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Po able Pha ed A a Applica ion
by Jesse Granillo* and Michel Moles+
Mee ing and E en Local Sec ion Link Wha ' Ne Lea ning A a d and Hono Ad e i e
INTRODUCTION
Volumetric nondestructive testing (NDT) is typically performed in industry using either radiography or ult
Radiography has the disadvantages that it can be a safety hazard and is poor at detecting the more crit planar discontinuities (cracks, lack of fusion and lack of penetration). Manual ultrasonics is much detecting planar discontinuities, but it is slow and the results are highly dependent on the operator. Auto ultrasonic testing typically involves large, expensive and inflexible systems, though the results are reprod new development - portable ultrasonic phased arrays - offers speed and flexibility.
Portable phased array ultrasonic equipment is highly computerized and can be operated in manual, semiautomated (encoded, with or without a scanning aid) or fully automated (operating a scanning rig) m This new generation of equipment offers many of the advantages of phased arrays: speed, flexibility, da storage, imaging, reproducibility and limited footprint, with many of the advantages of manual ultrasonics portability, ease of setup and relatively low cost.
After briefly introducing the principles of phased arrays and the types of scans, this paper describes a s portable phased array applications. As normal with new categories of equipment, many of the initial app have been unusual in some way; more recently, general applications for weld testing have become viabl Perhaps more interesting is the observation that most of the applications are either fully manual or semiautomated. Very few portable phased array applications are fully automated.
ULTRASONIC PHASED ARRAYS Ultrasonic phased arrays are a novel technique for generating and receiving ultrasound. Instead of a sin transducer and beam, phased arrays use multiple ultrasonic elements and electronic time delays to crea beams by constructive and destructive interference. As such, phased arrays offer significant technical advantages for weld testing over conventional ultrasonics. The phased array beams can be steered, sca swept and focused electronically. Beam steering permits the selected beam angles to be optimized ultra by orienting them perpendicular to the predicted discontinuities, for example lack of fusion in automated
ortable phased arrays are commercially and technically viable for a wide range of applications.
Electronic scanning permits very rapid coverage of the components, typically an order of magnitude fast single transducer mechanical system. Beam steering (usually called sectorial or azimuthal scanning) for mapping components at appropriate angles to optimize the probability of detection of discontinuities Sectorial scanning is also useful when only a minimal footprint is possible. Electronic focusing permits o the beam shape and size at the expected discontinuity location, as well as optimizing the probability of d Overall, the use of phased arrays permits optimizing discontinuity detection while minimizing testing time
Ho Pha ed A a Wo k Ultrasonic phased arrays are similar in principle to phased array radar, sonar and other wave physics applications. However, ultrasonic development is behind the other applications due to a smaller market, wavelengths, mode conversions and more complex components. Several authors have reviewed ultrasonic phased arrays (Clay et al., 1999; Wustenberg et al., 1999; Lafontaine and Cancre, 2000), tho industrial uses have been limited until the last few years.
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industrial uses have been limited until the last few years.
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From a practical viewpoint, ultrasonic phased arrays are merely a technique for generating and receivin ultrasound; once the ultrasound is in the material, it is independent of the generating technique (piezoele electromagnetic, laser or phased arrays). Consequently, many of the details of ultrasonic testing remain unchanged; for example, if 5 MHz is the optimum testing frequency with conventional ultrasonics, then arrays would typically use the same frequency, aperture size, focal length and incident angle.
Phased arrays use an array of elements, all individually wired, pulsed and time shifted. These elements usually pulsed in groups from 4 to 16 elements. A typical user friendly computerized setup calculates delays from operator input, or uses a predefined file: test angle, focal distance, scan pattern and so forth Figures in R/D Tech, 2004).
The time delay values are back calculated using time of flight from the focal spot and the scan assemble individual focal laws. Time delay circuits must be accurate to around 2 ns to provide the accuracy
The setup information is electronically recorded and only takes seconds to reload. Modifying a prepared quick in comparison with physically adjusting conventional transducers.
T pe of Scan Using electronic pulsing and receiving provides significant opportunities for a variety of scan patterns. T basic patterns are electronic and sectorial scans.
Electronic scans are performed by multiplexing along an array. Typical arrays have up to 128 elements, groups of 8 to 16. Electronic and linear (single axis mechanical scanning) testing permits rapid coverag tight focal spot. If the array is flat and linear, then the scan pattern is a simple B-scan. The data can be p to provide a C-scan or combined scans (for example, top/side/end views or combined S- and A-scans).
Sectorial scans use the same set of elements, but alter the time delays to sweep the beam through a se angles. Again, this is a straightforward scan to program. Applications for sectorial scanning typically invo stationary array, sweeping across a relatively inaccessible component like a turbine blade root (Ciorau 2000), to map out the features (and discontinuities). Depending primarily on the array frequency and spacing, the sweep angles can vary from 20 to 80 degrees.
Manual ultrasonic testing is performed using a single transducer, which the operator scans back and for cover the area to be tested. Many automated testing systems use a similar approach, with a single trans scanned back and forth for corrosion or weld testing. This is very time consuming, since the system has zones at the start and finish of the raster.
In contrast, phased arrays use a linear scanning approach. Here, the probe is mechanically scanned in a around or along the component (a weld in this example), while the array performs electronic or sectorial Linear scanning is frequently used in pipe mills and on pipelines.
PORTABLE PHASED ARRAY INSTRUMENT A portable phased array unit with manual, semiautomated and automated capability has been develope practice, this is a multiple technology unit, with replaceable function modules (besides phased arrays, th conventional ultrasonics, time of flight diffraction, eddy current and eddy current array modules available other technologies in development). The current phased array unit is a 16/128 unit (16 multiplexed 128 channels), with up to 256 focal laws (individual beam pulses). The unit can perform electronic and s scans. It has ultrasonic specifications similar to an upscale single channel discontinuity detector (frequen filtering, time corrected gain, gates, alarms, range and so forth) and can operate as such. The instrumen digital and can perform encoded scans.
The phased array unit records full waveform data at multiple angles/positions and can display A-, B-, C-, and combined scans. This gives much increased imaging capability. The unit also has built in reporting (using pasted in scans) and internal procedure capability. There is a special calibration process for pha arrays, to ensure uniform signal strength across the array (and wedge). The 4.6 kg (10 lb) unit also recognition" function, where the array is automatically detected and characterized when connected; this eliminates programming the array parameters.
A a As with all testing systems, the probe or transducer is critically important. This is perhaps even more the with arrays, though typically a single array can perform multiple tests, often with appropriate wedges. The
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with arrays, though typically a single array can perform multiple tests, often with appropriate wedges. The technical limits to arrays; individual element sizes are limited in practice to around 0.15 mm (6 x 10 normally under 20 MHz. However, the real limitations of arrays are cost. The more advanced arrays, with hundreds of elements, can easily cost tens of thousands of dollars. These arrays can be matrix, circular, or complex. To reduce costs, automated manufacturing of a standard series of linear arrays has been d
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APPLICATIONS This section lists a dozen portable phased array unit applications. This list is far from exhaustive and new applications are arriving regularly. However, this provides a cross section of typical uses and covers a variety of industries: nuclear, petrochemical, defense, manufacturing and aerospace.
De ec ion and Si ing of S e Co o ion C acking in T bine Roo This application involves a large number of components and high downtime costs, plus limited access in nuclear reactor. False calls must be minimized, due to outage costs, and small discontinuities (1 mm [0. high and as little as 3 mm [0.12 in.] long) must be detected. Discontinuity range and location varies.
The phased array solution was to model the application to optimize array design using ray tracing to opt testing. The solution was to use a relatively high frequency (6 to 12 MHz) and to plot the scans on a com
overlay. (In practice, being a nuclear application, multiple units and multiplexed scans were used; howev does not alter the application principles). S-scans were used, with minimal probe movement.
Small Diame e A eni ic Pipe Weld Te ing This application involved testing stainless steel pipe welds of variable diameters for a nuclear waste app The welds were autogenous, made by orbital welders; as such, the weld profile was near vertical. thicknesses were generally thin. Space between pipes was minimal, necessitating a manual scan or low scanner. Radiography was not permitted for safety reasons. Rapid and reliable testing was required, data recording.
The portable phased array solution used two arrays generating shear waves, one on either side of the w splitter cable. Linear scanning around the weld and a low profile scanner with a small encoder was used collection. S-scans were used, with the data displayed as C-scans. Figure 1 shows the scanner and dis
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Figure 1 - Small diameter austenitic pipe weld testing: (a) twin shear wave wedges with low pro scanner; (b) typical A-, S- and C- scan display showing 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) calibration hole.
In Se ice Te ing of Pipe fo S e Co o ion C acking This nuclear application is for detecting axial stress corrosion cracking in Canada Deuterium Uranium (C reactor feeder pipes. These pipes are ferritic steel, with very limited access between pipes. Radiation high, so testing must be quick. Crack heights are less 1 mm (0.04 in.) and wall thicknesses are typically 10 mm (0.4 in.).
The portable phased array solution is to use a small 10 MHz, 16 element array with a miniature wheel en attached (Figure 2). Once detected, discontinuities could be accurately sized using time of flight diffracti
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Figure 2 - Phased array detection of stress corrosion cracking in feeder pipes: (a) scanning setup; ( detection.
B Weld Te ing In contrast to the nuclear applications above, butt weld testing represents a huge and varied application. Typically, this testing is performed according to an established code and approved procedure and techn ASME code approval has been obtained using external consultants for pipes and butt welds up to 25 m Typical testing criteria for practical applications include performing cost effective, rapid and reliable test welds in plate or tubes, storing the data for reference and imaging discontinuities for optimum sizing.
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The portable phased array solution uses an array on a wedge (for wear and optimum angles) to generat waves as usual. S-scans or electronic scans are performed using a linear scan along the weld. The data stored and displayed as S-scans or top/side/end views.
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T- eld Te ing of B idge S c e These weld tests are similar to butt weld testing, but can be more challenging due to the geometry. Typic these applications involve thicknesses of 10 to 16 mm (0.4 to 0.6 in.) and reliable detection of planar discontinuities (cracks, lack of fusion and lack of penetration) is essential. Probe movement is limited, m test angles are necessary and a cost effective solution is required.
The portable phased array solution is to use an encoded hand scan with a small, linear, 5 MHz, 16 elem S-scans are performed at between 40 and 70 degrees using shear waves and the results displayed as combination of A- and S-scans. Other scanning and display options are possible. Figure 3 shows the Tgeometry and testing in action.
Figure 3 - Testing T-welds using portable phased arrays with an encoded array: test geometry
H d ogen Ind ced C acking Hydrogen induced cracking involves the diffusion of hydrogen into steels, where it typically forms lamella at inclusions. Standard hydrogen induced cracking is benign and easily detected by ultrasonics, but step cracking can occur between blisters, which is structurally undesirable. This stress oriented hydrogen ind cracking (or stepwise cracking) is more difficult to characterize using conventional ultrasonics. While induced cracking forms lamellar reflectors parallel to the surface, stress oriented hydrogen induced crac forms as cracking between hydrogen induced cracking blisters, at an angle to the surface. The objective reliably determine if stress oriented hydrogen induced cracking exists amongst regular hydrogen induce cracking. The testing must be rapid and comparatively inexpensive. Data storage is desirable.
The portable phased array solution is to use normal beam electronic manual scans to rapidly detect hyd induced cracking. To determine if stress oriented hydrogen induced cracking is present, a second setup loaded to perform S-scans using 30 degree S-scans. A tracking function is used to display the A-scan with the highest amplitude waveform. The array is skewed back and forth to optimize the signals. beam is focused at midwall, since most hydrogen induced cracking and stress oriented hydrogen induc cracking occurs at 1/3 to 2/3 depth. The operator looks for additional signals between hydrogen induced reflections to identify stress oriented hydrogen induced cracking (Figure 4).
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(b) Figure 4 - Hydrogen induced cracking: (a) with no stepwise cracking visible (no stress hydrogen induced cracking); (b) with stress oriented hydrogen induced cracking visible.
Flange Co o ion nde Ga ke The requirement is to detect corrosion under a gasket seat, without removing the bolts. Testing is possib from the pipe surfaces; scanning is needed, but the scanning area is limited. The angles are difficult for conventional ultrasonic testing (Figure 5a). The portable phased array solution is to use a 16 element phased array probe with a 45 degree natural and to perform an S-scan from 30 to 85 degrees. To ensure maximum coverage with the bolts in place, was used. Using a corrected B-scan ensured a good interpretation of the images (Figure 5b).
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Figure 5 - Gasket corrosion mapping: (a) schematic showing flange gasket, area to be scanned, loc bolts and the limited access (measurements are in degrees); (b) A-scan, B-scan and corrected B displays of corrosion mapping.
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No le Te ing The requirement is to detect and measure erosion/corrosion on a 175 mm (6.9 in.) nozzle inside surface testing must be performed rapidly and in service and must be cost effective.
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The portable phased array solution is to use a 32 element, 10 MHz linear array and perform S-scans usi waves from 0 to 70 degrees (Figures 6a and 6b). The nozzle is imaged as a volume corrected (true dep scan. Erosion/corrosion is measured from the image (Figure 6c). The image can be zoomed, if required
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Figure 6 - Nozzle testing: (a) 175 mm (6.9 in.) calibration block and bevel end; (b) S-scan o nozzle, showing bottom surface, corner and smooth end surface; (c) S-scans showing eroded corner (the right side is a zoomed image).
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Th ead Te ing The requirement is to rapidly and reliably test threads on many munitions shafts to determine if they are threaded or double threaded (Figures 7a and 7b). The output display should be easy to interpret. stored.
The portable phased array solution uses a linear array with a custom wedge to fit the shaft. Focused ultr beams are used for resolution and a B-scan display to show correct or bad threading (Figure 7c). The can readily distinguish between good and double threading by interpreting the B-scan patterns (Labb,
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Figure 7 - Munitions thread testing: (a) munitions tail and mockup of probe on custom wedge; cross section through shaft showing double threading; (c) B-scan of threads showing correct threading.
Spindle/Shaf Te ing The NDT required in this case involved testing a long spindle for cracking (Figure 8). A rapid and reliabl was required, which should both detect and size any discontinuities. The main concern was that data interpretation could be difficult due to multiple reflections. This type of testing is required for bridge pins, shafts and similar applications.
The portable phased array solution used a single array rotating on the top of the spindle (Figure 8a), per narrow angle S-scan to sweep from the centerline to the edge of spindle. The results were displayed as corrected S-scan and known features (for example, lands) were used to determine the locations of reflec Calibration used machined notches.
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(b) Figure 8 - Spindle/shaft testing: (a) spindle and true depth (or volume corrected) S-scan display reflectors; (b) typical location of cracking in spindle.
Te ing of B idge Bol Bolts hold bridges together and undergo significant fatigue cycles. The bolts are large (around 220 mm long) and fatigue susceptible areas are typically hidden (Figure 9a). Normal ultrasonic testing does multitude of angles required, nor appropriate data storage and imaging. Testing must be rapid, reprodu convenient.
The portable phased array solution is to perform a 0 to 15 degree L-wave S scan, focused at 100 mm (4 is a manual scan (no encoder) with the operator manipulating the array to get full volumetric coverage. imaging makes interpretation much easier and more reproducible (Figure 9b) and tests were much fast with conventional ultrasound. It would be possible to include distance amplitude correction or time correc
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Figure 9 - Bolt testing: (a) typical bolt with two reference notches and array on accessible area; (b) AS-scan image from typical bolt, showing threads, reference notch and backwall.
Landing Gea Te ing Aircraft landing gears undergo considerable stress on landing and takeoff, and are potentially susceptib fatigue cracking. The area to be tested has three different diameters, which makes conventional ultrason difficult.
The portable phased array solution is to use an S-scan to generate 40 to 65 degree shear waves inside component, with a wedge specifically contoured to the cylinder's outer diameter. This permits a single p of the cylinder, with full data collection. Though there are several different cylinder outer diameters and m diameters within each, electronic setups make this testing straightforward. The imaging permits discont identification.
La e Weld Te ing This is an aerospace test for laser weld construction. The component has a complex geometry, rapid tes required and full data storage is needed. linear /ap 05ba ic /ap 05ba performed, using .a n .o g/p blica ion /ma e ial e al/ba ic scan manual test isic .h m
The portable phased array solution is to use a linear array with a water box for coupling. A 10 m (32.8 ft) an encoder at 25 mm/s (1 in./s). The array performs 10/13 a norma
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linear scan manual test is performed, using an encoder at 25 mm/s (1 in./s). The array performs a norma raster test (electronic scan), giving a real time C-scan display. All the data are stored.
Compo i e There are many composite testing applications in the aerospace industry. This particular application is f mm (0.24 in.) thick carbon composite. A sample simulating layup tape commonly found during the manu process was made with known discontinuities (Figure 10). The objective was to reliably detect and size discontinuities and to store all data.
The portable phased array solution was to use a linear scan with electronic (normal beam) scanning. A 5 element probe with a 1 mm (0.04 in.) pitch was used. (In practice, a 64 element probe with 0.6 mm [0.02 would give greater resolution.) Contrary to many applications, the element grouping was set at 5. Loss o backwall was used for discontinuity detection. The scans were displayed as C- and A-scans and the da as usual.
Figure 10 - Scan results from composite specimen: loss of backwall is visible (arrowed).
DISCUSSION The applications listed above show that portable phased arrays can perform many different types of ND generic weld testing to more specialized applications. All these applications have one or more of the fol advantages:
speed: scanning with phased arrays is an order of magnitude faster than single transducer conven mechanical systems, with better coverage and focusing flexibility: setups can be changed in a few minutes and typically a lot more component dimensiona flexibility is available testing angles: a wide variety of angles and wave modes can be used, depending on the requirem the array imaging: S-, B- and C-scans offer much better data interpretation than simple A-scans small footprint: small matrix arrays can give significantly more flexibility for testing restricted areas conventional transducers.
As mentioned earlier, most of the listed applications are unusually specialized, largely because this is ho new NDT products make it into the marketplace. These special applications will continue, diversifying applications not currently thought of. Some may even use the fully automated scanning capability.
Most important, portable phased arrays now appear cost competitive for a number of applications. Whil early to determine the cost of weld testing using portable phased arrays, early evidence shows that such is approximately five times faster than with conventional manual testing.
Besides the major labor savings, evidence also suggests that portable phased array weld testing is sign more reliable than manual testing; the operator's interpretation of a waveform is no longer such a key fac the setup is prepared, the same results are repeatedly obtained. We look forward to the first weld testing using portable phased arrays.
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The arrival of portable phased arrays may have one other major effect on the NDT industry: significantly increased productivity could offset the upcoming shortage of qualified inspectors.
CONCLUSIONS Portable phased arrays are commercially and technically viable for a wide range of applications. They h advantages for high speed testing, setup flexibility, multiple test angles and wave modes and limited acc testing. They should be cost effective for a number of standard applications (for example, welds) and sta code compliant procedures should significantly increase their application. One should expect more port phased array applications in the near future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people at R/D Tech have assisted in the development of this instrument. In particular, Pierre Langl spearheaded the development and Chris Magruder, Philippe Cyr, Simon Labb and others worked on v applications. Also, several external companies have assisted with one or more of the examples here, in Eclipse Scientific Products, OPG, Materials Research Institute, Washington Group International and Nor Airlines.
REFERENCES Ciorau, P., D. MacGillivray, T. Hazelton, L. Gilham, D. Craig and J. Poguet, "In-situ Examination of ABB Blade Roots and Rotor Steeple of Low-pressure Steam Turbine, Using Phased Array Technology," 15th Conference on NDT, Rome, Italy, October 2000.
Clay, A.C., S.-C. Wooh, L. Azar and J.-Y. Wang, "Experimental Study of Phased Array Beam Character Journal of NDE, Vol. 18, No. 2, June 1999, p. 59.
Labb, S., "Signal Analysis for Automated 'Go/Nogo' Inspection of Complex Geometries Using Ultrason Phased Arrays," 16th World Conference on NDT, Montral, Canada, August-September 2004. Lafontaine, G. and F. Cancre, "Potential of Ultrasonic Phased Arrays for Faster, Better and Cheaper Inspections," NDT.net, Vol. 5, No. 10, October 2000, <www.ndt.net/article/v05n10/lafont2/lafont2.htm>. R/D Tech, Introduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology Applications: R/D Tech Guideline, City, Canada, R/D Tech, 2004.
Wstenberg, H., A. Erhard and G. Shenk, "Some Characteristic Parameters of Ultrasonic Phased Array and Equipments," NDT.net, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1999, www.ndt.net/article/v04n04/wuesten/wuesten.htm
* R/D Tech, 4615 E. Broadway, Suite 2, Long Beach, CA 90803; (562) 439-3102; fax (562) 439-2102; <jesse.granillo@rd-tech.com>.
+
R/D Tech, 73 Superior Avenue, Toronto, ON M8V 2M7, Canada; (416) 831-4428; fax (416) 255-5882 <michael.moles@rd-tech.com>.
Copyright
2005 by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. All rights reserved.
Copyright 2012 by the American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or a information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT.
IRRSP, NDT Handbook , The NDT Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of the American Society for Nondestructive Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive Testing Handbook , Research in Nondestruc Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT e i oc afe o ld b p omo ing he p ofe ion and echnologie of nonde c i e e ing. .a n .o g/p blica ion /ma e ial e al/ba ic /ap 05ba ic /ap 05ba ic .h m 12/13
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