and centrosomes are absent. Presence of vacuole. Cell division is by cell plate formation.

Animal cell
Cell wall is absent. Animal cells are small in size. Absence of chloroplast. Centrioles and centrosomes are present. Absence of vacuole. Cell division is by constriction.

Major Features of Eukaryotic Cells

Structure
Outer covering Cell wall Plasma membrane 2. Cytoplasm Mitochondria Golgi apparatus Endoplasmic Reticulum
1.

Functions

Thick cellulose wall gives strength and rigidity. Selectively permeable membrane. Power generators of the cells Power house. Storage of proteins and enzymes and secretory function. It forms skeletal frame work and provides mechanical support. It acts as intracellular circulatory system. Protein synthesis. Destruction of bacteria and other foreign body Suicide bag. It is composed of two centrioles which help in the formation of mitotic spindle during cell division. Storage of food and waste. Photosynthesis. Protection of DNA. It regulates growth and reproduction of cell and carry hereditary characters. Synthesisof ribosomes and proteins.

Ribosomes Lysosomes Centrosome Vacuole Chloroplasts 3. Nucleus Nuclear membrane Chromosomes Nucleolus

Cell Wall
Cell wall is the non living covering present in plant cells. The cell wall is composed of cellulose fiber, polysaccharides, and proteins. Functions: It provides protection and support. It gives defined shape. It helps in fluid circulation and cell to cell communication.

Structure:

Cell Membrane Cell membrane or plasma

membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outer environment. It is a living, ultra-thin, elastic, porous, semi permeable membranous covering of cell. The cell membrane is made of two layers of phospholipids. Phospholipids are made up of two parts: a head, and a tail. The head contains a polar phosphate group, which makes it easily soluble in water (hydrophilic). The tail, made of lipid and is not soluble in water (hydrophobic). There are pores along the membrane where materials enter and leave the cell. Singer and Nic0lson proposed the fluid mosaic model. This consists of a mosaic of globular protein in a phospholipid bilayer, all of which are in a dynamic and fluid state.

Cell Membrane
Functions: The membranes allow some materials to enter the cell but not all materials. Thus, the membrane is said to be semipermeable. Water, oxygen and carbon dioxide freely pass through it, many other chemicals cannot. Another term used for this aspect of the membrane is selectively permeable. The membrane keeps cell contents together allowing efficient coordination of its activity. It helps the cell keep its contents. Give support to the cell. Recognise (sense) molecules that touch them.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are rodshaped organelles that can be considered the power generators of the cell, converting oxygen and nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Aerobic Respiration.

Golgi Apparatus
A system of flattened membrane-bounded organelle. It is secretory in function.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The cytoplasmic matrix is traversed by a net work of inter connecting tubules and vesicles are known as Endoplasmic Reticulum. Two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum namely rough and smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Presence of ribosomes. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Absence of ribosomes.

Ribosomes
Ribosome is a component of cell that synthesizes protein chains. Prokaryotes have ribosomes, each consisting of a small (30S) and a large (50S) subunit. Eukaryotes have ribosomes, each consisting of a small (40S) and large (60S) subunit. Svedberg is a non-SI physical unit. It characterizes the behaviour of a particle.

Lysosomes are spherical organelles that contain specialized enzymes called acid hydrolases. These organelles break up food so that it is easier to digest and uptake for the cell and the body. Lysosomes function entails digesting excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfing and destroying foreign bodies that could harm the cell, like viruses or bacteria. The name lysosome derives from the Greek words lysis, to separate, and soma, body. They are frequently nicknamed "suicide-bags" or "suicide-sacs" by cell biologists due to their autolysis. Autolysis - It refers to the selfdigestion, destruction of a cell through the action of its own enzymes.

Lysosome

Centrosome
It is located near the nucleus of the animal cells. During cell division, two rod shaped granules known as centrioles are formed. At the time of cell division, spindle of microtubules (mitotic spindle) form which help in the separation and movement of chromosomes. Centrioles function in cell division.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution. In mature plant cells, vacuoles tend to be very large and are extremely important in providing structural support, as well as serving functions such as storage, waste disposal, protection, and growth. The central vacuole in plant cells is enclosed by a membrane termed the tonoplast.

Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are green in colour because they contain the chlorophyll pigment. The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek words chloros which means green, and plastis which means "the one who forms". The material within the chloroplast is called the stroma. Within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids, the sub-organelles, which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana. A thylakoid has a flattened disk shape. Inside it is an empty area called the thylakoid space or lumen. Photosynthesis takes place on the thylakoid membrane.

Nucleus
The nucleus is a membraneenclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains the cell's genetic material. Function: It controls the activities of the cell by regulating gene expresssion.

Comparison between Mitosis & Meiosis

S.No. Mitosis Meiosis

1. 2. 3.

It occurs in the somatic cells. It occurs continuously. It occurs in asexually organisms.

It occurs in the reproductive cells. It occurs only gametogenesis. during

sexually and It occurs only in sexually reproducing reproducing organisms. Four daughter cells are formed. The resulting daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes as that of the parent cell.

4. 5.

Two daughter cells are formed. The resulting daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as that of the parent cell.

6.

The daughter cells are all alike The daughter cells are not alike and similar to the parent cell. and dissimilar to the parent cell.