Process Capability & Statistical Quality Control

A B Raju

Statistical Quality Control (SQC)

Define Statistics

Statistical Quality Control (SQC)

Statistics is a science concerned with the collection, organisation, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.

Statistical Quality Control (SQC)

Statistics is a science concerned with the collection, organisation, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data. SQC is defined as The technique of applying statistical methods based upon the theory of probability to quality control problems with the purpose of establishing quality standard and maintaining adherence to those standards in most economical manner.

SQC
Statistical Processes & Methods:

SQC
Statistical Processes & Methods: Data Collection

SQC
Statistical Processes & Methods: Data Collection Organisation & presentation - Frequency distributions - Histograms

SQC
Statistical Processes & Methods: Data Collection Organisation & presentation - Frequency distributions - Histograms Descriptive Measures - Central tendency (mean, median, mode) - Dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance)

SQC
Statistical Processes & Methods: Data Collection Organisation & presentation - Frequency distributions - Histograms Descriptive Measures - Central tendency (mean, median, proportions) - Dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance) Statistical Inference - Hypothesis testing - Experimental design

SQC
Statistical Processes & Methods: Data Collection Organisation & presentation - Frequency distributions - Histograms Descriptive Measures - Central tendency (mean, median, proportions) - Dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance) Statistical Inference - Hypothesis testing - Experimental design Predictive Statistics - Correlation analysis - Regression analysis

SQC
Descriptive statistics:

SQC
Descriptive statistics: - Tabular summarisation : tally marks, frequency

SQC
Descriptive statistics: - Tabular summarisation : tally marks, frequency - Graphical summarisation: Histogram

SQC
Descriptive statistics: - Tabular summarisation : tally marks, frequency - Graphical summarisation: Histogram - Box and whisker plots

SQC
Descriptive statistics: - Tabular summarisation : tally marks, frequency - Graphical summarisation: Histogram - Box and whisker plots - Quantitative methods
- Mean / average - Standard deviation

SQC
Descriptive statistics: - Tabular summarisation : tally marks, frequency - Graphical summarisation: Histogram - Box and whisker plots - Quantitative methods
- Mean / average - Standard deviation

Probability Distributions - Normal - Exponential - Weibull - Poisson - Bionomial

SQC
Pareto Principle/Analysis Analysis of data to where we see a few contributors are responsible for bulk of costs, damages etc., This principle can be applied to cost of quality , suppliers , type of defects etc.,

7 Quality Control Tools

Pareto Analysis diagram for tallying the percentage of defects resulting from different causes to identify major quality problems Flow Chart diagram of the steps in a process Check sheet a fact finding tool for tallying the number of defects for a list of previously identified problems causes Histogram diagram showing the frequency of data related to a quality problem Scatter diagram graph showing the relationship between 2 variables in a process Control chart chart with upper and lower limits Cause and effect diagram also called fish bone diagram

Statistical Process Control (SPC)

SPC can be defined as the application of statistical methods to the measurement and analysis of variation in any process. Quality Measurement in Manufacturing - Quality of out put: First quality Amount of scrap/rework No. of defects found after inspection - Quality of input: Mfg.down-time Input meeting specs. Instrument calibration

Process variation
Processes that provide goods and services usually exhibit some variation in their output. Variation that is caused by factors that can be clearly identified and possibly even managed is called Assignable variation Variation that is inherent in the process itself is called Common variation

SPC
Statistical Control Charts It is a graphic comparison of process performance data to compute control limits. Process variations are because of two causes 1. Common (random or chance) 2. Special (Assignable) The main objective of control charts is detecting assignable (special) causes of variation in a process. A Process that is operating without special causes of variation is said to be in in a state of statistical control. Control limits are calculated using the laws of probability.

SPC
Random variations are acceptable but in the new age competition lower variation has become an important tool. Steps in setting up a control chart: 1. Choose the characteristic to be charted. (a pareto analysis of high occuring defects or Identifying process variables and conditions which contribute to the end product characteristics). 2. Choosing the type of control chart 3. Deciding the central line 4. A system for collecting data 5. Calculating control limits 6. Plotting data and interpreting the results.

SPC
Some of the control charts are - R Charts (amount of dispersion Range) - X Charts (process average) - P Charts (Proportion nonconforming) - C charts (No. of non-conforming)

SPC
X and R Charts For a normal distribution scenario, the control limits at 3 UCL = X+A2R LCL = X -A2R Short cut is UCL = D4R LCL = D3R X = Grand average = average of the sample averages R = Average of the sample ranges A2 = constant found from the tables D3 & D4 = Again constants that can be obtained from tables n = No. of readings in each sample

Constants for X and R charts

SPC
D3 D4 0 0 0 0 0 0.076 0.136 0.184 0.223 3.268 2.574 2.282 2.114 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777 d2 1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.97 3.078

n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A2 1.88 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308

Process Capability : Most widely adopted is the 3 (a total of 6 sigma) Cp Capability ratio = Specification Range process capability = UCL-LCL 6s S=R/d2 S = an estimate of

SPC

SPC
Capability Index Cpk Cp refers to variation in a process Cpk reflects both variation and location of the process average Cpk = min (X-LCL , UCL-X) 3s 3s

Process capability and Product outside specification limits

SPC

Process Total product outside 2 sided spec. limits capability 0.5 0.67 1 1.33 1.63 2 13.36% 4.55% 0.3% 64 ppm 1 ppm 0

Limits X 0.6745 s X s X 2s X 3s

% total area within specified limits 50 68.26 95.46 99.73

SPC
For example UCL = 20 LCL = 8 X=16 s=2 Capability ratio = UCL-LCL/6s=(20-8)/12 = 1.0 Capability index=min of (16-8)/6, (20-16)/6 = 0.67

SPC
P-Chart:
With a p-chart, a sample is taken periodically from the production or service process and the proportion of defective items in the sample is determined to see if the proportion falls within the control limits on the chart. UCL = p+zp LCL = p+zp z = no. of standard deviations from the process average p= the sample proportion defective; an estimate of the process average p = the standard deviation of the sample proportion The sample standard deviation is computed as p = [p(1-p)/n]

SPC
C-chart: A c-chart is used when it is not possible to compute a proportion defective and the actual no. of defects must be used UCL = c+zc LCL = c-zc c = c

Acceptance Sampling
Need of sampling

Acceptance Sampling
Need of sampling Cost to justify inspection 100% inspection is justified when the cost of a loss incurred by not inspecting is greater than inspection
Eg.: fault of item results in Rs.10 loss and average defects are 3%, then the expected cost of faulty item is ).03 x Rs.10 = Rs.0.30 each. So if cost of inspection of each item is less than Rs.0.30 then only it makes sense to inspect 100%

Acceptance Sampling
Need of sampling Cost to justify inspection 100% inspection is justified when the cost of a loss incurred by not inspecting is greater than inspection
Eg.: fault of item results in Rs.10 loss and average defects are 3%, then the expected cost of faulty item is ).03 x Rs.10 = Rs.0.30 each. So if cost of inspection of each item is less than Rs.0.30 then only it makes sense to inspect 100%

Sampling is needed only when the quantity of output is very high.

Acceptance Sampling
Need of sampling Cost to justify inspection 100% inspection is justified when the cost of a loss incurred by not inspecting is greater than inspection
Eg.: fault of item results in Rs.10 loss and average defects are 3%, then the expected cost of faulty item is ).03 x Rs.10 = Rs.0.30 each. So if cost of inspection of each item is less than Rs.0.30 then only it makes sense to inspect 100%

Sampling is needed only when the quantity of output is very high. Objective (of the producer) is to ensure that the sampling plan has a low probability of rejecting good lots. Lots are classified as good if they contain no more than a specified level of defectives (known as acceptable quality level AQL).

Acceptance Sampling
Need of sampling Cost to justify inspection 100% inspection is justified when the cost of a loss incurred by not inspecting is greater than inspection
Eg.: fault of item results in Rs.10 loss and average defects are 3%, then the expected cost of faulty item is ).03 x Rs.10 = Rs.0.30 each. So if cost of inspection of each item is less than Rs.0.30 then only it makes sense to inspect 100%

Sampling is needed only when the quantity of output is very high. Objective (of the producer) is to ensure that the sampling plan has a low probability of rejecting good lots. Lots are classified as good if they contain no more than a specified level of defectives (known as acceptable quality level AQL). Eg.: HPs insistence on 2% AQL from a Japanese vendor

Acceptance Sampling
Need of sampling Cost to justify inspection 100% inspection is justified when the cost of a loss incurred by not inspecting is greater than inspection
Eg.: fault of item results in Rs.10 loss and average defects are 3%, then the expected cost of faulty item is ).03 x Rs.10 = Rs.0.30 each. So if cost of inspection of each item is less than Rs.0.30 then only it makes sense to inspect 100%

Sampling is needed only when the quantity of output is very high. Objective (of the producer) is to ensure that the sampling plan has a low probability of rejecting good lots. Lots are classified as good if they contain no more than a specified level of defectives (known as acceptable quality level AQL). Eg.: HPs insistence on 2% AQL from a Japanese vendor Objective (from consumers side) is to ensure that the sampling plan has a low probability of accepting a bad lot. Lots are classified as low quality if the percentage of defectives is more than a specified amount called Lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD)