Indus script corpora and business transactions of jangad, entrustment note

S. Kalyanaraman, Ph.D., Sarasvati Research Center (April 12, 2012)

This monograph posits a function served by the seals of Indus script corpora that the hieroglyphs used on such seals were intended to connote entrustment notes ( jng) for trade transactions from Meluhha and constituted an improvement in documentation and control of guild (corporation) transactions over the earlier system of tokens, tallies and bullae. The military guard who delivered products into the treasury is called jangaiyo (Gujarati). The business tradition of jangad continues even today among diamond merchants/cutters of India. The monograph is organized in the following sections: Young bull + lathe hieroglyphs on Indus seals Indus writing system in Susa and harosheth hagoyim, smithy of nations Trefoil as an Indian hieroglyph: association with veneration of ancestors, sacredness

Young bull + lathe hieroglyphs on Indus seals A seal impression was found at Tell Umma. This showed the hieroglyphs of young bull + lathe, a hieroglyphic set which is common in the Indus script corpora of now over 6000 inscriptions. What did these two hieroglyphs mean? An attempt is made to decode the hieroglyphs reading them rebus in Meluhha (Mleccha) language of the Indian sprachbund.

Seal impression of Tell Umma with Indus writing

Impression of a unicorn seal thought to come from Tell Umma. Cited in Gregory L. Possehl, The Middle Asian Interaction Sphere, Expedition, UPenn, p.41. Umma (modern Tell Jokha/Djoha) was a Sumerian city state in entral southern Mesopotamia. One-horned heifer. Scheil 1925. Indicative of the receipt of goods from the Sarasvati-Sindhu and of the possible presence of Indus traders in Mesopotamia. Tell Asmar seals, together with ceramics, knobbed ware, etched beads and kidney shaped inlay of bone provide supporting evidence for this possibility. http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/49-1/Research%20Notes.pdf See: S. Kalyanaraman, 2011, Decoding Indus script Susa cylinder seal: Susa-Indus interaction areas. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/102138513/Decoding-Indus-Scipt-Susa-cylinder-seal-SusaIndus-interaction-areas-(Kalyanaraman-2011) Hypothesis: Tokens as tallies evolved as seals with 'lathe' hieroglyph: 'entrustment receipts'. Functions of Indus seals in evolution of writing system. [Evidence of seal impressions of Kanmer which could be strung together the way tokens were strung together, as demonstrated by Denise Schmand-Besserat.] The seals with these hieroglyphs may be jangad 'for approval' process/trade transactions (say, between workers' platforms to warehouse or from warehouse to sales agents). Since modern use of 'heifer' refers to a young cow, I would like to correct the meaning of koiyum (G.) as 'young bull, bull-calf'. The cognate term in Telugu: [ kiya ] Same as [ ke ] ke. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. . A young bull. [ kha ] m A young bull, a

bullcalf.(Marathi) ['Heifer' may be derived from Old English heahfore; related to Greek poris calf, bull.]

Harappa h006 Seal and impression. Many seals depict a hieroglyphic composition: (1) one-horned heifer with pannier and neckrings; and (2) a gimlet/lathe on portable furnace. koiyum young bull (G.) ko horn (Kuwi) koiyum rings on neck; a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal (Gujarati.) [kh] m A a lathe(B.) of which one end is formed into a cowl or hood (Marathi). kd to turn in knda engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems (Marathi) kdr turner, [ khdakra ] n an engraver; a carver (Oriya). Glyph: sangaa [jnga] a tally of products delivered into the warehouse for

brass-worker(Bengali) lathe (Marathi) Rebus:

approval (Marathi). Rebus: ko artisans workshop (Kuwi) cf. [ kha ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge.(Marathi) See: H jka [fr. S. + ; cf. jakan], s.m. A deposit or pledge left with a vendor for goods brought away for inspection or approval; goods taken from a shop for approval, a deposit or pledge being left; a conditional purchase; articles taken on commission sale;adv. On inspection, for approval:jka-bah, s.f. Account book of sales subject to approval of goods, &c.:jka ben, v.t. To sell conditionally, or subject to approval:jka le jn, v.t. To take away goods on inspection, or for approval, leaving a deposit or pledge with the vendor. (Urdu) Note: The meaning of jangad is well-settled in Indian legal system. Jangad meand "Goods sent on approval or 'on sale or return' It is well-known that the jangad transactions in this country are very common and often involve property of a considerable value." Bombay High Court Emperor vs Phirozshah Manekji Gandhi on 13 June, 1934 Equivalent citations: (1934) 36 BOMLR 731, 152 Ind Cas 706 Source: http://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/39008/ Jangad sale is sale on approval and/or consignment basis (that is, taken without definite settlement of purchase). Discussion of sales on jangad (approval) basis: http://www.lawyersclubindia.com/sc/INDRURAMCHAND-BHARVANI-AND-OTHERS-Vs-UNION-OF-INDIA-OTHERS-281.asp

http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1802495/?type=print [quote]The effect of these terms on the relation between the parties, and the possession of the goods in the hands of the broker, was considered by Madgavkar J. in an unreported judgment in Kanga Jaghirdar & Co. v. Fatehchand Hirachand (1929) O.C.J. Suit No. 1117 of 1928. At that time the relative section of the Indian Contract Act did not contain the expression "mercantileagent" but only "person". On a consideration of the terms mentioned above the learned Judge came to the conclusion that the possession obtained under a document worded as aforesaid was not juridical possession within the meaning of Section 178 of the Indian Contract Act. As regards the term jangad used in the document the learned Judge observed as follows : "Assuming that jangad in Gujerati ordinarily means 'approval' there is no reason to assume that the goods entrusted jangad are goods to be sold on approval, rather than goods to be shown for approval...The dictionary meaning of the word "jangad" is "approval". As stated by Madgavkar J. in the passage quoted above, having regard to the printed terms in this case, there appears no reason to assume that the diamonds were entrusted to defendants Nos. 1 and 2 to be sold on approval and not that they were given to them to be shown for approval. In my opinion taking the document as a whole, it is clear that they were given to defendants Nos, 1 and 2 to be shown for approval only...It is, therefore, clear that by the delivery of 173 diamonds to him, even on jangad terms, no property can pass to him under Section 24 of the Sale of Goods Act." [unquote]http://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/1749483/ In one transaction involving diamonds, the case states: "The diamonds were forwarded along with writings titled "ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF ENTRUSTMENT". In the trade they are known as "Jangad" notes. The eight diamonds were forwarded under three identical Jangad notes which also specified the value of the diamonds in Rupees per carat. " http://indiankanoon.org/doc/910302/ Jangad note is typically used in diamond business transactions. "...jangad receipts (letters/bills issued by diamond owners to whom the diamonds are given for the purpose of business prior to sale/export etc." http://www.sitcinfo.com/content/directTaxes/decisions/viewfile.asp?CFN=32591RC.htm Diamond rough processing: "Each Unit Head sends goods for laser kerfing or sawing. Records of such goods are maintained in registers. Whenever goods are sent to sub contractors for laser operations. Jangads are prepared. Goods meant for laser kerfing are fixed in cassettes and sent to laser division or sub contractors. Diamonds for sawing are sent loose. All goods are sent with details of cut number, quantity, weight, and any other specific instruction that is required."http://www.diamjewels.in/infrastructure.htm Comment: It is clear that jangad note is a documentation of a business transaction for property items. It is remarkable that the trade/pocess transaction tradition is traceable to hieroglyphs of Indus writing. The pronunciation in Gujarati is janga relatable to jangiyo a military guard who
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accompanies treasure into the treasury.(Gujarati lexicon) Thus janga is interpreted as 'acknowledgment of entrustment' [of property item(s), which are listed by other hieroglyphs on a seal or seal impression.] The word 'angaia' comes from janga and means 'trust'. [ agai ] angadi. [Drav.] (Gen. shop. range of shops. Loc. , plu. ) n. A shop. to open a a market place. aki , n. [T.K. agai,

selling in the shop.

he revealed or exposed the matter.

M. a.] Bazaar, bazaar street; .( . 14, 179.) Ta. aki bazaar, bazaar street. Ma. ai shop, bazaar. Ko. agay id. To. ogoy bazaar (? < Badaga). Ka. agai shop, stall. Ko. agai id. Tu. agai id. Te. agai id. Kol. agai bazaar. Nk. agi id. Nk. (Ch.) ag market. Pa. ago courtyard, compound. / ? Cf. Skt. agaa- courtyard. (DEDR 35). agana n. act of walking lex., courtyard R., aa -- n. Klid. [ag] Pa. agaa -- n. open space before palace ; Pk. agaa -- n. courtyard , K. gun dat. -- anas m., S. aau m., WPah. bhad. agan pl. -- gn n., Ku. a, N. an, B. gan, gin, Or. aga, dial. gan, Bi. gan, gn, gn (B ), Mth. gan, Bhoj. an, . gan, gn, agn m. (X uhn s.v. upasthna -- ), G. ga, g n., M. g n., Ko. gaa, go n., i. angaa, anguuva. -- Deriv. L. mult. aga f. the grains that remain on the threshing floor after division ; G. giy n. open space about a house .(CDIAL 118) Source: J.R.Lunagariya, Ahmedabad | Last Updated 12:09[IST](13/12/2010) , "['approval' sale]" is a wellrecognized business transaction as note in this Gujarati article. http://business.divyabhaskar.co.in/article/jangad-selling---f-form-need1644327.html?PRVNX= That 'jangad' means an "Entrust Receipt" is explained in the rules of Diamond Platform in Mumbai (Bombay): http://www.diamondplatformmumbai.com/CompanyProfilePage.aspx emantics of association: sang horn, sang stone, sang association, guild; sangar fortified observation post. As words get used in socio-cultural contexts, semantic expansion occurs. It is possible that the alternative or additional meanings were also read rebus when decoding rebus the two hieroglyphs: one-horn and portable furnace/lathe. ome seals show the orthography of a pierced hole glyphs attached to the bottom vessel of the lathe. These could connote stone (ore) with perforation. The top register of the lathe hieroglyph denotes a gimlet, while the bottom register shows a vessel with smoke emanating : san:gho, sagha (G.) = firepan; sagha, aghai = a pot for holding fire (G.) sanga lathe/portable furnace A word used to denote a horn in some languages of the Indian linguistic area is: saga horn rga made of horn Sur., n. bow MBh. [ ga -- ] Pk. saga -- made of horn ; a.lau. g f.(?) horn (or < ga -- ). (CDIAL 12409). *rgala horned . [rga -- ] a.lau.
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agala a small horn ; K. h gul m. the stag Cervus wallichii .(CDIAL 12410). This word saga could be a reinforcement of the sang- in: sanga lathe. A rebus word denotes stone : (sang) m, indi spelling: stone, weight; association, union (Persian. Hindi) Hence, the following semantic expansions related to (1) stone (ore) work and (2) stone fortifications (which are characteristic features of many ancient settlement sites of the civilization): Semantics: stonefortified settlement with enclosures courtyards -- for trade. ang, stone (+) angaa courtyard cf.angi shop. The word sang may also denote an association, guild. . sangatarsu stone-cutter (Telugu). san:gatar = stone cutter; san:gatari = stone-cutting; san:gsru karan.u = to stone (S.) 2. Lahnda: sgah m. line of entrenchments, stone walls for defense .(CDIAL 12845) Sangar connotes a stone fortification or breastwork of stone by defending guards of an army. ( ushto) ankata obstacle is semantically relatable to the sangar defensive observation post. angars - During the Afghan wars of the 'Great Game' tribesmen would hide in the crevices of the rocky mountainsides to observe and to shoot at the British soldiers. These would shoot back, so the positions would be fortified with slabs of rock, embrasures, roofs, camouflage. The Afghan word for these tiny little forts is Sangar. Things have not changed much, and a Sangar is an Observation-Post (OP) which is protected against incoming ordnance and the weather, and from which weapons as well as binoculars could be used. A angar is a fortified O . http://www.defence-structures.com/glossary.htm angar referred to a stone breastwork, used by the British army on the northwest frontier of India where it was generally impossible to dig protective trenches. 3. ) Linking or joining together (Marathi). connection, association. comrade, fellow. [ sagati ] c (S) pop. [ sagatsbat ] m ( & [ sgaa ] f (Verbal of f Union, junction, [ sagati ] f (S) pop. c or

c A companion, associate, ) A comprehensive or general

term for Companions or associates.

[ saga ] m (S) Union, junction, connection, association,

companionship, society. [ saghaa ] v i (Poetry. ) To come into contact or meeting; to meet or encounter. (Marathi) sangta association, guild M. s ga to link together . (CDIAL 12855). Pa. k (pl. kul) horn; Ka. ku horn, tusk, branch of a tree; kr horn Tu. k, ku horn ( (DEDR 2200) ku Horn; . ( . . . 21). Ko. K (obl. K-) horns (one horn is kob), half of hair on each side of parting, side in game, log, section of bamboo used as fuel, line marked out. To. Kw (obl. Kw-) horn, branch, path across stream in thicket. Ka. Ku horn, tusk, branch of a tree; kr horn. Te. Ku rivulet, branch of a river. (DEDR 2200) Standard device often shown in front of a one-horned heifer [read rebus as sgaa that member of a turner's apparatus by which the piece to be turned is confined and steadied To take into linked-ness or close connection with, lit. fig. (Marathi); rebus: sangho cutting stone, gilding (Gujarati)] Thus, together, the pair of hieroglyphs may relate to a semantic indication of 1) an engraver working with stone (ore) either for perforated beads or for other metal work converting stone (ore) to metals and alloyed metals and 2) the definition of the place where the work is performed, say, a settlement with stone fortification. Hence, the possible readings of the two glyphs: sgah ko artisan-workshop courtyards within stone fortification, i.e. a fortified settlement of lapidaries
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guild. Thus, the word sangad may have had two substantive semantics which can be reasonably deduced: 1. Consignment for approval; and 2. Made by turners/engravers/stone (ore) workers' guild, of a fortified (guild) settlement. Further researches are needed on the economic developments in ancient India, following the work, Economic history of ancient India (Santosh Kumar Das, 1944). This work presents an evaluation of ancient texts from which business practices can be gleaned. It is necessary to firmly delineate the chronological evolution of production and trade practices of business in the Indian sprachbund which had evolved since 3500 BCE within a broad framework of 'trusteeship' evidenced by the practice of 'jangad' or entrustment note, comparable to consignment basis for display of products in a shopfront. Chronology of language evolution in Indian sprachbund A falsifiable hypothesis is postulated that it is possible to identify and provide rebus readings from glosses of present-day languagues and can be used to define the contours of Indian sprachbund formed from ca. 3500 BCE. Marathi as we know today is a lot different, yes, from Meluhha of Indian sprachbund of 3500 BCE. See Jules Bloch 'La formation de la langue marathe' [The Formation of the Marathi Language], thesis, [1914/1920], Prix Volney. It is part of Indian sprachbund. Most languages of India today have existed for millenia. A good account of the ancient history of Marathi vernacular, an apabhraa language of Prktam family is at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_language Reconstructing proto-indo-aryan vocabulary will be a good start which will help rebus readings of hieroglyphs on Indus writing. This ain't an article of faith. This can be enlarged as a falsifiable hypothesis. Kuiper's and Colin Masica's work on Munda and Language X are path-breakers. The challenge for linguists and philologists is to reconstruct that ancient form of mleccha vaacas (meluhha speech). This term for an ancient speech is attested in ancient texts. When a greater challenge of reconstructing Proto-IE has been joined with a lot of * words, there is no reason why a billion people now speaking languages of Indian sprachbund cannot join the challenge I have posed. There are substratum words which are being compiled, e.g. SARVA project of Southworth, UPenn. (and, of course, my Indian Lexicon of 25+ ancient languages). The challenge to all scholars, engaged in studies of ancient people, is to reconstruct that old form which I have hypothesised as Meluhha (mleccha). SARVA project and my lexicon are just a beginning. Just as CDIAL of Turner was a beginning to provide Indo-Aryan vocabulary. A lot of work done subsequently led to the now prevalent sprachbund thesis. This has to be carried forward to trace all 'technology' words as technology changes got recorded in harosheth hagoyim, 'smithy of nations'. Many language lexicons with glosses, do retain memories of the past. Some words are not remembered in some dialects, some are in some other dialects, as languages differentiate into dialects and assume the characteristics of a 'language' with unique morphological, phonetic, semantic and grammatical characteristics. This is how many 'substrate' words are identified even
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in Sumerian for example: words such as sanga 'priest', tibira 'merchant'. The key is to list such substrate words and read them rebus, which is what I have attempted in my Indian Hieroglyphs (2012). This is a work intended to be 'torn apart' -- critically rebutted -- by scholars of various disciplines so that the final hazy picture emerges from the mists of the past. One such attempt is to relate 'trefoil' hieroglyphs of ancient Uruk/Indus and Egypt. When cuneiform had been decoded, there is no reason to be dispirited and gasp about the impossibility of decoding Indus script. It can be and has been decoded in a firm, archaeological context of the bronze age. The recognition of Indian sprachbund itself is a breakthrough, even as it is endorsed by one of the authors who compiled Dravidian Etymological Dictionary. He had to concede that there is a 'Language X'. Now, it has also to be conceded that 'Munda' also existed in 4th millennium 'Iran'. Language X + Munda constitute the crux of the glosses of Meluhha (Mleccha) in so far as they relate to the new inventions of words to define a metallurgical repertoire of the bronze-age. When a steam-engine was invented, words had to be used to denote the locomotive. A combination of words was used to define the technological innovation coming out of James Watt's discovery of the steaming kettle throwing out the lid: steam + engine. The history of Indo-aryan languages has NOT yet been fully told. Now the ruling hypothesis is Indian sprachbund. Work is ongoing to spell out the contours of this bund. Until Language X and interactions with Munda for Indo-Aryan substratum words are clearly demarcated, the debate will stay joined. Indus writing system in Susa and harosheth hagoyim,smithy of nations Abstract Susa was a settlement which was founded around 4000 BCE and had yielded a number of tablets inscribed in Proto-Elamite writing with apparent cuneiform script. Based on the evidences of cuneiform records of contacts with Meluhha, Magan and Dilmun, and the context of the evolving bronze-age, it is possible to evaluate Indus writing in Susa and provide a framework for deciphering Indus writing using the underlying Meluhha language. Judges 4:16 reads: "Now Barak chased the chariots and the army all the way to Harosheth Hagoyim. Sisera's whole army died by the edge of the sword; not even one survived!" The reason for the use of the phrase harosheth hagoyim smithy of nations is possibly, a widespread presence of smithy in many bronze- and iron-age settlements, some of which might have produced metallic war-chariots. Indus writing which starts ca. 3500 BCE was a sequel to the system of using tokens and tallies to record property transactions. There is evidence for the presence of Meluhhan settlements in Susa and neighboring regions. Susa finds of cylinder seals and seal impressions, bas-relief of spinner and a ritual basin with hieroglyphs of Indus writing can be consistently interpreted in the Meluhhan language in the context of the evolving bronze-age trade ransactions.kharo (cognate with harosheth) was a syllabic writing system with intimations of contacts with Aramaic writing system. Though early evidences of kharo documents are dated to ca. early 5th century BCE, it is likely that some form of contract documentation using a proto-form of kharo was perhaps used by artisans and traders, across a vast interaction area which covered a wide geographic area
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from Kyrgystan (Tocharian) to Haifa (Israel, Seaport on Mediterranean Ocean) across Sarasvati-Sindu river-basins, Tigris-Euphrates doab, Caspian Sea, and Mediterranean Ocean of three civilizations Indus, Mesopotamia and Egypt. The evidence of about 6000 Indus script inscriptions provides the details of products traded in this harosheth hagoyim, a smithy of nations, indeed. Keywords: Indus writing, Meluhha, Mleccha, Dilmun, Magan, Indian sprachbund, harosheth hagoyim, bronze-age, Susa The monograph is presented in the following sections: arosheth hagoyim, smithy of nations Evolving bronze-age and use of tallies, tokens, bullae for archives Use of tallies, tokens, bullae for archives in the Near East Decoding of the identical inscription on the three tablets of Kanmer Conjecturing a parallel with Sumer bulla envelope system Presence of Meluhhan merchant (Shu-ilishu cylinder seal) Evidence for the use of hieroglyphs from Indus writing in Susa 1. usa pot with

2. Cylinder seal of Susa with Indus writing 3. Seal impression of Tell Umma with Indus writing 4. Cylinder Seal of Ibni-Sharrum 5. Goat-fish ligatured hieroglyph of Indus writing on usa vat 6. Bas-relief of spinner with hieroglyphs of Indus writing 7. Susa stamp seals from the Persian Gulf 8. Indus writing hieroglyphs in Mesopotamian artefacts Functions of many seals to denote source of product and for approval trade transactions Archaeological framework for metals trade at Susa/Mesopotamia Indus writing used hieroglyphs: context bronze-age Trough as a hieroglyph Archaeology and language: Archaeological context of Indus writing, ca. 3500 BCE
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Indus writing corpora and evidence related to proto-Indian or proto-Indic or Indus language : Meluhha (mleccha) Daha, dasyu, 'people' Decoding Salut seal with Indian hieroglyphs (Indus script) Annex A: Indus writing hieroglyphs Harosheth hagoyim, smithy of nations Judges 4:16 reads: "Now Barak chased the chariots and the army all the way to Harosheth Hagoyi m. Sisera's whole army died by the edge of the sword; not even one survived !" Haroshe th hagoyim is explained as smithy of nations. A cognate word for harosheth is kharo, the name given to a writing system. Consistent with the interpretation of harosheth as smithy, kharo is interpreted as a writing system ued by smiths working with and trading in minerals, metals and alloys. There are indications that kharo syllabic system (with 252 signs for consonant and vowel combinations) is concordant with Aramaic alphabetic writing system. More than 150 inscriptions in Indian scripts kharo and brhm and languages (Prkrit and Sanskrit or hybrid Sanskrit) were found at Kara-tepe, as well as 35 at Fayaz-tepe.(Richard Salomon, 1998, Indian Epigraphy, OUP, p.5). The earliest kharo inscription is dated to 251BCE. British Museum AN784107001 Description Silver coin. (obverse) Animal (deer/stag) with multiple horns to right, with a jayadhvaja (svastika) below the deer between the two legs of the animal. Facing the animal is a female figure (Lakshm) with
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lotus in her uplifted right hand represented by three small lines joined to the stalk almost looking like a tree-on-railing. Left hand of the deity is hanging down, above the deer is a box with parasol on it, loose garment hanging down from the hands of the deity is absent. Circular Brhm legend at the border beginning around 8 clock. (reverse) Jayadhvaja, svastika above six arched hill with parasol topped by nandipada symbol. River symbol below with tree in railing to the right. ircular legend in Kharosh. http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_object_details.as px?currentpage=14&toadbc=ad&objectid=3240594&images=on&orig=%2Fresearch%2Fsearch _the_collection_database.aspx&partid=1&searchtext=lakshmi&fromadbc=ad&numpages=10 The reading of the two transcriptions (brhm and kharo) is the same: Inscription transliteration: Rj a Ku(i)dasa Am(o)ghabhtisa Mahrjasa. Inscription translation: Great King Amoghabhti, of the Kunindas.

brhm script inscription on Kuninda coin (Obverse) kharo script inscription on Kuninda coin (Reverse)

Kuninda coin composite.

A sample of Kuninda coins found in Shimla district. Source: http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000603/himachal.htm#1

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One view is that kharo was introduced into Gandhara-Afghanistan and the North-west frontiers of India during the early part of the 5th century BCE as a result of Achaemenian conquests eastwards. (Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Coins, The collection of the American Numismatic Society, New York 1998. Loc.cit. Sam Kerr, 1999, Kharoshti script: a brief essay http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Languages/kharoshti_script.htm) Why were brhm and kharo inscriptions used together with Indus Script hieroglyphs antelope, svastika, six-arched hill, nandipaada (explained further as a form of ligatured two fish-tails)? I suggest that the brhm and kharo inscriptions were used to precisely represent syllabically the legend on the coin referring to the king whose mint issued the coin. That is, brhm and kharo scripts were deployed to denote information about the name of the king and his title. Indus script hieroglyphs were used to denote the principal repertoire of smiths/mints in the Indus script tradition -- using the hieroglyphs in the context of economic/trade transactions. It has been argued elsewhere [Indian Hieroglyphs Invention of Writing, S. Kalyanaraman (2012) http://tinyurl.com/dyca787] that me antelope connoted rebus iron; ka mountain-top connoted rebus guild(i.e., an iron and zinc guild of the mint); Tree-on-railing: ku branch of tree; Rebus: ko workshop (Kuwi) koe forge ( antali) Kui (K.) koi hoe. (DEDR 2064) Glyph: tree: kui tree. Rebus: kuhi smelter furnace ( antali). Mountain/Summit: Ta. mai artificial mound Ma. ma raised place / Cf. Skt. (lex.) meawhitewashed storied house; Pkt. meaya- id. (DEDR 4 96b) Rebus: med. iron (Mu.) koe meed = forged iron, in contrast to dul meed, cast iron (Mundari.lex.) Svastika: sathiy (H.), sthiyo (G.); satthia, sotthia (Pkt.) Rebus: svastika pewter (Kannada) A woman is holding up a cord: B. dm, dm cord; Rebus: dhrma m. what is established, law, duty, right AV. [dhrman -- n. RV. -- dhr] Pa. dhamma -- m. (rarely n.), A.shah. man. dhrama -- , gir. kl. &c. dhama -- ; iDoc. dhama employment in the royal administration ; Dhp. dharma -- , dhama - , Pk. dhamma -- m.; OB. dhma religious conduct ; H. kmdhm work, business ; OSi. dama religion (Si. daham Pa.) (CDIAL 6753). A variant of this hieroglyph (appearing on Salut seal depicted later in this monograph) also occurs on the Kuninda coin which also showed other Indus writing hieroglyphs such as tree-on-railing, svastika. This hieroglyph is decoded as: ranku liquid measure; rebus: ranku tin. Antelope: Glyph: mil markhor (Tor.wali) meho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: me iron (Ho.) meed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.) Just as Aramaic was used by traders, kharo was used by artisans of a mint to provide information on metallurgical traditions/competence. It is possible that some early form kharo continued to be used together with hieroglyphs of Indus writing for other alloy/metal/mineral trade transactions.
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The artisans guild from Indus (Meluhha) assumed the form of a multi-national corporation, attested by harosheth hagoyim, [cognate: kharo goy (Meluhha/mleccha)] smithy of nations mentioned in the Old Testament. It appears that the Meluhhans were in contact with many interaction areas, Dilmun and Susa (elam) in particular. There is evidence for Meluhhan settlements outside of Meluhha. It is a reasonable inference that the Meluhhans with bronze-age expertise of creating arsenical and bronze alloys and working with other metals constituted the smithy of nations, arosheth agoyim. This hypothesis is confirmed by harosheth, (cognate kharo) tradition. kharo was a syllabic writing system with intimations of contacts with Aramaic writing system. Though early evidences of kharo documents are dated to ca. 3rd century BCE, it is likely that some form of contract documentation using a proto-form of kharo was perhaps used by artisan and traders, across a vast interaction area which covered a wide geographic area from Kyrgystan (Tocharian) to Haifa (Israel, Seaport on Mediterranean Ocean) across Sarasvati-Sindu river-basins, TigrisEuphrates doab, Caspian Sea, and Mediterranean Ocean of three civilizations Indus, Mesopotamia and Egypt. The evidence of about 6000 Indus script inscriptions provides the details of products traded in this harosheth hagoyim, a smithy of nations, indeed. Harosheth is spelt in pronunciation: khar-o'-sheth. Harosheth and cognate kharo may mean workmanship or art of writing, apart from connoting specifically blacksmiths writing system. Artisans had invented early writing systems necessitated by the economic imperative of bronze-age trade. In this smithy of nations, language was not a barrier. The barrier had been bridged by the invention and use of hieroglyphic and syllabic writing systems to record guild production and sea-faring or land-caravan trade transactions.

Seal. Daimabad1

Sign342

ka kanka rim of jar ( antali); rebus: ka stone (ore) metal. karaka rim; rebus: scribe, account. kraka m. projection on the side of a vessel, handle Br. [kra -- ] Pa. kaaka - having ears or corners ; Wg. Ka ear ring NTS xvii 266; S. kano m. rim, border ; P. kann m. obtuse angle of a kite ( H. kann m. edge, rim, handle ); N. knu end of a rope for supporting a burden ; B. k brim of a cup , G. kn m.; M. kn m. touch hole of a gun .(CDIAL 2831). Rebus: kaakku , n. cf. gaaka. [M. kaakku.] 1. Number, account, reckoning, calculation, computation. This hieroglyph announces the arrival of a new professional, an expert carver who can keep accounts of the industrial goods produced in guild workshops and sorted out or displayed on circular working platforms. This hieroglyph is often the terminal signature tune of many inscriptions conveying the message that goods tallied using tablets have been consolidated together to create seal impressions as bills of lading for multi-commodity trade loads. The invention of writing has created a new professional: (accountant) scribe.
13

Contacts between users of Aramaic- kharo writing systems may be seen as a continuum of interactions among Mesopotamian settlements and Meluhhan settlements as broadly indicated in the following map:

After Walter Reinhold Warttig Matted y de la Torre, 2005, Sumerian Dilmun http://www.bibleorigins.net/dilmunmapseriduurseashorepersiangulf.html Evolving bronze-age and use of tallies, tokens, bullae for archives The lapidary had graduated into a smithy worker in the bronze age and needed Indus script inscriptions to account for processing, collating, and dispatching trade loads to trade contacts in interaction areas. The scribe created a seal to account for contributions by artisans of the guild as a record of product descriptions sorted, grouped and delivered into the treasury. Use of tallies, tokens for archives in the Near East From the beginnings in about 30,000 BCE, the evolution of information processing in the prehistoric Near East proceeded in three major phases, each dealing with data of increasing specificity. First, during the Middle and late Upper Paleolithic, ca. 30,000 12,000 BCE, tallies referred to one unit of an unspecified item. Second, in the early Neolithic, ca. 8000 BCE, the tokens indicated a precise unit of a particular good. With the invention of writing, which took place in the urban period, ca.
14

3100 BCE, it was possible to record and communicate the name of the sponsor/recipient of the merchandise, formerly indicated by sealsThe events that followed the invention of tokens can be reconstructed as follows: ca. 3700-2000 BCE: A second stage was reached when groups of tokens representing particular transactions were enclosed in envelopes to be kept in archives. Some envelopes bore on the outside the impression of the tokens held inside. Such markings on envelopes were the turning point between tokens and writing. Ca. 3500-3100 BCE (starting in Uruk VI-V): Tablets displaying impressed markings in the shape of tokens superseded the envelopes. Ca. 3100-3000 BCE (starting in Uruk Iva): Pictographic script traced with a stylus on clay tablets marked the true takeoff of writing. The tokens dwindledThe tokens were mundane counters dealing with food and other basic commodities of life, but they played a major role in the societies that adopted them. They were used to manage goods and they affected the economy; they were an instrument of power and they created new social patterns; they were employed for data manipulation and they changed a mode of thought. Above all, the tokens were a counting and record-keeping device and were the watershed of mathematics and communication. (Denise Schmandt-Besserat, 1996, How writing came about, University of Texas Press, p.99, p. 125). Tallies and tokens were used to archive records of counted goods which were basic necessities such as: animals (lamb, sheep, ewe, cow, dog); foods (bread, oil, food, sweet (honey?), beer, sheeps milk); textiles (textile, wool, type of garment or cloth, fleece, rope, type of mat or rug); commodities (perfume, metal, bracelet, ring, bed); service (make, build). Decoding of the identical inscription on the three tablets of Kanmer Tokens strung together with a bulla to constitute an archive. (After Denise Schmandt-Besserat, 1996, How writing came about, University of Texas Press). Duplicate seal impressions are one type of tablets. An evidence for the use of such tablets as category tallies of lapidary workshops is provided by the finds at Kanmer. (Source: http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/agrawal323/Antiquity, D.P. Agrawal et al, Redefining the Harappan hinterland, Anquity, Vol. 84, Issue 323, March 2010) Obverse of these tiny 2 cm. dia. tablets show some incised markings. It is unclear from the markings if they can be compared with any glyphs of the Indus script corpora. They may be personal markings like potters marks designating a particular artisans workshop (working platform) or considering the short numerical strokes used, the glyphs may be counters (numbers or liquid or weight measures). More precise determination may be made if
15

more evidences of such glyphs are discovered. Excavators surmise that the three tablets with different motifs on the obverse of the three tablets suggest different users/uses. They may be from different workshops of the same guild but as the other side of the tables showed, the product taken from three workshops is the same. It is possible that the markings on the obverse of the three Kanmer tablets (as tallies) were markings using a form of kharo proto-syllabary as follows, possibly indicting some quantitative measures of the products delivered to the furnace account scribe of turned (forged) native metal : kharo numeral twenty kharo numeral two. kharo numeral one. kharo syllable (ha- for hakkura blacksmith?) Glyph: One long linear stroke. koa one ( antali) Rebus: ko artisans workshop (Kuwi) Glyph: me body (Mu.) Rebus: me iron ( o.) igatured glyph : aar harrow Rebus: aduru native metal (Kannada). Thus the glyphs can be read rebus. Glyph: koiyum heifer (G.) Rebus: ko workshop (Kuwi) Glyph: sangaa lathe (Marathi) Rebus : Rebus : sangaa association (guild). Rebus : sangatarsu stone cutter (Telugu). The output of the lapidaries is thus described by the three tablets: aduru me sangaa ko iron, native metal guild workshop. Conjecturing a parallel with Sumer bulla envelope system The three perforated tablets (seal impressions) of Kanmer might have been strung together and the account compiled by the guild scribe to prepare a bill of lading. It is also possible that a seal impression on a bulla might have authenticated the bill of lading together with the three tablets (seal impressions) of Kanmer. The hole on the following tablets may also have been strung together to create a tally of products delivered into the warehouse for approval, [jgaa] (Marathi). [Note: The Kanmer archaeological report is scheduled for release at Udaipur on 18 April 2012, the World Heritage Day (Private Communication from Jeewan Kharakwal).] The practice of combining kharo syllabary for names together with Indian hieroglyphs (from Indus script) for substantive messaging of the mint repertoire continues in the historical periods as evidenced by thousands of punchmarked coins starting from c. 600 BCE.

16

Glyph of standard device in front of the one-horned heifer: s g lathe (Tu.)(CDIAL 12859). sgaa That member of a turners apparatus by which the piece to be turned is confined and steadied. To take into linkedness or close connection with, lit. fig. (Marathi)

[ sg ] f The machine within which a turner confines and steadies the piece he has to turn. (Marathi) [ saga ] f (Commonly ) A pan of live coals or embers. (Marathi) san:gho, sagha (G.) = firepan; sagha, aghai = a pot for holding fire (G.)[cul saga portable hearth (G.)] h739B Thus, the entire set of glyphs on the h1682A seal [denoting the heifer + standard device] can be decoded: koiyum heifer; [ kiya ] ke, kiya. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. . k* A young bull. Plumpness, prime. .

a pair of bullocks. Ke adj. Young. Keku. n. A young

man.

. [ kruke ] kru-ke. [Tel.] n. A bull in its prime.

[ kha ] m A

young bull, a bullcalf. (Marathi)

[ gda ] gda. [Tel.] n. An ox. A beast. Kine, cattle.(Telugu)

koiyum (G.) rebus: ko workshop (G.) B. kd to turn in a lathe; Or. knda lathe, kdib, kd to turn ( Drav. Kur. kd lathe) ( DIA 95) Presence of Meluhhan merchant

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Rollout of Shu-ilishu cylinder seal. Department des Antiques Orientales, Musee du Louvre, Paris. Two persons carrying an animal as a phonetic determinant: Metal statues. Elamites carrying animals (bull, antelope) as phonetic determinatives. http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/statuette-mancarrying-goat 'Based on cuneiform documents from Mesopotamia we know that there was at least one Meluhhan village in Akkad at that time, with people called 'Son of Meluhha' living there. The cuneiform inscription (ca. 2020 BCE) says that the cylinder seal belonged to Shu-ilishu, who was a translator of the Meluhhan language. "The presence in Akkad of a translator of the Meluhhan language suggests that he may have been literate and could read the undeciphered Indus script. This in turn suggests that there may be bilingual Akkadian/Meluhhan tablets somewhere in Mesopotamia. Although such documents may not exist, Shu-ilishu's cylinder seal offers a glimmer of hope for the future in unraveling the mystery of the Indus script." (Gregory L. Possehl,Shuilishu's cylinder seal, Expedition, Vol. 48, Number 1, pp. 4243).http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PD Fs/48-1/What%20in%20the%20World.pdf meho a ram, a sheep (G.)(CDIAL 10120); Rebus: mht, me iron (Mu.Ho.) Rebus: meha, mehi merchants clerk; (G.) Rebus: mdha m. sacrificial oblation RV. mdha -- m. sacrifice (Pa.) (CDIAL 10327). Variant phonetic forms: mlekh goat (Br.); mreka (Te.); mam (Ta.); meam (Skt.) Ka. mke she-goat; m the bleating of sheep or goats. Te. mka, mka goat. Kol. meke id. Nk. mke id. Pa. mva, (S.) mya she-goat. Ga. (Oll.) mge, (S.) mge goat. Go. (M) mek, (Ko.) mka id. ? Kur. mxn (mxyas) to call, call after loudly, hail. Malt. m qe to bleat. [Te. mrka (so correct) is of unknown meaning. Br. m is without etymology; see MBE 1980a.] / Cf. Skt. (lex.) mekagoat (Monier-Williams lex.) (DEDR 5087) meluh.h.a ! The Meluhhan is accompanied by a woman. kola woman ( ahali). Rebus: kol pa calha, alloy of five metals (Ta.)
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kol, n. 1.

Iron; 550). 2. Metal;

. .(

. 318.) kola blacksmith (Ka.); Ko. koll blacksmith

(DEDR 2133). It appears that the same hieroglyphs are used: antelope, woman in the following artifact produced during Jacques de Morgans excavations at Susa (1905). He had also published the tokens. The tokens were used for categorizing property items.: Figure, nude goddess, 7000 Years of Iranian Art, no. 204 http://www.archive.org/download/mmoires01franuoft/mmoires01franuoft.pdf Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles Suse en 1897-1898 et 1898-1899, Mission archologique en Iran, Mmoires I, 1990 Evidence for the use of hieroglyphs from Indus writing in Susa 1. Susa pot with fish hieroglyph and metal artefacts

There is evidence for the use of Indus writing in Susa. There is evidence for the import of metal artefacts into Susa, possibly from Meluhha as demonstrated by a Susa pot containing metal artefacts and with a fish hieroglyph inscribed below the neck of the pot. Susa pot, from Meluhha, with metal artifacts with fish Indus script hieroglyph inscribed below the neck of the pot. (presented by Maurizio Tosi, 2010 in a conference in Delhi, Nov. 2010). 2. Cylinder seal of Susa with Indus writing Cylinder seal carved with an elongated buffalo and a Harappan inscription circa 2600-1700 BCE; Susa, Iran; Fired steatite; H. 2.3 cm; Diam. 1.6 cm; Jacques de Morgan excavations, Susa; Sb 2425; Near Eastern Antiquities; Richelieu wing; Ground floor; Iran and Susa during the 3rd millennium BC; Room 8 Marshall comments on a usa cylinder seal with Indus script inscription: the occurrence of the same form of manger on a cylinder-seal of bone found at Susa leaves no doubt, I think, that this seal either came from India in the first instance, or, as is suggested by its very rough workmanship, was engraved for an Indian visitor to usa by an Elamite workmanOne of these
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five (Mesopotamian seals with Indus script) is a bone roll cylinder found at Susa, apparently in the same strata as that of the tablets in Proto-Elamitic script of the second period of painted ware. Scheil, in Delegation en Perse, vol. xvii, assigns this group of tablets and painted pottery to the period of Sargon of Agade, twenty-eighth century BCE, and some of the tablets to a period as late as the twenty-fourth century. The cylinder was first published by Scheil in Delegation en Perse ii, 129, where no precise field data by the excavator are given. The test is there given as it appears on the seal, and consequently the text is reversed. Louis Delaporte in his Catalogue des Cylindres Orientauxdu Musee du Louvre, vol. I, pl. xxv, No. 15, published this seal from an impression, which gives the proper representation of the inscription. Now, it will be noted tht the style of the design is distinctly pre-Sargonic: witness the animal file and the distribution of the text around the circumference of the seal, and not parallel to its axis as on the seals of the Agade and later periodsIt is certain that the design known as the animal file motif is extremely early in Sumerian and Elamitic glyptic; in fact is among the oldest known glyptic designs. But the two-horned bull standing over a manger was a design unknown in Sumerian glyptic, except on the small round press seal found by De Sarzec at Telloh and published by Heuzey, Decouvertes en Chaldee, pl. xxx, fig. 3a, and by Delaporte, Cat. I, pl. ii, t.24. The Indus seals frequently represent this same bull or bison with head bent towards a mangerTwo archaeological aspects of the Susa seal are disturbing. The cylinder roll seal has not yet been found in the Indus Valley, nor does the Sumero-Elamitic animal file motif occur on any of the 530 press seals of the Indus region. It seems evident, therefore, that some trader or traveler from that country lived at Susa in the pre-Sargonic period and made a roll seal in accordance with the custom of the seal-makers of the period, inscribing it with his own native script, and working the Indian bull into a file design after the manner of the Sumero-Elamitic glyptic. The Susa seal clearly indicated a period ad quem below which this Indian culture cannot be placed, that is, about 2800 BCE. On a roll cylinder it is frequently impossible to determine where the inscription begins and ends, unless the language is known, and that is the case with the Susa seal. However, I have been able to determine a good many important features of these inscriptions and I believe that this text shold be copied as follows: The last sign is No. 194 of my list, variant of No. 193, which is a post-fixed determinative, denoting the name of a profession, that is carrier, mason, builder, ad invariably stands at the end. (The script runs from right to left.)( (Catalogue des cylinders orient, Musee du Louvre, vol. I, pl. xxv, fig. 15. See also J. de Morgan, Prehistoric Man, p. 261, fig. 171; Mem. Del. En Perse, t.ii, p. 129.loc.cit.,John Marshall, 1931, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, Delh, AES, Repr., 2004, p.385; pp. 424-425) Note: Five cylinder seals hav since been found at Mohenjo-daro and Kalibangan. 3. Cylinder Seal of Ibni-Sharrum http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvrenotices/cylinder-seal-ibni-sharrum
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Agade period, reign of Sharkali-Sharri (c. 2217-2193 BC) Mesopotamia Serpentine H. 3.9 cm; Diam. 2.6 cm Formerly in the De Clercq collection; gift of H. de Boisgelin, 1967 AO 22303 Richelieu wing Ground floor Mesopotamia, c. 23502000 BC Room 2 Cylinder seal impression of Ibni-sharrum, a scribe of Shar-kalisharri ca. 21832159 BCE The inscription reads O divine har-kali-sharri, Ibni-sharrum the scribe is your servant. ylinder seal. hlorite. AO 0 . .9 cm. Dia. .6 cm. At the end of the Uruk period (c.3500-3100 BC) appeared the cylindrical seals which were to be used, among other things, to seal the first written documents. The print left by the rolling of these miniature bas-reliefs on the soft clay of the tablet reveals a rich iconography that varies with the different epochs. Thus the dynasty of Akkad (2340-2200 BC) the stone-cutters showed a certain predilection for mythological scenes. On the Sharkalisharri cylinder, fifth king of the Akkad dynasty, two naked heroes, acolytes of Eas, water two buffaloes which carry the inscription, central element of the composition: "the divine Sharkalisharri, king of Akkad, Ibni-sharrum, the scribe, (is) his servant." Louvre Fine engraving, elegant drawing, and a balanced composition make this seal one of the masterpieces of glyptic art. The decoration, which is characteristic of the Agade period, shows two buffaloes that have just slaked their thirst in the stream of water spurting from two vases held by two naked kneeling heroes. A masterpiece of glyptic art This seal, which belonged to Ibni-Sharrum, the scribe of King Sharkali-Sharri, who succeeded his father Naram-Sin, is one of the most striking examples of the perfection attained by carvers in the Agade period. The two naked, curly-headed heroes are arranged symmetrically, half-kneeling. They are both holding vases from which water is gushing as a symbol of fertility and abundance; it is also the attribute of the god of the river, Enki-Ea, of whom these spirits of running water are indeed the acolytes. Two arni, or water buffaloes, have just drunk from them. Below the scene, a river winds between the mountains represented conventionally by a pattern of two lines of scales. The central cartouche bearing an inscription is held between the buffaloes' horns. A scene testifying to relations with distant lands Buffaloes are emblematic animals in glyptic art in the Agade period. They first appear in the reign of Sargon, indicating sustained relations between the Akkadian Empire and the distant country of Meluhha, that is, the present Indus Valley, where these animals come from. These exotic creatures were probably kept in zoos and do not seem to have been acclimatized in Iraq at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. Indeed, it was not until the Sassanid Empire that they reappeared. The engraver has carefully accentuated the animals' powerful muscles and spectacular horns, which are shown as if seen from above, as they appear on the seals of the Indus.
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The production of a royal workshop The calm balance of the composition, based on horizontal and vertical lines, gives this in low relief a classical monumental character, typical of the style of the late Akkadian period. Seals of this quality were the preserve of the entourage of the royal family or high dignitaries and were probably made in a workshop whose production was reserved for this elite. Bibliography Amiet Pierre, Bas-reliefs imaginaires de l'ancien Orient : d'aprs les cachets et les sceauxcylindres, exp. Paris, Htel de la Monnaie, juin-octobre 1973, avec une prface de Jean Nougayrol, Paris, Htel de la Monnaie, 1973. Amiet Pierre, L'Art d'Agad au muse du Louvre, Paris, ditions de la Runion des muses nationaux, 1976. Art of the First Cities, New York, 2003, n 135. Boehmer Rainer Michael, Die Entwicklung der Glyptik whrend der Akkad-Zeit, Berlin, W. De Gruyter und C , 1965, n 724, fig. 232. Boehmer Rainer Michael, Das Auftreten des Wasserbffels in Mesopotamien in historischer Zeit und sein sumerische Bezeichnung, ZA 64 (1974), pp. 1-19. Clercq Louis (de), Collection de Clercq. Catalogue mthodique et raisonn. Antiquits assyriennes, cylindres orientaux, cachets, briques, bronzes, bas-reliefs, etc., t. I, Cylindres orientaux, avec la collaboration de Joachim Menant, Paris, E. Leroux, 1888, n 46. Collon Dominique, First Impressions : cylinder seals in the Ancient Near-East, Londres, British museum publications, 1987, n 529. Frankfort Henri, Cylinder Seals, Londres, 1939, pl XVIIc. Zettler Richard L., "The Sargonic Royal Seal. A Consideration of Sealing in Mesopotamia", in Seals and Sealing in the Ancient Near East, Bibliotheca Mesopotamica 6, Malibu, 1977, pp. 33-39. dula pair (Kashmiri); dul cast (metal) ( antali). sal the Indian gaur, gaveus gaurus; sal sakwa a horn made from a horn of the gaur (Santali) cairipam, n. < sairibha. buffalo; .( .) (Skt.Tamil)

Vikalpa: karu buffalo (G.); kaa buffalo (Santali) kar bull calf; kahr young buffalo bull; kaiy buffalo heifer (H.); kaa buffalo calf (WPah.); kaai buffalo calf (Gaw.); ka young buffalo (P.)(CDIAL 245). kadamu = a he-buffalo (Te.lex.)17 ki buffalo (Kona); karu (Pe.Mand.); kru pl. krka (Kui); kru, kdru, gru, kr (Kuwi)(DEDR 2256). kaa, karu, kaa a buffalo bull kai a female buffalo calf ( antali) Or. ka castrated male buffalo , kai young buffalo cow that has not calved , kahi lamb that has not borne ; Bi. k m., f. buffalo calf , H. k m. (CDIAL 2658)
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The following glosses, kr in Urdu, Telugu, Tamil and ka, kaa in Kurku and Santali of the linguistic area indicate an ancient form, kr to denote buffalo. Rebus: khr 1 m. (sg. abl. khra 1 ; the pl. dat. of this word is khran 1 , which is to be

distinguished from khran 2, q.v., s.v.), a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf.bandka-khr, p. 111b, l. 46; K.*Pr. 46; H. xi, 17); a farrier (El.). This word is often a part of a name, and in such case comes at the end (W. 118) as in Wahab khr, Wahab the smith (H. ii, 12; vi, 17). khra-basta f. the skin bellows of a blacksmith. -bh; f. a

f. the wall of a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -by blacksmith's wife (Gr.Gr. 34). -d kuru sledge-hammer. -g ji or -gj f. a blacksmith's daughter. -kou who can work at the same profession. -k m

m. a blacksmith's hammer, a &below;

f. a blacksmith's furnace or hearth. -hl -

f. a blacksmith's smelting furnace; cf. hl 5. -kr -

m. the son of a blacksmith, esp. a skilful son, f. a blacksmith's daughter, esp.

one who has the virtues and qualities properly belonging to her father's profession or caste. f. (for 2, see [khra 3] ), 'blacksmith's earth,' i.e. iron-ore. -n cyuwu m. a blacksmith's son. -nay f. (for khranay 2,

see [khrun] ), the trough into which the blacksmith allows melted iron to flow after smelting. -a wn f.pl. charcoal used by blacksmiths in their furnaces. (Kashmiri) kr- n. < ( + &sup8;. [T. krvu, U. kr.] Buffalo; .

. 380).(Tamil) kr-vu. [Tel.] n. A wild cow. gaur, adj. (f. -), White, pale;

forest cattle. kaarenumu n. wild buffalo (female) (Telugu)

of fair complexion, fair;yellow;red, pale red;s.m. A kind of buffalo, the Bos gaurus (Urdu) kaa, kaa a buffalo bull ( antali) Kur. ka young male buffalo; ka young female buffalo; kar, kar buffalo calf (male or female). Ko. kac ng buffalo calf between two and three years; kac kurl cow calf between two and three years; ? To. ka pen for calves from 6 months to 1-2 years.Ko. (Ph.) k young buffalo ( Voc.648). Kona (BB) glu calf. Kui (K.) gru, (W.) ru (pl. rka) id.; (W.) go a bullock or buffalo not trained to the plough; kai young female buffalo or goat. Br. xars bull, bullock; xa ram.(DEDR 1123). Gaw. kai buffalo calf, Bshk. ka r, Sh. (Lor.) k *l tu (?); K. kah, dat. as m. ram, sheep in general, (con- temptuous) son; . ka m., f. buffalo calf; . ka m., f. yearling
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buffalo, ka m. young buffalo bull, ka m., f. young buffalo; W ah. kha. rudh. marm. kau buffalo calf, bhal. ka m., f. buffalo calf, karu n. bear cub; Ku. ko young buffalo bull, kayro young buffalo; . kaiy f. buffalo heifer, kar m. buffalo calf, kah m. young buffalo bull (CDIAL 2645). [ gur ] n A cow, bullock, or buffalo; one of the class named black cattle or rotherbeasts. (Marathi) Vikalpa: ran:g buffalo; Rebus: ran:ga pewter or alloy of tin (ran:ku), lead (nga) and antimony (an~jana)( antali) Vikalpa: karu buffalo (G.); kaa buffalo (Santali) kar bull calf; kahr young buffalo bull; kaiy buffalo heifer (H.); kaa buffalo calf (WPah.); kaai buffalo calf (Gaw.); ka young buffalo (P.)(CDIAL 245). kadamu = a he-buffalo (Te.lex.)17 ki buffalo (Kona); karu (Pe.Mand.); kru pl. krka (Kui); kru, kdru, gru, kr (Kuwi)(DEDR 2256). kaa, karu, kaa a buffalo bull kai a female buffalo calf ( antali) Or. ka castrated male buffalo , kai young buffalo cow that has not calved , kahi lamb that has not borne ; Bi. k m., f. buffalo calf , H. k m. (CDIAL 2658) loha (nt.) [Cp. Vedic loha, of Idg. *(e)reudh "red"; see also rohita & lohita] metal, esp. copper, brass or bronze. It is often used as a general term & the individual application is not always sharply defined. Its comprehensiveness is evident from the classification of loha at VbhA 63, where it is said lohan ti jtiloha, vijti, kittima, pisca or natural metal, produced metal, artificial (i. e. alloys), & metal from the Pisca district. Each is subdivided as follows: jti=ayo, sajjha, suvaa, tipu, ssa, tambaloha, vekantakaloha; vijti=nga - nsika; kittima=kasaloha, vaa, raka; pisca=morakkhaka, puthuka, malinaka, capalaka, selaka, aka, bhallaka, dsiloha. The description ends "Tesu paca jtilohni piya visu vuttn' eva (i. e. the first category are severally spoken of in the Canon). Tambaloha vekantakan ti imehi pana dvhi jtilohehi saddhi sesa sabbam pi idha lohan ti veditabba." -- On loha in similes see J.P.T.S. 1907, 131. Cp. A iii.16=S v.92 (five alloys of gold: ayo, loha, tipu, ssa, sajjha); J v.45 (asi); Miln 161 (suvaam pi jtivanta lohena bhijjati); vA 44, 95 (tamba=loha), (tatta -- loha -- secana pouring out of boiling metal, one of the five ordeals in Niraya). -- kaha a copper (brass) receptacle Vin ii.170. -- kra a metal worker, coppersmith, blacksmith Miln 331. -- kumbh an iron cauldron Vin ii.170. Also N. of a purgatory J iii.22, 43; iv.493; v.268; SnA 59, 480; Sdhp 195. -- gua an iron (or metal) ball A iv.131; Dh 371 (m gil pamatto; cp. DhA iv.109). -- jla a copper (i. e. wire) netting PvA 153. -- thlaka a copper bowl Nd1 226. -- thli a bronze kettle DhA i.126. -psda "copper terrace," brazen palace, N. of a famous monastery at Anurdhapura in Ceylon Vism 97; DA i.131; Mhvs passim. -- pia an iron ball SnA 225. -- bhaa copper (brass) ware Vin ii.135. -- maya made of copper, brazen Sn 670; Pv ii.64. -- msa a copper bean Nd1 448 (suvaa -- channa). -- msaka a small copper coin KhA 37 (jatu -- msaka, dru -msaka+); DhsA 318. -- rpa a bronze statue Mhvs 36, 31. -- salk a bronze gong -- stick Vism 283. (Pali)
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Glyph: T. krvu, U. kr. buffalo, gaur. Rebus: khr blacksmith (Kashmiri). Glyph: lo overflow. Rebus: lo metal (Mu.) ence, the buffalo + overflow glyphs read rebus: 'metal smith'. [ lhakra ] m (S) A smelter of iron or a worker in iron (Marathi).

lohakra a metal worker, coppersmith, blacksmith Miln 331 (Pali). Shar-kali-sharri of the cylinder seal is a metalsmith (smelter of metallic ores) scribe. The overflowing pot is a motif which occurs on a Mesopotamian cylinder seal. Akkadian, reign of Shar-kali-sharri. Mesopotamia. Cuneiform inscription in Old Akkadian. Serpentine; Diam. 2.6 cm (1 in.); H. 3.9 cm Muse du Louvre, Dpartement des Antiquits Orientales, Paris AO 22303. http://www.metmuseum.org/special/First_Cities/images/135BR3.R.jpg A glyphic composition of overflowing pot occur on a Mohenjo-daro pectoral, m1656: m1656 pectoral: Frequency of occurrence of glyph composition: kaa = a pot of certain shape and size (Santali) Rebus: ka = altar, furnace ( antali) kanka rim. Rebus : kanka account (scribe). Rebus : khanaka miner Glyph of overflowing pot: <dul> {V2} ``to ^pour out water in offering to the gods; to ^water a garden''. @5312. #8221.(Munda etyma). Rebus: dul casting (metal)(Santali) Thus the glyphic elements related to overflowing pot, on m1656 and on Ibni Sharrum cylinder seal, read rebus: dul ka kanka casting furnace account (scribe). M1465 glyphic elements occur together with the one-horned heifer + standard device glyphs (ko + sangaa guild workshop. Ibni Sharrum cylinder seal occurs with a pair of buffalo glyphs. dula sal kaa a pair of buffaloes. Rebus: dul sal kaa casting workshop of kaa-i-o, turner, mason. Vikalpa 1: <lo->(B) {V} ``(pot, etc.) to ^overflow''. See <lo-> `to be left over'. @B24310. #20851. Re<lo->(B) {V} ``(pot, etc.) to ^overflow''. See <lo-> `to be left over'. (Munda etyma)Rebus: <lua>(B),,<loa>(B) {N} ``^iron''. Pl. <-le>. @B23760. #21231. <lowa>(F) {N} ``^iron''. *Loan. @N501. #21131. ee = to cast, as metal; to overflow (Ka.) eaka = any metal infusion (Ka.Tu.) Vikalpa: Ta. vr (-v-, -nt-) to flow, trickle, overflow (DEDR 535) 5. Goat-fish ligatured hieroglyph of Indus writing on Susa vat
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Susa vat with goat-fish ligature of two Indus script hieroglyphs.

A terracotta fragment discovered at Susa showing mollusk design.

The pictographs on the ritual basin show: molluscs as center-piece flanked by a ligatured goatfish. Molluscs as hieroglyphs occur in Indian artefacts of historical periods. Goat and fish are hieroglyphs used in Indus writing, though a ligatured goat-fish does not appear in the Indus script corpora, there are many other examples of ligatured animals which will be discussed further (e.g. ligatured heads of 3 or more animals; ligatured crocodile-fish).The mollusc design compares with rivatsa (entwined pair of fishes) depicted on sci stpa and Mathura Lion Capital.Note the pattern of molluscs on the Mathur panel which compares with Susa ritual basin glyphic. Photograph of a sculpture panel from Mathura, taken by Edmund William Smith in the 1880s-1890s. Mathura has extensive archaeologic al remains as it was a large and important city from the middle of the first millennium onwards. It rose to particular prominence under the Kushans as the town was their southern capital. The Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain faiths all thrived at Mathura, and we find deities and motifs from all three represented in sculpture. In reference to this photograph in
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the list of photographic negatives, Bloch wrote that, "The technical name of such a panel was ayagapata [homage panel]." The tablet shows a representation of a stupa with a staircase leading up to a terrace which is surrounded by a railing similar of those of the stupas oBharhut and Sanchi. It appears from the inscription that the tablet is Jain. The piece is now in the Lucknow Museum. Molluscs on Susa ritual basin compared with Molluscs on Sanchi Monument Stupa II Huntington Scan Number 0010873 (See more examples in: http://www.scribd.com/doc/13267649/ResourcesHieroglyphsAncient-Indian-Tradition) N" 16. Tte de b-lier 'Ea surmontant une maison pose sur une antilope munie d'un corps de poisson (fig.459 du koudourrou N" XX);

Figurations emblematiques antelope fitted with a fish body.

Ea, l'antilope corps de poisson, surmont d'un carr dont je ne puis expliquer la Signification. Fiti. 453. Emblmes du koudouukou n" xv . What does the square signify? 6. Bas-relief of spinner with hieroglyphs of Indus writing An ornate design on this limestone ritual vat from the Middle Elamite period depicts creatures with the heads of goats and the tails of fish. Goatfishes ornating a cultual tank, symbolizing the sweet water abyss, domain of the god Ea. Found in Susa, limestone, Middle Elamite period (c. 1500 BC 1100 BC). Louvre Museum. Department of Near Eastern antiquities, Sully wing, ground floor, room 10. It may also relate to Sargonids (23rd or 22nd cent. B E). e bas-relief ne porte aucune inscription et par suite nous ne pouvons dire quelle poque il appartient ; toutefois, par beaucoup de dtails, je crois qu'il est permis de le considrer comme contemporain des Sargonides, c'est--dire du temps o l'lam, continuellement en rapports avec Ninive et se trouvant dans son d clin, subissait l'influence de ses puissants voisins du ord. (http://www.archive.org/download/mmoires01franuoft/mmoires01franuoft.pdf Jacques de
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Morgan, Fouilles Suse en 1897-1898 et 1898-1899, Mission archologique en Iran, Mmoires I, 1990, p.160). Terracotta design, mollusk curves (http://www.archive.org/download/mmoires01franuoft/mmoires01franuoft.pdf Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles Suse en 1897-1898 et 1898-1899, Mission archologique en Iran, Mmoires I, 1990, p.116). http://wpcontent.answcdn.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Goatfishes_Louvre_Sb19.jpg/22 0px-Goatfishes_Louvre_Sb19.jpg Accession Number Sb 19. Excavated by Jacques de Morgan, 19041905 Relief of a woman being fanned by an attendant while she holds what may be a spinning device before a table with a bowl containing a whole fish. Young woman spinning and servant holding a fan. Fragment of a relief known as "The spinner". Bitumen mastic, Neo-Elamite period (8th century B.C.middle of the 6th century B.C.). Found in Susa. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Relief_spinner_Louvre_Sb2834.jpg Louvre Museum. Department of Oriental Antiquities, Richelieu, ground floor, room 11 H. 9 cm (3 in.), W. 13 cm (5 in.) Accession Number Sb 2834 Excavations of Jacques de Morgan Bas-relief of the spinner Source: http://ia600406.us.archive.org/29/items/mmoires01franuoft/mmoires01franuoft.pdf mehi, mih, meh = a plait in a womans hair; a plaited or twisted strand of hair ( .) [

mh ] mea A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl. (Marathi) (CDIAL 0 ). [dial., cp. rk. m ha & miha: Pischel, Prk. Gr. 293. The Dhtm (156) gives a root me (me) in meaning of "koilla," i. e. crookedness. (Pali) Vikalpa: hompo = knot on a string (Santali) hompo = ingot (Santali) Vikalpa: ca 'diadem, hairdress' (Skt.) Rebus: ca furnace (H.) Rebus: me iron ( o.) Thus, the glyptic elements of woman, plaited hair and six plaits can be decoded as: me bhaa kolami iron smelter smithy. After "Kunst." Barthel Hrouda. Editor. Der Alte Orient, Geschichte und Kultur des alten Vorderasien. Munchen. C. Bertelsmann. Verlag GmbH. 1991, p. 360. kola woman ( ahali); Rebus: kolami smithy (Te.) ayo fish (Mu.); rebus: aya metal (G.) The glyphics represent kol kh khati, working in iron, a guild of wheelwrights . kola tiger (Telugu); rebus: kol working in iron (Tamil). The legs of the two stools shows glyphic of tigers foot. Glyph: foot, hoof: Glyph: hoof: Ku. khuo leg, foot , goat's leg ; N. khuo leg, foot (CDIAL 3894). S. khu f. heel ; WPah. pa. kh foot . khura m. hoof Ktyr. 2. *khua -- 1 (khuaka -- , khula ankle -- bone Sur.). [ Drav. T. Burrow
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BSOAS xii 376: it belongs to the word -- group heel <-> ankle -- knee -- wrist , see *kuha -](CDIAL 3906). Ta. kuracu, kuraccai horse's hoof. Ka. gorasu, gorase, gorise, gorusu hoof. Te. gorija, gorise, (B. also) gorije, korije id. / Cf. Skt.khura- id. (DEDR 1770). Allograph: (Kathiawar) kh m. Brahmani bull (G.) Rebus: kh community, guild ( antali) Glyph: kt spinner (G.) Rebus: khati 'wheelwright' ( .) ki = fireplace in the form of a long ditch (Ta.Skt.Vedic) kya = being in a hole (VS. XVI.37); k a hole, depth (RV. i. 106.6) kh a ditch, a trench; kh o khaiyo several pits and ditches (G.) kharun: pit (furnace) ( antali) bhaa six (G.) rebus: baa = kiln (Santali); baa = a kind of iron (G.) bhah f. kiln, distillery, aw. bhah; P. bhah m., h f. furnace, bhah m. kiln; . bhah ke distil (spirits) Glyph: animals: pasaramu, pasalamu = an animal, a beast, a brute, quadruped (Te.) Rebus: pasra = a smithy, place where a black-smith works, to work as a blacksmith; kamar pasra = a smithy; pasrao lagao akata se ban:? Has the blacksmith begun to work? pasraedae = the blacksmith is at his work ( antali.lex.) pasra smithy ( antali) pasra meed, pasra meed = syn. of koe meed = forged iron, in contrast to dul meed, cast iron (Mundari.) Importance of a count of sixElamite lady spinner. Musee du ouvre. aris. An elegantly coiffed, exquisitely-dressed and well fanned Elamite woman sits on a feline footed stool winding thread on a spindle. The stool on which the lovely Elamite lady sits has the legs of a feline; the fish is also placed on a similar stool in front her.This five-inch fragment is dated 8th century BCE. It was molded and carved from a mix of bitumen, ground calcite, and quartz. The Elamites used bitumen, a naturally occurring mineral pitch, or asphalt, for vessels, sculpture, glue, caulking, and waterproofing. http://www.oznet.net/iran/elamspin.htm Glyphic: count of six: bhaa six (G.); rebus: bhaa furnace ( antali) kola woman ( ahali); Rebus: kolami smithy (Te.) Vikalpa: goti woman; rebus; go cow-pen; rebus: ko place where artisans work (Kuwi) Kur. ka a stool. Malt. kano stool, seat. (DEDR 1179) Rebus: ka fire-altar, furnace ( antali) kola tiger, jackal (Kon.); rebus: kolami smithy (Te.) Grapheme as a phonetic determinant of the depiction of woman, kola; rebus: kolami smithy (Te.) A count of six locks of hair on the bearded person in the middle, flanked by holding apart -- two one-horned heifers. Scarf as a pigtail. Glyph eyelashes: Kol. (SR.) kal mind, (Kin.) kandl mindig (pl.) eyelash. Go. (A. Ch. Ma.) mindi, (Tr. W. Ph.) mind id.; (M.) kon-mind eyebrow; (Ko.) kona-mini eyelid, eyelash (Voc. 2831). / Cf. Halbi mend eyelashes. (DEDR 4864). 7. Susa stamp seals from the Persian Gulf
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Susa, tablet: seal impression, Louvre Sb 11221 Susa, sealing:seal impressionl Louvre MDAI, 43, no. 240 Susa, stamp seal from the Gulf, Louvre, MDAI, 43, No. 1716; depicts two goatantelopes crouching head to tail, inside and outside an oval. Incised eyes are saucer-shaped. Susa, stamp seal from the Gulf, Teheran museum, MDAI, 43, no. 1717; an animal tamer wearing a skirt and grasping with one hand a goat-antelope with its head turned back and with its feet bound; with the other hand, the person holds a large object which looks like an architectural feature or shield (ladder?). Susa, stamp Gulf, Teheran 43, no. 1718; a thin, has a like a narrow nose and surround a square object on which the person stands. seal from the Museum, MDAI, person, naked and stylised head shaped arch with indentations to mark the mouth. Animals have bound feet and

Susa, cylinder seal from the Gulf, Louvre, MDAI, 43, no. 2021; made of steatite; a person with a horned tiara, wearing an unevenly chequered robe; the person is attended by a naked man and alongside are two tamers grasping a pair of crossed animals. Susa, cylinder seal from the Gulf, Teheran Museum, MDAI, 43,no. 1975; steatite; three figures with stylised heads in the form of notched arches, wearing boldly chequered skirts; one is seated; the other two stand with backs turned, hold an enormous feathered arrow, and one of them extends a hand towards a stylised goat-antelope. Susa, stamp seal made of bitumen compound, Louvre, MDAI, 43, no. 1726; a tamer with three heavily hatched animals
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, Louvre, MDAI, 43, no. Susa, stamp seal from compound, MDAI, 43, no. 1726

Susa stamp seal made of bitumen compound 1720 a butimen Louvre,

Susa, stamp seal of bitumen compound, Louvre, MDAI, 43,

no. 1725; a woman shown full-face is squatting with legs apart, possibly on a stool. (A similar image of a woman with legs spread out occurs on an Indus tablet). Bahrain seal: four antelope heads emanating from a star. Dotted circles on the obverse. meha

polar star (Marathi). Aries (Tamil) . (W.)

ma , n. <

. The planet Mars, as the lord of the sign

mtipa , n. < mdhipa. Agni, as riding a ram; mam , n. < mha. Ram; .( . .)

me iron ( o.Mu.) Allograph: meh ram. m417 six heads from a core. This hieroglyphic composition finds a parallel on a Dilmun seal: Dilmun seal from Barbar; six heads of antelope radiating from a circle; similar to animal protomes in Filaka, Anatolia and Indus. "Susa... profound affinity between the Elamite people who migrated to Anshan and Susa and the Dilmunite people... Elam proper corresponded to the plateau of Fars with its capital at Anshan. We think, however that it probably extended further north into the Bakhtiari Mountains... likely that the chlorite and serpentine vases reached Susa by sea... From the victory proclamations of the kings of Akkad we also learn that the city of Anshan had been re-established, as the capital of a revitalised political ally: Elam itself... the import by Ur and Eshnunna of inscribed objects typical of the Harappan culture provides the first reliable chronological evidence. [C.J. Gadd, Seals of ancient Indian style found at Ur, Proceedings of the British Academy, XVIII, 1932; Henry Frankfort, Tell Asmar, Khafaje and Khorsabad, OIC, 16, 1933, p. 50, fig. 22). It is
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certainly possible that writing developed in India before this time, but we have no real proof. Now Susa had received evidence of this same civilisation, admittedly not all dating from the Akkadian period, but apparently spanning all the closing years of the third millennium (L. Delaporte, Musee du Louvre. Catalogues des Cylindres Orientaux..., vol. I, 1920, pl. 25(15), S.29. P. Amiet, Glyptique susienne, MDAI, 43, 1972, vol. II, pl. 153, no. 1643)... B. Buchanan has published a tablet dating from the reign of Gungunum of Larsa, in the twentieth century BC, which carries the impression of such a stamp seal. (B.Buchanan, Studies in honor of Benno Landsberger, Chicago, 1965, p. 204, s.). The date so revealed has been whollyconfirmed by the impression of a stamp seal from the same group, fig. 85, found on a Susa tablet of the same period. (P. Amiet, Antiquites du Desert de Lut,RA, 68, 1974, p. 109, fig. 16. Maurice Lambert, RA, 70, 1976, p. 71-72). It is in fact, a receipt of the kind in use at the beginning of the Isin-Larsa period, and mentions a certain Milhi-El, son of Tem-Enzag, who, from the name of his god, must be a Dilmunite. In these circumstances we may wonder if this document had not been drawn up at Dilmun and sent to Susa, after sealing with a local stamp seal. This seal is decorated with six tightly-packed, crouching animals, characterised by their vague shapes, with legs tucked under their bodies, huge heads and necks sometimes striped obliquely. The impression of another seal of similar type, fig. 86, depicts in the centre a throned figure who seems to dominate the animals, continuing a tradition of which examples are known at the end of the Ubaid period in Assyria... Fig. 87 to 89 are Dilmun-type seals found at Susa. The boss is semi-spherical and decorated with a band across the centre and four incised circles. [Pierre Amiet, Susa and the Dilmun Culture, in: al Khalifa SH & Rice M., eds., 1986, Bahrain through the ages, London, Kegal Paul, pp. 262-268]. 8. Indus writing hieroglyphs in Mesopotamian artefacts mha antelope; rebus: me iron ( o.) angar bull angar blacksmith. Ur. Shell plaque. Shell plaque From Ur, Southern Iraq (c. 2,600-2,400 B.C.) Entwined in the branches of a flowering tree, two goats appear to be nibbling on its leaves. This decorative plaque, which was carved from shell and highlighted with bitumen, was also excavated from the Royal Tombs of Ur. The glyphics on this plaque are comparable to the glyphics on Tablet 1431E showing two goat glyphs flanking a tree glyph. Orthography of the two goats on the prism tablet is comparable to the glyph on a shell plaque from Ur. Mlekh, mreka goat (Br.Telugu); rebus: milakkhu copper. [ agara ]A slope or ascent (as of a rivers bank, of a small hill). A pair is dula; rebus: dul cast (metal)( antali) Rebus: gar blacksmith ( .) Thus, the glyptic composition is read rebus: dul mlekh gar cast copper-smith.
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A lexeme which may explain the 'mountain' or 'haystack' glyphs; Rebus: Rebus: mht, me iron (Mu. o.): kunda 'hayrick'; rebus: kundr turner (A.) After Amiet, P., 1961, La glyptique mesopotamienne archaique, Paris: 497; Mundigak IV.3; 3. Sumerian cylinder seal showing flanking goats with hooves on tree and/or mountain. Uruk period. (After Joyce Burstein in: Katherine Anne Harper, Robert L. Brown, 2002, The roots of tantra, SUNY Press, p.100) Hence, two goats + mountain glyph reads rebus: me kundr 'iron turner'. Leaf on mountain: kamakom 'petiole of leaf'; rebus: kampaam 'mint'. loa = a species of fig tree, ficus glomerata, the fruit of ficus glomerata ( antali) Rebus: lo iron (Assamese, Bengali); loa iron (Gypsy). The glyphic composition is read rebus: me loa kundr 'iron turner mint'. kundavum = manger, a hayrick (G.) Rebus: kundr turner (A.); kdr, kdri (B.); kundru (Or.); kundau to turn on a lathe, to carve, to chase; kundau dhiri = a hewn stone; kundau murhut = a graven image (Santali) kunda a turner's lathe (Skt.)(CDIAL 3295) This rebus reading may explain the hayrick glyph shown on the sodagor 'merchant, trader' seal surrounded by four animals.Two antelopes are put next to the hayrick on the platform of the seal on which the horned person is seated. mlekh 'goat' (Br.); rebus: milakku 'copper' (Pali); mleccha 'copper' (Skt.) Thus, the composition of glyphs on the platform: pair of antelopes + pair of hayricks read rebus: milakku kundr 'copper turner'. Thus the seal is a framework of glyphic compositions to describe the repertoire of a brazier-mint, 'one who works in brass or makes brass articles' and 'a mint'. Glyph fig, ficus racemosa: [ mi ] mi. [Tel.] , .

the fruit of this tree. 5090 Ka. mi glomerous fig tree, Ficus racemosa; opposite-leaved fig tree, F. oppositifolia. Te. mi F. glomerata. Kol. (Kin.) mi id. [F. glomerata Roxb. = F. racemosa Wall.](DEDR 5090). A horned, standing person (also with scarf as a hieroglyph) within a torana, wide-mouthed pot ligatured with six leaves. One side of a tablet.

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A lexeme which may explain the 'mountain' or 'haystack' glyphs; Rebus: Rebus: mht, me iron (Mu. o.): kunda 'hayrick'; rebus: kundr turner (A.) Ka. mu height, rising ground, hillock; miu rising or high ground, hill; mie state of being high, rising ground, hill, mass, a large number; (Hav.) mue heap (as of straw). Tu. mi prominent, protruding; mue heap. Te. mea raised or high ground, hill; (K.) meu mound; mia high ground, hillock, mound; high, elevated, raised, projecting; (VPK) mu, ma, mi stack of hay; (Inscr.) mea-cnu dry field (cf. meu-nla, meu-vari). Kol. (SR.) me hill; (Kin.) me, (Hislop) met mountain. Nk. me hill, mountain. Ga. (S.3, LSB 20.3) mea high land. Go. (Tr. W. Ph.) ma, (Mu.) maa mountain; (M. L.) me id., hill; (A. D. Ko.) mea, (Y. Ma. M.) mea hill; (SR.) me hillock (Voc. 2949). Kona mea id. Kuwi (S.) metta hill; (Isr.) mea sand hill. (DEDR 5058) kamaha = ficus religiosa (Skt.) Rebus: kamaa = portable furnace for melting precious metals (Te.); kampaam = mint (Ta.) loa ficus religiosa ( antali) rebus: loh metal ( kt.) Rebus: lo copper. Thus, cast copper. kamakom = fig leaf (Santali.lex.) kamarma (Has.), kamakom (Nag.); the petiole or stalk of a leaf (Mundari.lex.) Rebus: kampaam coinage, coin (Ta.)(DEDR 1236) kampaa- muai die, coining stamp (Ta.) Vikalpa: lo iron (Assamese, Bengali); loa iron (Gypsy) Use of hieroglyphs for tablets was a revolution in the mode of thought of early inventors of the bronze age. Using the rebus method of the type used on Narmer palette, use of hieroglyphs together with their rebus rendering provided the facility for accounting for a large number of types of transactions (mining, smelting, ingot-making, forging, turning) and conveying the trade loads to trade agents across a vast area extending from Rakhigarhi in the east to Altyn-tepe in the northwest, using caravans and from Daimabad in the southwest to Susa in the northwest, navigating the Persian Gulf using the famed Meluhhan boats. The hieroglyphs also required improvisation. A series of hieroglyphic ligatures were created to communicate messages involving multiple transaction types. For example, when a bronze-age smiths role had to be described, three hieroglyphs were ligatured to communicate that the smith was also a merchant and a turner (with a forge/workshop). Bet Dwaraka 1 ankha (turbinella pyrum) seal. One-horned bull, short-horned bull looking down and an antelope looking backward. The message is complete. It is a calling card of a merchant-blacksmith-turner workshop. A professional has arrived on the civilizational arena. Bet Dwarka sankha (turbinella pyrum) seal.

Kalibangan 043 Seal. Body of ox shown with three heads: of a one-horned heifer (looking forward),
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of antelope (looking backward), and a short-horned bison (looking downward). Bison: angrar bull; rebus: gar blacksmith ( .) One-horned heifer: koiyum heifer kundr turner (A.); kh, kh , koth The lexeme kh may denote the pannier emphatically orthographed on a one-horned heifer. The rebus reading is: kh turner. Thus, the one-horned heifer with the pannier is read rebus as: kh ko turners workshop. Thus, the hieroglyphic composition most frequently occurring on Indus script corpora, namely, standard device + one-horned heifer + pannier gets decrypted as kh ko sanga turners workshop (in) stone-fortified settlement or (with) stone-observation post. [kh] m A of which one end is formed into a cowl or hood. [kh] f

An outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a chaff &c. (Marathi) kh drang, khudrang

, to hold or fend off grain,

adj. c.g. self-coloured; as subst. m. N. of a

kind of blanket having the natural colour of the wool (L. 37). khudr f. a kind of coarse woollen blanket. (Kashmiri) Pa. kotthal -- f. sack (?) ; Pk. kotthala -- m. bag, grainstore (kha -- m. bag < *ktha?); K. k thul, lu m. large bag or parcel , kothj f. small do. ; S. kothir f. bag ; Ku. kuthlo large bag, sack ; B. kthl satchel, wallet ; Or. kuthai, thui, kothai, thii wallet, pouch ; H. kothl m. bag, sack, stomach (see *kttha -- ) , l f. purse ; G.koth m. large bag , f. purse, scrotum ; M. koth m. large sack, chamber of stomach (= pe k) , n. sack , f. small sack ; -- X g -- : S. gothir f. bag , L. gutthl m.(CDIAL 3511) Ta. kaam travelling sack placed on a bullock, pack-saddle. Ka. kaale, kaa, kae, kale double bag carried across a beast. Te. kaalamu, kalamubullock-load consisting of two bags filled with goods. / Cf. Mar. kah a bag having opening in the middle (DEDR 1174) g f. sack P., gik -- f. blanket BHS ii 215. [ Drav. EWA i 345 with lit.]Pa. ga -- sathata -- covered with a woollen rug , gaka -- m. woollen rug with a long fleece ; NiDoc. goni sack ; Gy. pal. g ni bag, purse , eur. gono m. sack ; Ash.g carpet , Wg. g, ge, Dm. gni; a. gn saddlebag ; K. guna f. pair of large saddlebags usu. of goat's hair for carrying grain ; S. gu f. coarse sackcloth ; L. gf. sack ; P. g f. hair cloth, hempen sacking , g f. sack ; B. gun sacking ; Or. go sackcloth, sack, corn measure, ragged garment ; Bi. gon grain sack ; H. gon f. sack ; G. gi f. sacking, sack ; M. go f. sack , f. sackcloth , m. large grain sack .Addenda: g -- : WPah.kg. gv f. (obl. -i) sack for corn ; <-> Md. (RTMV1) gni sack Ind. (CDIAL 4275) gamu. [Tel. of Tam. .] n. A waist cloth or modesty piece. [ gi ] gi. [Skt.] n. A sack, sackcloth. a sackful. [Tel.] gtamu. [Tel.] n. A sack, a bag. (Telugu) Rebus 1: kapla m. commander of a fort Pacat. [ka -- 1, pla -- ] Pk. koavla -, ku m. police officer ; K. kuawl m. captain of a fort, chief of police, city magistrate ;
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S. koru m. district officer who watches crops, police officer ; L. kuvl m. a kind of village constable ; WPah. bhal. kuwl m. hon. title of a hakkur ; B. kol watchman, constable (ODBL 329 < *khapla -- ); Or. kaua town policeman ; H. kowr, wl m. police officer ( L. kovl m., S. kovlum.), G. kov m. (CDIAL 3501). Rebus 2: B. kd to turn in a lathe; Or. kunda lathe, kdib, kud to turn ( Drav. Kur. kud lathe) ( DIA 95) Rebus 2: ko artisans workshop (Kuwi) Antelope: meh goat (Br.) Rebus: meha, mehi merchants clerk; (G.) To indicate a particular type of bronze-age product, the shape of the product itself had to be used on inscriptions. For example, on a Chanhu-daro seal, a double-axe is shown as a pictograph. Chanhu-daro 023 Seal. Sometimes, the hieroglyph had to be painted on the container which was used to transport the goods as in the case of Susa pot with metal artifacts which was painted with fish hieroglyph. Archaeological context unravels the purposes served by inscribed tablets vis--vis inscribed seals and seal impressions Copies of incised tablets and duplicates of molded tablets have been found in large numbers in two noteworthy instances at Harappa: (1) script copies incised into 22 rectangular steatite tablets, triangular in section, from secondary deposits of Period 3B on the outside of the perimeter wall in Trench 11 on East side of Mound E (Meadow & Kenoyer 2000, fig. 4; this volume: H-2218 through H-2239) and (2) 31 duplicates bearing iconography and script, made of regular molded terracotta, biconvex in section, from the northern portion of Trench II in Area G (Vats 1940: 195; CISI 1: H-252 through H-265 and H-276 & H-277; CISI 2: H-859 through H870; this volume: H-1155). Other copies and duplicates have been found scattered across the site where, like the multiples above, they are always found in trash, fill, or street deposits. Why tablets were made, how they were used, and why they were discarded remain intriguing unanswered questions. Their intrinsic interest lies not only in the script that they often bear, but even more so in the iconography, which provides an important glimpse, however fragmentary, into details of Harappan ideology, particularly for the time frame from ca.2400 to ca. 2000 BC (Harappa Period 3B through much of Period 3C). For a more detailed discussion see Meadow & Kenoyer 000. (J. Mark Kenoyer & Richard . Meadow, 0 0, Inscribed objects from Harappa excavations 1986-2007 in: Asko Parpola, B.M. Pande and Petteri Koskikallio (eds.), Corpus of Indus seals and inscriptions, Volume 3: New material, untraced objects and collections outside India and Pakistan, Part 1: Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, Helsinki, Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, pp. xlix-l) http://www.harappa.com/indus/Kenoyer-Meadow-2010-HARP.pdf
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In the reference Kenoyer & Meadow 000, it is noted: The tablets (or tokens) are common at Harappa, and multiple copies were often produced. In 1997, HARP excavators found 22 threesided steatite tablets, all with the same inscriptions, from the middle Harappan Phase (about 2300 BCE). Sixteen were discovered in a single group, as if they had been in a perishable container that was thrown over the city wall with other trash. In a street deposit of similar age just inside the wall, a seal was found with two of the same characters as seen on one side of the tablets. Why were these intact seals or tablets discarded? They were individually made by craftsmen from models or molds at the demand of an individual or group. They were used for a time, then discarded. Unlike coins, they apparently had value only in relation to the individual or group permitted to employ them. They have never been found in graves either the grave of a sealowning individual has not been excavated, or the seals were not integral to n individuals identity. erhaps a change in an individuals status made a specific seal or tablet invalid. Or perhaps the use of a seal or tablet was validated only when competent authority used it, otherwise, it was worthless. (Richard . Meadow and Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, 000, The Indus valley mystery, one of the worlds first great civilizations is still a puzzle, in: Scientific American Discovering Archaeology, March/April 2000, p. 41) Source: http://www.anthropology.wisc.edu/pdfs/Kenoyer%20Articles/The%20Indus%20 Valley%20Mystery.pdf h252A Inscription on one side of the 2-sided tablet (in bas relief). The other side shows a one-horned heifer (as in h254B). h254B. Two-sided tablet. The other side shows an inscription as in h252A. This is one set of the 31 duplicates. Tablets in bas relief. The first sign looks like an arch around a pillar with ring-stones. Obverse: One-horned bull. The inscription on these 31 duplicates can be read rebus in three parts: 1. Composite glyph of arch-around-a-pillar with ring-stones: storehouse 2. Unsmelted native metal 3. Furnace (with)a quantity of iron, excellent iron (metal) from stone ore h739B & A (Standard device; obverse: tree) A variant glyph comparable to the pillar with ring-stones which is part of the composite glyph with an arch over the glyph is provided by one side of a Harappa tablet: h739B Obverse: H739A: glyph:kui tree; rebus: kuhi smelter furnace ( antali) Vikalpa: = a branch of a tree (G.) Rebus: hako = a large ingot (G.) hak = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (G.)
37

If this comparison of glyphs is valid, the pillar with ring-stones may, in fact, represent a churning motion of a lathe-drill: Allograph: A sack slung on the front shoulder of the young bull is kh , kh , koth Rebus: B. kd to turn in a lathe; Or. knda lathe, kdib, kd to turn ( Drav. Kur. Kd lathe) ( DIA 95) Rebus: koil workshop (Ma.)(DEDR 2058). Koe forged metal ( antali) ko artisans workshop (Kuwi) Vikalpa: sagaa, portable brazier and lathe; rebus: sanga guild (of turners). Thus, the arched drill glyph may connote a turners workshop. This is a vikalpa reading, if the arch is not to be read as roof of a storehouse. The arch over the drill-lathe glyph may connote semantics of a guild: pattar. (Tamil); battuu guild of goldsmiths (Telugu). This may be consistent with the semant. patthar stones ( indi) pattar trough; rebus: . patthara m. stone; pattar merchants, guild (smiths) (The word may, thus, denote a lapidary).( DIA 885 ). Glyph and rebus decoding: patthara [cp. Late Sk. prastara. The ord. meaning of Sk. Pr. Is stramentum] . tone, rock i. . 2. Stoneware Miln 2. (Pali) Pa. Pk. Patthara m. stone , S. patharu m., L. (Ju.) pathar m., khet. Patthar, P. patthar m. ( forms of Bi. Mth. Bhoj. H. G. below with atth or ath), Wpah.jaun. ptthar; Ku. Pthar m. slates, stones , gng. Pth*lr flat stone ; A. B. pthar stone , Or. Pathara; Bi. Pthar, patthar, patthal hailstone ; Mth. Pthar, pathal stone , Bhoj. Pathal, Aw.lakh. pthar, H. pthar, patthar, pathar, patthal m., G. patthar, pathr m.; M. pthar f. flat stone ; Ko. Phttaru stone ; Si. Patura chip, fragment ; -- S. pathir f. stone in the bladder ; P. pathr f. small stone ; Ku. Pathar stone cup ; B. pthri stone in the bladder, tartar on teeth ; Or. Pathur stoneware ; H. patthr f. grit , G. pathr f. prastar -- : Wpah.kg. ptthr m. stone, rock ; pthreu to stone ; J. pthar m. stone ; Omarw. Pthar precious stone . (CDIAL 8857) There are two orthographic elements in this hieroglyph: 1. Body; 2. Spread feet. Together the rebus reading is: me paarai = iron workshop. [Iron may denote any hard metal, e.g. gold as in: mehsar gold necklace (Marathi)] 1. 2. me body ( antali.). Rebus: me iron ( o.) Glyph: spread feet: attharati [pa+tharati] to spread, spread out, extend J i.6 ; iv. vi. 9; DhA i. 6; iii.6 (so read at J vi.549 in cpd pda with spreading feet, v. l. patthaa). pp. patthaa (q. v.). Rebus: paarai workshop (Ta.) pattharika [fr. Patthara] a merchant Vin ii.135 (kasa).( ali) Merchants; &sup5; pattar, n. perh. Vartaka. ;

. (W.) battuu. n. The caste title of all the five castes of

artificers as vala b*, carpenter. Together with me body, rebus: me iron, the rebus reading of the body with spread feet may read rebus: me pattar iron (workers) guild. The seal inscription shows the pattern of tally accomplished by bringing into the storehouse 1. Unsmelted native metal; and 2. (output
38

from) furnace of worker in wood and iron. The assumption made is that the the two categories brought into the storehouse would have been tallied by the furnace account scribe or merchant, using tablets with inscriptions denoting: 1. Unsmelted metal; and 2. (output from) stone iron (metal) ore furnace. Glyph (arch-around a pillar with ring-stones may denote a storehouse): ko = a cow-pen; a cattlepen; a byre (G.) cattle-shed (Marathi) [ k ] A pen or fold for cattle. [ gh ] f C (Dim. Of byre (G.) (Dim. Of ) A pen or fold for calves. (Marathi)ko = a cow-pen; a cattlepen; a [ k ] A pen or fold for cattle. [ gh ] f C cattle-shed (Marathi)

) A pen or fold for calves. (Marathi) Rebus: ko = place where artisans work

(Kur.) [ kh] f ( S) A granary, garner, storehouse, warehouse, treasury, factory, bank. (Marathi) [An attempt has been made to provide rebus readings of some architectural glyphs and the use of dot or circle as a hieroglyph atop a bull on Urseal 18; the note is appended in Annex 2.] Glyph: kolmo seedling, paddy plant; rebus: kolami forge, smithy (Te.) Vikalpa: pajha = to sprout from a root ( antali); Rebus: pasra smithy, forge ( antali)[It is possible that two variants of the glyph: one with three pronged representation of seedling; and the other with five-pronged representation of seedling might have been intended to specify a fine distinction between the two lexemes: kolmo, pajha perhaps denoting two types of forge kolami, pasra; it is possible that kolami was a smithy related to stone ore metal (kol working in iron); pasra was a smithy related to variety of metals and alloys (rebus glyph: pasaramu domestic animals [representing working in wood (bahi - boar), iron (kol - tiger), copper (me - ram), tin (ranku - antelope).] Other glyphs used to denote alloying minerals: 1. tin, 2. zinc, 3. arsenic respectively : 1. tagaraka (tabernae montana or ranku liquid measure), . sattiya (svastika glyph), 3. da (branch of tree, twig). Glyph: aar a splinter (Ma.) aaruka to burst, crack, sli off,fly open; aarcca splitting, a crack; aarttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster) (Ma.); aaruni to crack (Tu.) (DEDR 66) Rebus: aduru native, unsmelted metal (Kannada) aduru = gaiyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Ka. Siddhnti Subrahmaya astris New interpretation of the Amarakoa, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330) Vikalpa: sal splinter; rebus: sal workshop ( antali) Thus the two glyphs of the text of the tablet inscription showing arch-around a pillar with ringstones + paddy plant + splinter glyph may connote, rebus: kolami ko aduru, forge unsmelted metal workshop. Glyph: Fish + scales aya s [amu or, a cu iron (Tocharian)] metllic stalks of stone ore ( ee http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/11/decoding-longest-inscription-ofindus.html) Vikalpa 1: badho a species of fish with many bones ( antali) Rebus: badhoria expert in working in wood( antali) Vikalpa : fish + scales. Aya + Ku. s, so m. share . Hence, the ligatured glyphic may connote a share of metal for workshop (guild). Vikalpa: s,
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cognate with ac iron (Tocharian) may be a determinative of iron as the metal. ence, the ligatured glyph may connote iron or stony metal. Slanting is perhaps an orthographic notation of a fraction. An Asokan pillar inscription at Lumbini reads: lummini-gme ubalike kae aha-bhgiye ca. The village of umbini was made free of taxes and to pay (only) an eighth share (of the produce). (Inscriptions of Asoka, ed. E. Hultzsch, Rummindei Pillar Inscription.) Hultzsch cites Fleet (JRAS 1908: 479) that aha-bhga (from Skt. aa-bhga) is an eighth share which the king is permitted by Manu (VII: 0) to levy on grains Pa. kohsa -m. share, portion , adj. divided into ( felt as contraction of a -- a and preserved before s; consequent s > s: cf. re -- establishment of prefix before MIA. double consonant, e.g. Pk. avdi < * replacing a -- < Sk. j -- ); Si. koasa, kohoa share, part, piece .(CDIAL 3549). a m. share, part RV. [a1] Pa. Pk. asa -- m., Pk. siy -- f.; Wg. (Lumsden) "onshi" lot, chance (Morgenstierne NTS xvii 227 with ?); Ku. s, so m. share , si f. measure of land ; B. do -- consisting of two parts or two grains , do -- l cross -bred ; Or. si having angles (if not rather < ri -- ); Bi. s the smallest sheaf (or poss. < *adhama -- ); Si. asa part, half .(CDIAL 2) a m. filament esp. of soma -- plant RV., thread, minute particle, ray. Pa. asu -- m. thread ; Pk. asu -- m. sunbeam ; A. h fibre of a plant , OB. su; B. s fibre of tree or stringy fruit, nap of cloth ; Or. su fibrous layer at root of coconut branches, edge or prickles of leaves , s f. fibre, pith ; -- with -- i -- in place of -- u -- : B. i fibre ; M. sn. fine particles of flattened rice in winnowing fan ; A. hiy fibrous .(CDIAL 4)Glyph: kaa arrow ( kt.) Rebus: kaa fire-altar, furnace. Vikalpa: ka stone (ore). The two glyphs together denote furnace of a worker in wood and iron: aya s (amu) metallic stalks of stone ore aya s kana furnace (with) a quantity of iron, excellent iron (or metal) from stone ore Vikalpa: badhor kana furnace (of) worker in wood and iron. Ayaskana is a lexeme attested in: Pini.gan. The phrase might have indicated stony metal.Each platform is 11 feet in diameter and consists of a single course of four continuous concentric rings of brick-on-edge masonry with a hollow at the center equal to the length of three bricks. The mortar used in them is mud but the pointing is of gypsum. (Pl. XIII, c) (Picture 26.4) Their purpose is not clear.
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While digging the hollow of P8 there was found a small quantity of burnt wheat and husked barley and about two pounds of animal bones. Some bits of bones were also found in two or three others. As, however, the bones etc., lay about a foot below the central hollow, that is to say distinctly below the brickwork of these platforms, and similar fragments of bones were also found sticking at the same level among the edges of the platforms, it appears certain that they were merely a part of the debris and by no means the contents of the hollow. (Vats, M , 940, Excavation at Harappa, Delhi, ASI, p. 182). The hypotheses, in the context of trade from the working platforms, are 1) that the tablets were used in the consolidation process to prepare a composite bill of lading describing the artifacts and 2) that a guild of workshops used the tablets for such consolidation of the trade loads. Note: HARP excavators surmised the possible production of indigo. An alternative explanation is possible and deserves further investigation in the context of metalwork on the circular working platforms. HARP excavations of one of the circular brick floors in mound F at Harappa revealed a deep depression containing greenish layers of clay. The greenish layers may have been caused by the presence of zinc particles which have a bluish green color. Zinc dust is flammable when exposed to heat and burns with a bluish-green flame. In an identification of the corrosion minerals identified on the Great Buddha, Kamakura, Japan it is noted that some of the compounds found on the Buddha were mixed copper-zinc saltsand schulenbergite, a mixed copper-zinc basic sulfate, that is rhombohedral with a pearly, light green-blue color. (David A. Scott, Getty Conservation Institute, 2002, Copper and Bronze in Art: corrosion, colorants, conservation, Getty Publications, p. 162) Ancient Indian literature has even recorded a breakthrough in zinc extraction in those days. Such process included high temperature distillation that was developed and then applied in future zinc extraction and purification from their metal ore sources. Zinc ores were broken with the use of iron hammers or pestles. Then, such broken ores were again crushed by larger pestles. Then, the ore would have to be thoroughly roasted in order to reduce the levels of sulphur. After which, a high proportion of calcined dolomite was mixed with the crushed and roasted ores. An interesting ingredient in this process is the addition of common salt. This is for the reason that salt would help in the distillation process, thereby, producing soda vapor that assists in amassing calcium and magnesium oxides. This allows zinc vapor to freely flow and increasing zinc yield. This zinc yield was poured on clay containers for heating. Example of Rosasite. Minor ore of zinc and copper and as a mineral specimen. Colour: Blue to green.Rosasite forms in the oxidation zones of zinc-copper deposits. It typically is found as
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crusts and botryoidal masses or nodules. Crystals are fibrous and found in tufted aggregates. The color is an attractive bluish green. Rosasite crystals are harder than aurichalcite; 4 versus 1 2 respectively. Rosasite is associated with red limonite and other such colorful minerals as aurichalcite, smithsonite and hemimorphite. Nodules of rosasite certainly add color to what are termed landscape specimens. http://www.mineralgallery.co.za/rosasite.htm It will be necessary to test, by chemical analysis, the greenish layers of clay found in the circular platform for the presence of such alloying mineral clays. Is it possible that the working platforms were also used by the smiths to work on their anvils to forge metal artifacts, using portable furnaces the way crucible steel was produced during the iron age? Ernest Mackay, Chapter XXI. Seals and seal impressions, copper tablets, with tabulation (pp.370-405). As of 1927, 558 objects with inscriptions had been found. Discussing 80 copper tablets found, Mackay notes (p. 98): The rectangular pieces are of various sizes, ranging from . by 0.5 in. to 1.5 by 1.0 in. The square pieces, which are rare, average 0.92 by 0.92 in. in size. These tablets vary greatly in thickness, from 0.07 in. to 0.12 in. One especially substantial tablet (HR 4799) measures 0.85 in. square by 0. in. thickOn most of the tablets there is the figure of an animal on one side, and on the other three or more signs forming an inscription. The figures and signs were in every case carefully cut with a burinBelow is a list of the animals on the legible tablets with the numbers found, up to the present, of each: elephant (6), antelope (5), hare (5), rhinoceros (4), buffalo(?) (4), short- horned bull (4), human figure (3), goat (2), brahmani bull (2), tiger (2), two-headed animal (2), composite animal (1), monkey (?)( )The above list shows that most of the animals that appear on the seals are also represented on the copper tabletscomposite animalIt has the hind-quarters of a rhinoceros and the fore-quarters of a leopard or tiger. It has the unicorns horn, and a manger stands before it. ( l. XVIII, ). A very curious animal on two sides of the tablets appears to have the body of an antelope with a head at either end. The fact that more than one example has been found of this animal proves that it is not a vagary of the engraver (Pl. CXVII,3). The tablet bearing the figure of a man dressed in what seems to be a costume of leaves is exceptionally interesting (Pl. CXVII, 16). He is apparently a hunter armed with a bow and arrowThe antelope appears on five of the tablets, represented in a typical attitude with his head turned to look behind him (Pl. CXVII, 1 and 2; Pl. CXVIII,1). This attitude is very common in Elamitic art, especially on the pottery and seals. The position is also well known on both the archaic seals and pottery of Mesopotamia. For the present, the elephant appears to take first place amongst the animals on these copper tablets. An excellent example is seen in Pl. CXVII,11, of which the original was found at a depth of 1 foot below the surface in ouse XXVI, V AreaThe exceptionally powerful-looking animal with long curling horns (Pl. CXVII, 8 and 12, and Pl. CXVIII, 4 and 6), and with a manger placed in
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front of it, does not appear on any of the seals. The long tail of the animal with a tuft at the end is carried well in the air, as if the creature were about to chargeThe rope pattern on the obverse of Tablet No. 5 in Pl. CXVIII is unique at Mohenjo-daroThe fact that all of the tablets bearing the representation of a hare have the same inscription on the obverse (Pl. CXVII, 5 and 6), and that the animals with long curling horns and long tail also bear the same inscription different, however, from the inscription on the tablet refers in some way to the animal on the tablet. Of three tablets, each with an elephant engraved upon it, all bear the same inscription (Pl. CXII, 11), and lastly those with the figures of antelopes looking backwards over their shoulders all have the same characters on the reverse (Pl. CXVII, 1 and 2; Pl. CXVIII,1). Some, if not all the animals on the copper tablets were possibly dedicated to certain gods. As on some of the seals, we find a manger placed before certain of them, as, for instance, the unicorn, the rhinoceros, antelope, and Brahmani bull. This suggests that these animals were kept in captivity, and, if so, it is likely to have been for religious purposes; a rhinoceros is obviously quite useless for any domestic purpose. A manger is placed before the composite animal on the tablet illustrated in Pl. XVIII, , despite the fact that such an animal could never have existed. (pp. 400-401). The manger is a trough hieroglyph. http://www.scribd.com/doc/32303649/Indus-Writing-on-Metal Indus Writing on Metal Copper tablets from Mohenjo-daro: an analysis 46 tablet groups (After Parpola, 1994, fig. 7.14). The 46 tablet groups are shown with distinctive pictorial motifs and glyphs sequenced together to constitute the Indus script inscriptions on copper tablets. See: 1. Parpola, A. 1992 Copper Tablets from Mohenjo-daro and the study of the Indus Script. In:Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Mohenjo-daro, edited by I. M. Nadiem, pp. Karachi, Department of Archaeology. 2. Pande, B. M. 1979 Inscribed Copper Tablets from Mohenjo daro: A Preliminary Analysis. In : Ancient Cities of the Indus, edited by G. L. Possehl, pp. 268-288. New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD. 3. Pande, B. M. 1991 Inscribed Copper Tablets from Mohenjo-daro: Some Observations.Puratattva (21): 25-28. Brij Mohan Pande had first analysed (1979 and 1991) the importance and significance of copper tablets with unique sets of inscriptions. This contribution is just scintillating and was later (1992) followed up by Asko Parpola identifying 36 groups. The find by HARP recently, of a copper
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tablet and 8 duplicates (bas relief with raised script) in Harappa was a stunner, together with 31 and 22 sets of duplicate tablets with identical inscriptions.

Hypothesis 7: Seal impression on pot (Mohenjo-daro. Text 2937) The pot was used as a container to trade the products described by the inscription. In their contribution to theorpus of Indus Inscriptions, Volume 3, Part 1, Kenoyer and Meadow observe: quare seals with script alone are found first in eriod BWe are also obtaining important chronological information with respect to inscribed tablets, which are particularly common at Harappa, more so than seals. Through careful stratigraphic cutting-back of Vats section in Trench I of Mound F and comparison with his report of that trench (Vats 1940), we have determined that he was not correct in reporting that small steatite tablets with incised script are from the earliest levels of the site. Instead it is evident that such tablets appeare toward the middle of Period 3B and continued to be used well into Period 3C (Meadow & kenoyer 1997; 2000). Furthermore, these inscribed steatite tablets, which Vats ( 940) called tiny steatite seals, are not seals at all but are incised with script that was to be read directly from the tablet. And along with the steatite tablets are found terracotta and glazed faience tablets with molded bas-relief script, motifs, and narrative scenes, which also start appearing in mid-Period 3B and continue into Period 3C (Meadow & Kenoyer 99 ; 000) Group of incised baked steatite tablets. A group of 16 three-sided incised baked steatite tablets, all with the same inscriptions, were uncovered in mid- to late Period 3B debris outside of the curtain wall. (See 146). These tablets may originally been enclosed in a perishable container such as a small bag of cloth or leather.
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Life and death of Harappan seals and tablets. An additional six copies of these tablets, again all with the same inscriptions, were found elsewhere in the debris outside of perimeter wall [250] including two near the group of 16 and two in debris between the perimeter and curtain walls. Here all 22 tablets are displayed together with a unicorn intaglio seal from the Period 3B street inside the perimeter wall, which has two of the same signs as those found on the tablets. (See also 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150). Quoting from R.H. Meadow and J.M. Kenoyers article in outh Asian Archaeology 99 (Rome, 00 ): It is tempting to think that the evident loss of utility and subsequent discard of the tablets is related to the death of the seal. eals are almost always found in trash or street deposits (and never yet in a grave) indicating that they were either lost or intentionally discarded, the latter seeming the more likely in most instances. The end of the utility of a seal must relate to some life event of its owner, whether change of status, or death, or the passing of an amount of time during which the seal was considered current. A related consideration is that apparently neither seals nor tablets could be used by just anyone or for any length of time because otherwise they would not have fallen out of circulation. Thus the use of seals and of tablets was possible only if they were known to be current. Once they were no longer current, they were discarded. This would help explain why a group of 16 (or 18) tablets with the same inscriptions, kept together perhaps in a cloth or leather pouch, could have been deposited with other trash outside of the perimeter wall of Mound E. Period 3B debris related to: c. 2450 BCE c. 2200 BCE. A tribute has to be paid in particular to Kenoyer, Meadow and participants in the HARP multidisciplinary team work and many including Marshall and Mackay who have tried to explain the function served by Indus script inscriptions. The focus is on tablets [made of either steatite (terracotta) or copper] with Indus script. Many duplicates, that is, tablets with the same inscription have been unearthed and Kenoyer & Meadow discuss the stratigraphic context in which 22 such samples were found in Harappa during the 1986-2007 excavations. Earlier excavations were under the late George F. Dale Jr. in Mohenjo-daro and other sites, following the pioneering archaeological investigations of Banerjee, Dikshit, Marshall, Mackay and earlier exploratory surveys of Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein. Examples of 22 duplicates steatite triangular tablets h-2218 to h-2239 h2219A First side of three-sided tablet h2219B Second side of three-sided tablet h2219C Third side of three-sided tablet The two glyphs which appear on the h 9A example also appear on a seal. In a street deposit of similar age just inside the wall, a seal was found with two of the same characters as seen on one side of the tablets.
45

While the tablets were meant to help in tallying the products produced by the artisans, the `seal was meant to be used in preparing a bill of lading for the products to be couriered through containers. h1682A. The seal which contained the two glyphs used on the tally three-sided tablets. The seal showed a one-horned heifer + standard device and two segments of inscriptions: one segment showing the two glyphs shown on one side of the tally tablet; the other segment showing glyphs of a pair of rectangle with divisions + three long linear strokes. Decoding a pair of glyphs, a pair of rectangle with divisions: kha field, division ( kt.); Rebus: ka furnace ( kt.) Thus, reduplicated glyph connotes dul ka casting furnace. Vikalpa: khonu divided into parts (Kashmiri) khonu adj. (f. khn 1, sg. Dat. khanj 1 ,

), broken, divided into

parts; hence, deprived of a part or limb or member, maimed, mutilated; unevenly formed, irregularly angled. (Kashmiri) A pair of such glyphs divided into parts, may thus be decoded as: dul ka khonu khon casting furnace workshop. Both sets of products are from the sangatarsu stone-engraver, metal-turners workshop. Decoding the glyph, three long linear strokes: three; rebus: smithy ( antali) Glyph of standard device in front of the one-horned heifer: s g lathe (Tu.)(CDIAL 12859). sgaa That member of a turners apparatus by which the piece to be turned is confined and steadied. To take into linkedness or close connection with, lit. fig. (Marathi)

[ sg ] f The machine within which a turner confines and steadies the piece he has to turn. (Marathi) [ saga ] f (Commonly ) A pan of live coals or embers. (Marathi) san:gho, sagha (G.) = firepan; sagha, aghai = a pot for holding fire (G.)[cul saga portable hearth (G.)] Thus, the entire set of glyphs on the h1682A seal [denoting the heifer + standard device] can be decoded: koiyum heifer; [ kiya ] ke, kiya. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. . k* A young bull. Plumpness, prime. A young man. . a pair of bullocks. Ke adj. Young. Ke-ku. n. [ kha ]

. [ kruke ] kru-ke. [Tel.] n. A bull in its prime.

46

m A young bull, a bullcalf. (Marathi)

[ gda ] gda. [Tel.] n. An ox. A beast. Kine,

cattle.(Telugu) koiyum (G.) rebus: ko workshop (G.) B. kd to turn in a lathe; Or. knda lathe, kdib, kd to turn ( Drav. Kur. kd lathe) ( DIA 95) The two glyphs (heifer + lathe) together thus refer to a turners workshop with a portable hearth. The two sets of the text of the inscription refer to the products assembled together (perhaps on the circular working platforms) by this workshop of the guild. The sets of products denoted by the two sets of glyphic sequences can be read rebus: kui water carrier (Te.) Rebus: kuhi smelter furnace ( antali) ku f. fireplace ( .); krvI f. granary (Wpah.); ku, kuo house, building(Ku.)( DIA ) kui hut made of boughs (Skt.) gui temple (Telugu) kaa kanka rim of jar ( antali); rebus: furnace scribe. Kaa kanka may be a dimunitive form of *kan-khr copper smith comparable to the cognate gloss: kar coppersmiths, blacksmiths (Tamil) If so, kaa kan-khr connotes: copper-smith furnace.kaa fire-altar ( antali); kan copper (Ta.) kanka Rim of jar ( antali); karaka rim of jar( kt.) Rebus: karaka scribe (Te.); gaaka id. (Skt.) (Santali) Thus, the rim-of-jar glyph connotes: furnace account (scribe). Together with the glyph showing water-carrier, the ligatured glyphs of water-carrier + rim-of-jar can thus be read as: kuhi kaa kanka smelting furnace account (scribe). Thus, the inscription on seal h1682A can be explained in the context of the tablets used as tally tokens to account for consolidated trade load of the assembled products (delivered by the guild artisans) using the impression of the seal as a bill of lading. The use of tablets in conjunction with the seal has been elaborated. Once the accounting is completed using the seal and the seal impression on the package to be couriered, the tablets used as tallying instruments by the guild helper of merchant have served their purpose and can be disposed of in the debris. The new seal with consolidated description of categories can itself serve as the bill of lading. Using the perforated boss on the back of some seals, the seal itself can be tied to the package. Use of seals to create sealings: context trade with interaction areas such as Mesopotamia
47

Archaeological finds of tablets (sometimes called bas-relief tablets or incised miniature tablets) and seals are in association with kilns and working platforms. Metallurgical context is shown by the use of copper to create tablets with Indus script glyphs. Archaeological finds of seal impressions used as tags on chunks of burnt clay for sealing packages (since textile or reed impressions have been found on the obverse of such tags) show the trade context in which these examples of Indus writing have been used. About 32% of all Indus inscriptions found at Lothal are on such tags (seal impressions). h119 Seal. The glyph of four sets of four long strokes, compares with the seal impression on Lothal 174 and LewanDheri 1 (shown below) Decoding glyph of four long strokes. gaa four (Santali); rebus: furnace, ka fire-altar. pon four ( antali) rebus: pon gold (Ta.) Thus, the four sets of four long strokes may denote: (output) from gold furnaces.

Lewan-dheri 1 Seal impression. m0037 Seal impression. m0650 Seal. This seal contains in its inscription, the same three glyphs shown on m0037 Seal impression. Thus, the example of the seal is an assemblage of two sets of descriptions of two sets of goods which may be put into the same trade package to be couriered with a bill of lading. Thus combinations of inscriptions achieved the purpose of completing part of the message required for a bill of lading. m04 5 eal impression with three tags from three seals is an example of such assemblage of messages to complete the detailed description of goods in a trade package. Thus, it is clear that the combinations of seal impressions are likely to be more complete assemblage of messages for preparing bills of lading. This assemblage uses the descriptions of goods is achieved through multiple tablets used as tallies for compiling the bill of lading. Banawali 23 Seal impression. This uses an assemblage of glyphs: a person standing with raised arm, a ram, a one-horned heifer, two glyphs: fish and arrow. Eache of these glyphs can be read rebus to complete the reading of the message conveyed by the inscription, as a bill of lading on a
48

consignment, a trade package. Decoding: me body(Mu.); rebus: iron ( o.) eaka upraised arm (Ta.); rebus: eraka = copper (Ka.) Glyph: kaa arrow ( kt.) rebus: kaa fire-altar, furnace. Glyph: aya fish; rebus: aya metal (G.) ayaska excellent quantity of iron ( .) koiyum heifer(G.) koe heifer (Telugu) [ kha ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. Rebus: [ kaa ] f A fold or pen. (Marathi) ko workshop (G.)Glyph: mil markhor (Tor.wali) meho a ram, a sheep (G.)( DIA 0 0) kunda turner kundr turner (A.); kdr, kdri (B.); kundru (Or.); kundau to turn on a lathe, to carve, to chase; kundau dhiri = a hewn stone; kundau murhut = a graven image ( antali) kunda a turners lathe ( kt.)( DIA 95) Rebus: me iron (Ho.) meed-bica = iron stone ore, in contrast to bali-bica, iron sand ore (Mu.lex.) Thus, the Banawali seal impression connotes an assemblage of categories of copper (smelted metal); iron (native metal); iron (smelted metal); (turners) workshop. The load prepared in package decribes these categories of products. Rakhigarhi 65 Seal impression. This shows a duplicate set of impressions from perhaps the same seal. As to why two seal impressions were affixed can only be conjectured. Maybe, there were two consignments in the package from the same guild workshop. Is the third glyph comparable to the man on the Banawali seal impression with an upraised arm? Over 80 single seal impressions have been found [Lothal (66), Mohenjo-daro (5), Kalibangan (4), Harappa (1), Banawali (1), Rohira (2), Lewan-dheri (1). 36 multiple impressions have been identified [Lothal (27), Kalibangan (6), Mohenjo-daro (2) and Rakhigarhi (1)]. Such seal impressions containing two long Indus inscription (m0304 and m0314) has been decoded rebus at http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/11/decoding-longest-inscription-ofindus.html. The bills of lading are restricted only with descriptions of trade goods and do not indicate names of trading partners or destinations of the packages. It is clear that multiple seal impressions complete the process of compiling the details needed for a bill of lading and contain complete descriptions of the trade consignments loads since the compilation is an assemblage of inscriptions of individual seals. The Indus writing was mainly used to provide a detailed description of the goods in packages and seal impressions served as parts of bills of lading. An example of sealing is presented by Mackay. Mackay, EJ , 9 8, Further Excavations at Mohenjo-daro, Vol. II, New Delhi, Government of India, l. X , no. . ote: o. in l. X is certainly a true sealing (i.e. a clay seal impression) and it owes its preservation to having been slightly burnt; it was once
49

fastened to some such object as a smooth wooden rod. (Mackay,ibid., 9 8, Vol. I, p. 49). One can only conjecture as to the reason why a pair of seal impressions were created on clay around a wooden rod: perhaps, the rod served as the bill of lading for a particular category of goods/artifacts. The three glyphs can be read rebus. The set of three glyphs is read rebus as: bhaa ab ranku furnace ingot tin. Glyph : A glyphic ligature is the ladle or spoon glyph (ligatured to the pot glyph). abu an iron spoon ( antali) Rebus: ab, himba, hompo lump (ingot?), clot, make a lump or clot, coagulate, fuse, melt together ( antali) bahu m. large pot in which grain is parched (S.) Rebus: baa = a kind of iron (G.) bhaa furnace (G.) bhaa = kiln ( antali). Thus the ligatured glyph of pot + spoon reads rebus: ab (furnace) ingot. Glyph 2: Glyph of rectangle with divisions: baai = to divide, share (Santali) [Note the glyphs of nine rectangles divided.] Rebus: bhaa = an oven, kiln, furnace (Santali) bahi furnace for smelting ore (the same as kuhi) (Santali) bhaa = an oven, kiln, furnace; make an oven, a furnace; ia bhaa = a brick kiln; kun:kal bhaa a potters kiln; cun bhaa = a lime kiln; cun tehen dobon bhaaea = we shall prepare the lime kiln today (Santali); bhah (H.) bhart = a mixed metal of copper and lead; bhart-y = a barzier, worker in metal; bha, bhrra = oven, furnace (Skt.) mht bai = iron (Ore) furnaces. [Synonyms are: mt = the eye, rebus for: the dotted circle (Santali.lex) baha [H. bah ( ad.)] any kiln, except a potters kiln, which is called coa; there are four kinds of kiln: cunabat.ha, a lime-kin, iabaha, a brick-kiln, rbaha, a lac kiln, kuilabaha, a charcoal kiln; trs. Or intrs., to make a kiln; cuna rapamente ciminaupe bahakeda? How many limekilns did you make? Baha-sen:gel = the fire of a kiln; bai [H. Sad. Bahi, a furnace for distilling) used alone or in the cmpds. Arkibut.i and bat.iora, all meaning a grogshop; occurs also in ilibai, a (licensed) rice-beer shop (Mundari.lex.) bhai = liquor from mohwa flowers ( antali) Glyph : ranku liquid measure; rebus: ranku tin ( antali) One more question. Why were there three sides of the disposed of tally tablets? The purpose of side 1 as part of the seal used for sealing the package has been explained. Side 1 (glyphs: water-carrier ligatured with rim-of-jar glyph + three linear strokes glyph) connoted that the tally was meant for products taken out from the smelter/furnace. Side 1 glyphs were used to tally furnace output, i.e. output of kuhi, smelter. Side 2 glyphs: rhombus with corner + three linear strokes. kna corner (Nk.); Tu. ku angle, corner (Tu.); Rebus: kd to turn in a lathe (B.) kolmo three (Mu.) Rebus: kolami forge (Te.) Side 2 glyphs were used to tally forged products from the turners lathe, i.e., output of kd, lathe. Side 3 glyphs: rimless pot + four linear strokes. baa = rimless pot (Kannada). Rebus: baa = furnace (Santali) bhrra = furnace ( kt.) pon four ( antali) rebus: pon gold (Ta.) Vikalpa: gaa set of four (Santali) kaa fire-altar. ide glyphs were used to tally gold furnace
50

(products), i.e. output of baa, furnace. Kudos to Kenoyer and Meadow whose insights provided the leads for further researches on the functions of the script, for e.g., by raising the question of the use and disposal of tablet multiples with the same inscription. Credit goes to Kenoyer and Meadow who have raised incisive questions for further researches to unravel the purpose served by the tablets which occur in multiple copies carrying the same impression, clearly indicating that the inscriptions are unlikely to refer to names (of artisans or residents of the citadel or the lower town). Based on the rebus readings of the glyphs, the inscriptions refer to the categories of artifacts produced from three distinct processes ) furnace output, ) turners or forge output, ) gold furnace output -- by the workers in stone, workers in semi-precious stones (for bead work), workers in minerals, metal, alloys, furnace/ smelter workers, and helpers of merchants who script the entire process of manufacture and preparation of bills of lading. ence, the importance of the rim-of-jar sign denoting the scribe, the furnace account (scribe). The miniature incised tablets of Harappa might have served the same functions that the copper tablets of Mohenjo-daro served: as tallying instruments for the outputs from furnaces/smelters. The use of the circular working platforms was to store the products in storage pots kept in the center of the circle and the articles spread out around the circumference of the circular platform as wares for display, marketing and sale or, for preparing bills of lading using the seals. It is also possible that the center of the platform was used to install a drill-lathe of the type shown in front of the one-horned heifer on over 1000 inscribed objects of the corpora. The advance accounting practices for categorizing the stages of metallurgical processed involved in producing final trade load of the guild workshops gets completed with the stamping of the seal impression on the package, thus securing the package tied with cords of fibre and authenticated by the seal impression. The merchant associates in the Meluhha settlements in distant lands would understand the language and writing and unpack the material for further recording the trade transactions using cuneiform script documenting the trade contracts and after invoking the divinities e.g. Mitra-Varua, as witnesses (one as contract divinity and the other as law divinity)(as in Bogazkoi inscriptions). It is suggested that both cuneiform script and Indian hieroglyphs were used to finalise the trade transactions since the Indian hieroglyphs provided only descriptive bills of lading of products traded; specifying names of contracting parties and quantities involved were done using cuneiform. Examples of 31 duplicates, double-sided terracotta tablets
51

Two Mohenjo-daro tablets inscribes three glyphs carried on shoulders in a procession; one of the objects carried looks very much like the standard device carved in front of the one-horned heifer. [Mohenjo-daro. Terracotta tablet. After Marshall 1931, Pl. CXVIII,9]. The carriers of the glyphs have upraised arms: eaka 'upraised arm' (Ta.); rebus: eraka = copper (Ka.) Allograph glyph: [ kha ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. (Marathi) [ gda ] gda. [Tel.] n. An ox. A beast. kine, cattle.(Telugu ) koiyum heifer (G.) [ kiya ] ke, kiya. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. . k* A young bull. Plumpness, prime. . a pair of bullocks. ke adj. Young. ke-ku. n. A young man.. [ kruke ] kru-ke. [Tel.] n. A bull in its prime. koiyum (G.) Rebus 2: B. kd to turn in a lathe; Or. kunda lathe, kdib, kud to turn ( Drav. Kur. kud lathe) ( DIA 95).

kna corner ( k.); Tu. ku angle, corner (Tu.).

neck of an workshop (Kuwi.G.);

Glyph: rings on neck: koiyum = a wooden circle put round the animal; ko = neck (G.) koiyum heifer, rings on neck; rebus: ko

Fish glyph occurs on a cylinder seal together with the glyphs of bull, heifer and also of bird. Tell Suleimeh Cylinder seal. A fish over a short-horned bull and a bird over a one-horned bull; cylinder seal impression, (Akkadian to early Old Babylonian). Gypsum. 2.6 cm. Long 1.6 cm. Dia. Tell Suleimeh (level IV), Iraq; IM 87798; (al-Gailani Werr,1983, p. 49 No. 7).
52

[Drawing by Larnia Al-GailaniWerr. Cf. Dominique Collon 1987, First impressions: cylinder seals in the ancient Near East, London: 143, no. 609] baa = quail (Santali) Rebus: baa = furnace (Santali) bhrra = furnace (Skt.) baa = a kind of iron (G.) bhaa furnace (G.) baa = kiln (Santali). mha antelope; rebus: me iron ( o.) angar bull; rebus: angar blacksmith ( .) koe heifer (Telugu) artisans work (G.) [ kha ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. Rebus: ko = place where [ kaa ] f A fold or pen. (Marathi)

[ kha ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. Rebus: kd to turn in a lathe (B.) f A fold or pen. (Marathi)

[kaa]

Rebus: k dr turner, brass-worker. Glyph: dhau scarf. Rebus: dhatu mineral.) Kundakara A turner.(Oriya) [ khdakra ] n an engraver; a carver (Bengali)

Vikalpa: go = one (Santali); goi = silver (G.) koa one( antali); ko workshop (G.) * sal stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty (H.); Rebus: sal workshop ( antali) lai, n. < l. 1. Apartment, hall; . ( . lai-k-kui, n. < +. Receptacle for the ( . 220, 3). .* juice; work a sugar-cane mill; 2. To move, toss, as a ship; . splinter; rebus: workshop (sal) Glyptic elements read rebus include the following: The zebu (brhmai bull) is: aar angra (Santali); hangar bull; rebus: dhan:gar blacksmith (Mth.) angar blacksmith (H.)
53

844. 7). 2. Elephant stable or stall; juice underneath a sugar-cane press;

lai-t-toi, n. < id. +. Cauldron for boiling sugar-cane . lai-py-, v. intr. < id. +. 1. To ( ( . . 93). .

. (R.) 3. To be undecided, vacillating; ,) Vikalpa: sal

koiyum koiyum heifer (G.) [kiya] ke, kiya. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. . k* bull. Plumpness, prime. ku. n. A young man. .

A young

a pair of bullocks. ke adj. Young. ke[

. [ kruke ] kru-ke. [Tel.] n. A bull in its prime.

kha ] m A young bull, a bullcalf. (Marathi)

[ gda ] gda. [Tel.] n. An ox. A beast. kine, [ kha ] m A young bull, a

cattle.(Telugu) koiyum (G.) koiyum heifer (G.) koiyum; bullcalf. (Marathi) [ke ] ke. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. *-

. A young bull. kru-ke. [Tel.] n.

A bull in its prime. [ kiya ] G. godh m. bull , dh n. young bull , OG. godhalu m. entire bull , G. godhliy n. young bull (CDIAL 4315). Te. kiya, ke young bull; adj. male (e.g. ke da bull calf), young, youthful; kek;u a young man. Kol. (Haig) k bull. Nk. khoe male calf. Kona ki cow; ke young bullock. Pe.ki cow. Man. ki id. Kui ki id., ox. Kuwi (F.) kdi cow; (S.) kajja ki bull ; (Su. P.) ki cow (DEDR 2199) cf. koa a boy, a young man ( antali) A young bull is ke, kha One horn is ko, ka Pa. k (pl. kul) horn; Ka. ku horn, tusk, branch of a tree; kr horn Tu. k, ku horn Ko. k (obl. k-)( (DEDR 2200) a. kabald, Kal. rumb. ka hornless.( DIA 508). Kal. rumb.kh a half ( DIA 9 ). Rings on neck are: koiyum (G.) koiyum = a wooden circle put round the neck of an animal; ko = neck (G.) Vikalpa: kaum neck-band, ring; rebus: kh trench, firepit (G.) Vikalpa: kha f. hole, mine, cave (CDIAL 3790) kanduka, kandaka ditch, trench (Tu.); kandakamu id. (Te.); kanda trench made as a fireplace during weddings (Konda); kanda small trench for fireplace (Kui); kandri a pit (Malt)(DEDR 1214) khaa hole, pit. [ f. *gaa and list s.v. kart1] Pk. kha f. hole, mine, cave, aga m. one who digs a hole, laya m. hole; Bshk. (Biddulph) "kd" (= kha?) valley; K. kh m. pit, kh f. small pit, khou m. vulva; . khaa f. pit; . kha f. pit, cavern, ravine; . kha f. pit, ravine, f. hole for a weaver's feet ( Ku. kha, N. kha; H. kha, kha m. pit, low ground, notch; Or. kh i edge of a deep pit; M. kha m. rough hole, pit); WPah. kha. kha stream; . kho pit, bog, khi creek, khal hole (in ground or stone). Altern. < *kha: Gy. gr. xar f. hole; Ku. kh pit; B. kh creek, inlet, khal pit, ditch; . kh f. creek, inlet, khahar, al m. hole; Marw. kho m. hole; M. kh f. hole, creek, m. hole, f. creek, inlet. 86 khatra n. hole ari., pond, spade U. [khan] Pk. khatta n. hole, manure, aya m. one who digs in a field; S. khru m. mine made by burglars, ro m. fissure, pit, gutter made by rain; . kht m. pit, manure, khtt m. grain pit, ludh. khatt m. ( H. khatt m., khatiy f.); N. kht heap (of stones, wood or corn); B. kht, kht pit, pond; Or. khta pit, t artificial
54

pond; Bi. kht hole, gutter, grain pit, notch (on beam and yoke of plough), khatt grain pit, boundary ditch; Mth. kht, khatt hole, ditch; . kht m. ditch, well, f. manure, kht m. grain pit; G. khtar n. housebreaking, house sweeping, manure, khtriy n. tool used in housebreaking ( M. khtar f. hole in a wall, khtr m. hole, manure, khtry m. housebreaker); M. khat n.m. manure (deriv. khatvi to manure, khter n. muck pit). Un- expl. in L. khva m. excavated pond, kh f. digging to clear or excavate a canal (~ S. kht f. id., but khyro m. one employed to measure canal work) and khaa to dig. ( DIA 90) gaa m. ditch lex. [ f. *gaa1 and list s.v. kart1] Pk. gaa n. hole; a. gau dike; Kho. ( or.) g hole, small dry ravine; A. gar high bank; B. ga ditch, hole in a husking machine; Or. gaa ditch, moat; M. ga f. hole in the game of marbles. 98 *gaa hole, pit. [G. < *garda? Cf. *ga1 and list s.v. kart1] Pk. gaa m. hole; W ah. bhal. cur. ga f., pa. ga, p. ga river, stream; . gatir bank of a river; A. gr deep hole; B. g, hollow, pit; Or. ga hole, cave, gi pond; Mth. gi piercing; . g m. hole; G. gar, m. pit, ditch (< *graa < *garda?); Si. gaaya ditch. Cf. S. gii f. hole in the ground for fire during Muharram. X khn: K. gn m. underground room; . ( M ) g f. mine, hole for keeping water; . g m. small embanked field within a field to keep water in; G. g f. mine, cellar; M. g f. cavity containing water on a raised piece of land W ah.kg. g hole (e.g. after a knot in wood). ( DIA 94 ) 860 *kha a hollow. [ f. *khaa and list s.v. kart1] S. kh f. gulf, creek; . kh level country at the foot of a mountain, f. deep watercourse, creek; Bi. khr creek, inlet; G. khi , f., m. hole. Altern. < *khaa: Gy. gr. xar f. hole; Ku. kh pit; B. kh creek, inlet, khal pit, ditch; . kh creek, inlet, khahar, al m. hole; Marw. kho m. hole; M. kh f. hole, creek, m. hole, f. creek, inlet. A sack slung on the front shoulder of the young bull is kh, kh , koth kh ] m A of which one end is formed into a cowl or hood. [

[ kh ] f An

outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a chaff &c. (Marathi) kh drang, khudrang

, to hold or fend off grain,

adj. c.g. self-coloured; as subst. m. N. of a f. a

kind of blanket having the natural colour of the wool (L. 37). khudr

kind of coarse woollen blanket. (Kashmiri) Pa. kotthal -- f. sack (?) ; Pk. kotthala -- m. bag, grainstore (kha -- m. bag < *ktha?); K. k thul, lu m. large bag or parcel , kothj f. small do. ; S. kothir f. bag ; Ku. kuthlo large bag, sack ; B. kthl satchel, wallet ; Or. kuthai, thui, kothai, thii wallet, pouch ; H. kothl m. bag, sack, stomach (see *kttha -- ) , l f. purse ; G.koth m. large bag , f. purse, scrotum ; M. koth m. large sack, chamber of stomach (= pe k) , n. sack , f. small sack ; -- X g -- : S. gothir f. bag , L. gutthl m.(CDIAL 3511) Ta. kaam travelling sack placed on a bullock, pack-saddle. Ka. kaale, kaa, kae, kale double bag carried across a
55

beast. Te. kaalamu, kalamubullock-load consisting of two bags filled with goods. / Cf. Mar. kah a bag having opening in the middle (DEDR 1174) g f. sack P., gik -- f. blanket BHS ii 215. [ Drav. EWA i 345 with lit.]Pa. ga -- sathata -- covered with a woollen rug , gaka -- m. woollen rug with a long fleece ; NiDoc. goni sack ; Gy. pal. g ni bag, purse , eur. gono m. sack ; Ash.g carpet , Wg. g, ge, Dm. gni; a. gn saddlebag ; K. guna f. pair of large saddlebags usu. of goat's hair for carrying grain ; S. gu f. coarse sackcloth ; L. ```gf. sack ; P. g f. hair cloth, hempen sacking , g f. sack ; B. gun sacking ; Or. go sackcloth, sack, corn measure, ragged garment ; Bi. gon grain sack ; H. gon f. sack ; G. gi f. sacking, sack ; M. go f. sack , f. sackcloth , m. large grain sack .Addenda: g -- : WPah.kg. gv f. (obl. -- i) sack for corn ; <-> Md. (RTMV1) gni sack Ind. (CDIAL 4275) gamu. [Tel. of Tam. .] n. A waist cloth or modesty piece. [ gi ] gi. [Skt.] n. A sack,

sackcloth. a sackful. [Tel.] gtamu. [Tel.] n. A sack, a bag. (Telugu) Rebus: B. kd to turn in a lathe; Or. kunda lathe, kdib, kud to turn ( Drav. Kur. kud lathe) ( DIA 95)

h179B 4307 Pict-83: Person wearing a diadem or tall head-dress standing within an ornamented arch; there are two stars on either side, at the bottom of the arch. m0305AC 2235 Pict-80: Three-faced, horned person (with a threepipal branch on the crown with two stars on either side), wearing bangles armlets.

leaved and

Seal impression, Ur (Upenn; U.16747); dia. 2.6, ht. 0.9 cm.; Gadd, PBA 18 (1932), pp. 11-12, pl. II, no. 12; Porada 1971: pl.9, fig.5; Parpola, 1994, p. 183; water carrier with a skin (or pot?) hung on each end of the yoke across his shoulders and another one below the crook of his left arm; the vessel on the right end of his yoke is over a receptacle for the water; a star on either side of the head (denoting supernatural?). The whole object is enclosed by 'parenthesis' marks. The parenthesis is perhaps a way of splitting of the ellipse (Hunter, G.R., JRAS, 1932, 476). An unmistakable example of an 'hieroglyphic' seal. [ mhar ] n ( ) A sheep Pr. 0 ? [ mhav [ mh

] m A sheep-fold or cote: also, by meton., a flock or a multitude of sheep.

56

]m( newe.

S through H) A male sheep, a ram or tup. mam , n. < ma. 1. Sheep, ram;

[ mh ] f ( .( .)

or H) A female sheep, a

[ mh ] A crook or curved end (of a stick, horn &c.) and attrib. such a stick, horn, bullock. [ mh ] m A stake, esp. as forked. 2 A dense arrangement of stakes, a palisade, a paling. 3 fig. A supporter or backer. 4 A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl. [ mh ] f (Dim. of ) A small bifurcated stake: also a small stake, with or without furcation, used as a post to support a cross piece. See . [ mhka ] m ( & defence of stakes. [ mhj ] m A stake[ mhkar ] m The pillar, prop, stay of ;a who keeps account of ) A dense paling; a palisade or stoccade; any

the &c., by driving stakes into the ground: also a class, or an individual of it, of fortunetellers, diviners, presagers, seasonannouncers, almanack-makers &c. They are Shdras and followers of the q. v. 2 Jocosely. The hereditary or settled (quasi fixed as a stake) of a village. or [ mhd or mhdka ] c ( & ) The owner of the hedge or fence dividing his enclosure from that of his neighbor. [ mhy ] a ( Stake or post.) A term for a person considered as the pillar, prop, or support (of a household, army, or other body), the staff orstay. 2 Applied to a person acquainted with clandestine or knavish transactions. 3 See . mth m. pillar in threshing floor to which oxen are fastened, prop for supporting carriage shafts AV., th -- f. Ktyr.com., mdh -- f. Divyv. 2. mh -- f. PacavBr.com., mh -- , m -- f. BhP. 1. Pa. mdhi -- f. post to tie cattle to, pillar, part of a stpa ; Pk. mhi -- m. post on threshing floor , N. meh(e), miho, miyo, B. mei, Or. ma -di, Bi.mh, mh the post , (SMunger) meh the bullock next the post , Mth. meh, meh the post , (SBhagalpur) mh the bullock next the post , (SETirhut)mhi bi vessel with a projecting base . 2. Pk. mhi -- m. post on threshing floor , mhaka<-> small stick ; K. mr, mr f. larger hole in ground which serves as a mark in pitching walnuts (for semantic relation of post -- hole see kpa -- 2); L. meh f. rope tying oxen to each other and to post on threshing floor ; P. meh f., meha m. oxen on threshing floor, crowd ; OA meha, mehra a circular construction, mound ; Or. meh, meri post on threshing floor ; Bi. m raised bank between irrigated beds , (Camparam) mh bullock next the post , Mth. (SETirhut) mh id. ; M. me(h), meh f., meh m. post, forked stake . (CDIAL 10317) mthih standing at the post TS. [mth -- , stha -- ]Bi. (Patna) m hh post on threshing floor , Gaya) meh, mh the bullock next the post .(CDIAL 10319) [ ku ] f ( S) A hut or cottage. Hence 2 The house of the soul or life; the fabric of the body. Ex. . Used also in anger or revilingly, and, thus, in a manner corresponding to the use in English of Carcass. 3 A fragment of wood; a chip, chat, or little stick. 4 A fibre or ramification of the root of a plant; a shoot from the root (as of turmeric, garlic &c.);
57

a division of a race or sprig (as of ginger). 5 A kind of drill-plough. 6 C A stack of rice-straw. 7 Commonly q. v. A score. H. ku f. fireplace ( DIA ).

1655 Ta. kui house, abode, home, family, lineage, town, tenants; kuikai hut made of leaves, temple; kuical hut; kuicai, kuiai small hut, cottage;kuimai family, lineage, allegiance (as of subjects to their sovereign), servitude; kuiy- tenant; kuiyilr tenants; kuil hut, shed, abode; kuakar hut, cottage; kaumpu relations. Ma. kui house, hut, family, wife, tribe; kuima the body of landholders, tenantry; kuiyan slaves (e.g. in Coorg); kuiyninhabitant, subject, tenant; kuiil hut, thatch; kuil hut, outhouse near palace for menials. Ko. kujl shed, bathroom of Kota house; kum family; ku front room of house; ku hut; guy temple. To. kw shed for small calves; ku room (in dairy or house); ku outer room of dairy, in: ku was fireplace in outer room of lowest grade of dairies (cf. 2857), ku moy bell(s) in outer section of ti dairy, used on non-sacred buffaloes (cf. 4672); kuy Hindu temple; ? kwy a family of children. Ka. kuiya, kuu dra, farmer; gui house, temple; guil, gualu, guisalu, guasalu, guasala, etc. hut with a thatched roof. Ko. kui family of servants living in one hut; kui man of toddy-tapper caste. Tu. gui small pagoda or shrine; guisal, guisil, gusil, guicilhut, shed. Te. koika hamlet; gui temple; guise hut, cottage, hovel. Kol. (SR) gu temple. Pa. gui temple, village resthouse. Ga. (Oll.) gui temple. Go. (Ko.) kuma hut, outhouse; (Ma.) kurma menstruation; (Grigson) kurma lon menstruation hut (Voc. 782, 800); (SR.) gui, (Mu.) gui, (S. Ko.)gui temple; gu (Ph.) temple, (Tr.) tomb (Voc. 1113). Kui gui central room of house, living room. / Cf. Skt. ka-, kui-, k- (whence Ga. (P.) kue hut; Kui ki hut made of boughs, etc.; Kur. kuy small shed or outhouse; Malt. kuya hut in the fields; Br. ku() hut, small house, wife), kuk-, kura-, kuugaka-, kucaka-, koa- hut; kuumba- household (whence Ta. Ma. kuumpam id.; Ko. kumb [? also kum above]; To. kwb, kwbl [-l fromwkl, s.v. 925 Ta. okkal]; Ka., Ko., Tu. kuumba; Tu. kuuma; Te. kuumbamu; ? Kui kumbu house [balance word of iu, see s.v. 494 Ta. il]). See Turner, CDIAL, no. 3232, ku-, no. 3493, ka-, no. 3233, kuumba-, for most of the Skt. forms; Burrow, BSOAS 11.137. ku 3232 ku f. hut MBh., ik -- f. Divyv., k -- f. Hariv. [Some cmpds. have a(ka) -- : Drav. EWA i 222 with lit.: cf. ka - 3] Pa. ku -- , ik -- f. single -- roomed hut ; Pk. ku -- f., aya -- n. hut ; Gy. pal. kri house, tent, room , as. kuri, guri tent JGLS New Ser. ii 329; Sh. ki village, country ; WPah. jaun. ko house ; Ku. ku, o house, building , ghar -- ku house and land , gng. ku house ; N. kur nest or hiding place of fish , kuri burrow, hole for small animals , ka -- kuro small shed for storing wood ; B. kuiy small thatched hut ; Or. ku,i hut ; H. ku f. fireplace ; M. ku f. hut ; Si. kiiya hut, small house . *indhanakuaka -- , *khakuaka -- , *guaku -- , *gku -- , *mbakuaka -- , *busakuik -- , *bhrakuik -- . Addenda: ku -- : WPah.kg. krvi f. granary (for corn after threshing) ; Garh. kuu house ; - B. phonet. k e. kuumba 3233 kuumba n. household ChUp. 2. kuumbaka -- m. Da. 1. Pa. kuumba -- , imba -- n. family, riches ; Pk. kuuba -- , aba -- n. family , S. kumu m., Ku. gng. kum; H. kuum -- cod f. incest . 2. P. kunb m. kindred, caste, tribe ; WPah. jaun. kub family ; A. kurm, f. ni a connexion by marriage ; H. kum, kumb, kunb m. family, caste, tribe .
58

[ ku ] f (S) A vessel of stone or earth (for grinding snuff, bhng &c.) 2 A jar of a wide open mouth and tapering; a flower-pot &c. [ kumhc ] a Composed of e. Poor, mean, humble, hovel-like;--used with or wall of laths or wattled sticks, and &c. a stake; i.

[ kuavdik or kuavd ] f S The excavated or enclosed plat and its 0 .

raised border (for sacrifices or offerings). Ex. [ ku ] m (Enhancing form of worker's steeping pot, a dyer's vat, a

) A large openmouthed jar; as a flowerpot, a leatheror receiver of the expressed juice of sugarcanes, a

vessel for levigating or comminuting snuff, bhng &c. 2 The gourd-receiver of the exudation of Palm trees. kua 3227 kua1 m.n. water -- pot, pitcher Yaast., ka -- 5 n. lex., kuik -- f. lex. 2. *kuava -- . 3. *ka -- 4. [With ku -- 1, *kulla -- 3, klla -- , *kamba -- , gla -- 2, *ghla -- 2 Drav. EWA i 221, 226 with lit. -- Cf. kuava -- ] 1. Pa. kua -- m.n. pitcher ; NiDoc. ku'a waterpot , Pk. kua -- m.; a. ku clay pot (or < ku -- 1); Kal. ki milking pail ; H. kuliy f. small earthen cup ; Si. kuva pot, vessel for oil (EGS 47 wrongly < kaha -- ), kaa -- geiya waterpot , kaaya (or < kala --). 2. Pa. kuava -- nest (semant. cf. N. g s.v. ku -- 1); Or. kuu tall red earthen pot for cooking curry and rice offerings in the temple at Puri . 3. Pk. kaya -- , ia -- n. small earthen pot ; Dm. k milking pail ; G. koiy n. earthen cup for oil and wick ; M. ko n. earthen saucer for a lamp . *tailakuaka -- , *sindrak, *higulakuik -- . Addenda: kua -- 1: OMarw. (Vsaa) loc.sg.m. ka pot ; G. kul f. small pitcher. 1651 Ta. kuam waterpot, hub of a wheel; kuakar waterpot; kuantam pot; kuantai Kumbakonam (old name); kuukkai coconut or other hard shell used as vessel, pitcher; kuikai ascetic's pitcher; kuuvai vessel with a small narrow mouth, pitcher of an asectic. Ma. kuam waterpot; kuukka shells (as of gourds) used as vessels, small cooking vessel with narrow mouth; kuuka, kuuva small vessel. Ko. kom (obl. kot-) waterpot with small mouth; ? kucksmall clay pot used to drink from (? < *kuikkay). To. kuky small pot. Ka. koa earthen pitcher or pot; kuike small earthen, metal, or wood vessel;guuvana, gua large water-vessel, used also for storing grain; earthen pot used for churning. Ko. kuike pot in which food (esp. rice) is cooked. Tu.kuki, kuk, guke small earthen vessel. Te. kuaka, kuuka cup, bowl, scoop, any cup-like thing; guaka a coconut or other similar shell; (B)guaka, kuaka shell of a fruit prepared to serve as a snuff-box, etc., small metal box; (Inscr.) kualu small earthen vessels. Kuwi (Su.) ka, (S.) oka, (F.) dkka pot (Te. kuaka > *kka > ka). / Cf. Skt. ka- waterpot; Turner, CDIAL, no. 3227.

59

kua 3228 kua2, i -- , ha -- 3, hi -- m. tree lex., aka -- m. a kind of tree Kau. Pk. kua -- m. tree ; a. lau. ku tree , dar. kak tree, oak ~ Par. k stick IIFL iii 3, 98. <khudi>,,<kudi> {N} ``^stump of a tree''. @2517. #16841. [ k ] n A bird's nest. [ kh ] m ( S) A large granary, store-room, warehouse,

water-reservoir &c. 2 The stomach. 3 The chamber of a gun, of water-pipes &c. 4 A bird's nest. 5 A cattle-shed. 6 The chamber or cell of a hun in which is set down in figures the amount. [ khra ] n f( S) A granary, a store-house; a house or room or enclosure within a room to hold grain or stores. 2 P A bird's nest. [ khr ] n A storehouse gen. 2 A bird's nest. 3 An arrangement of bundles of enclose and protect [ kha ] m ( or chaff. S) A fort: also a castle. 2 The wall of a fort. [ kh ] f ( [ kha ] f ( H) A to

chamber, room, apartment. Ex. -

S) A granary, garner, storehouse, warehouse, . 3 The chamber (of a gun, of pipes, of tubes): . 5 A large or saltern-

treasury, factory, bank. 2 The grain and provisions (as of an army); the commissariatsupplies. also the hold or capacity (of a ship, cart, barrow). 4 A chamber, cell, or compartment of the body; of which seventy-two are enumerated. Ex. oblong bamboo basket, to hold rice &c. 6 A common term for the squares in a enclosure. [ kh ] m (

S) A large granary, store-room, warehouse, water-reservoir [ khy

&c. 2 The stomach. 3 The chamber of a gun, of water-pipes &c. 4 A bird's nest. 5 A cattle-shed. 6 The chamber or cell of a hun in which is set down in figures the amount. ] m Properly . f A water-jar of a wide open mouth, tapering from the bottom. or worshipers of in )

[ khamb ] f

[ kamb ] m A square wooden vessel used by the

begging alms. It is worshiped on occasions. 2 A sort of wooden trough. A small wooden trough. khimb ] & or [ khamb or khab ] m ,

f (Dim. of

[ khimb, [ k

[ kavar ] a R Deep, not shallow--a vessel &c.

] n An earthen saucer-form receptacle for the oil and wicks of a lamp. 2 An enigma; a puzzling question in arithmetic; a knotty point; an obscure, perplexing stanza, passage &c. 3

60

(Usually

q. v.) Any vulgar and wild spell or charm.

or

[ ky or khy

] m The gourd-vessel used to receive the exudation from palm-trees. [ kamb ] n (Usually ) The receiving channel of a water-wheel.

[ ka ] f A pole with a crook or curved member at the extremity. Used to regather into the thrashing pit the ears which fly out during the thrashing. [ k ] f Height or depth, as one of the geometrical dimensions.

<kudaLi>(P),,<kuLi>(M) {N} ``^spade, ^hoe''. *Kh.<kudRi>(BD), Sa.<kuDi> `hoe, spade', MuH<ku'lam>, ~<ku'dlam>, MuN<kuDi>, Ho<kullam>, ~<kU-dalA>, ~<kUdali>, O.<kodaLO>. %19371. #19221. <kuLi>(M),,<kudaLi>(P) {N} ``^spade, ^hoe''. *Kh.<kudRi>(BD), Sa.<kuDi> `hoe, spade', MuH<ku'lam>, ~<ku'dlam>, MuN<kuDi>, Ho<kullam>, ~<kU-dalA>, ~<kUdali>, O.<kodaLO>. %19571. #19421. [ ka ] f C (Usually score--buying, selling &c. q. v.) A score. [ kabdn ] ad ( ) By the

[ k ] f (Probably corrupted from Score.) A score (of particular

things, viz. of pieces of nankeen, or other kinds of cloth, of gold or tin foil, of panes of glass, or glass-bracelets &c.), a corge. By some it is understood of Score gen. <koDi>(P),,<kuRi>(K),,<kuRiG>(K) {NUM} ``^score, ^twenty''. *Sa.<kuRi>, Bh.<ku:Ri:>, Kh.<koRi>(P), ~<kori>(B); H.<koRi>, B.<kURI>, O.<koRIe>, So.<kUdi>, Gu.<ko:de>. %17751. #17621. <kuRi>(K),,<kuRiG>(K),,<koDi>(P) {NUM} ``^score, ^twenty''. *Sa.<kuRi>, Bh.<ku:Ri:>, Kh.<koRi>(P), ~<kori>(B); H.<koRi>, B.<kURI>, O.<koRIe>, So.<kUdi>, Gu.<ko:de>. %19991. #19841. <kuRiG>(K),,<kuRi>(K),,<koDi>(P) {NUM} ``^score, ^twenty''. *Sa.<kuRi>, Bh.<ku:Ri:>, Kh.<koRi>(P), ~<kori>(B); H.<koRi>, B.<kURI>, O.<koRIe>, So.<kUdi>, Gu.<ko:de>. %20041. #19891. Ju<koDi>(P),,<kuRi>(K),,<kuRiG>(K) {NUM} ``^score, ^twenty''. *Sa.<kuRi>, Bh.<ku:Ri:>, Kh.<koRi>(P), ~<kori>(B); H.<koRi>, B.<kURI>, O.<koRIe>, So.<kUdi>, Gu.<ko:de>. [ k ] n A ring or little cake composed of mixed flour with spices and fried. 2 Commonly . [ kh ] n Commonly
61

[ ka ] m C A circular hedge or field-fence. 2 A circle described around a person under adjuration. 3 The circle at marbles. 4 A circular hamlet; a division of a deep part of a river. 7 f (Or kaa ] f A fold or pen. or village, [

composed generally of the huts of one caste. 5 Grounds under one occupancy or tenancy. 6 f R A q. v.) A confined place gen.; a lock-up house &c. , , [ kabu, kab, kaba ] n A [* kava ] n f C S) A ring or circularly

circlet or ring formed of mixed flour with spices &c., and fried. ( of & ) A pen or fold for cattle. or mixed flour. [ k ] f ( [ k ] n (

inclosed space. 2 fig. A circle made by persons sitting round. 3 A ring or little cake made ) A confined place gen.; a lockup house, a pen, ; a prison at the

fold,* pound; a receiving apartment or court for Brhmans gathering for play of ] p of ; a dammed up part of a stream &c. &c. [ kva

Confined or blocked up--a place, water, wind: also shut up--a person or an animal. S) A saltern or saltpan. 2 Used in the senses of & .

[ kh ] f C (

[ ka ] f (Poetry.

) Shut up, confined, embarrassed, or perplexed state, lit. fig.

Ex. . [ ka ] v c To shut up; to stop or block up; to confine gen. (a person in a room, a stream by an embankment, the breath &c.) 2 fig. To pose, puzzle, confute, silence. Fish on an Indus seal. National Museum 135. kh ko sanga turners workshop (in) stone-fortified settlement or (with) stone-observation post. Rebus: k dar brass-worker, turner B. kd to turn in a lathe; Or. kunda lathe, kdib, kud to turn ( Drav. Kur. kud lathe) ( DIA 95) kundr turner (A ) Rebus 2: ko artisans workshop (Kuwi) [kh] m A of which one end is formed into a cowl or hood. [kh] f An

outspread shovelform sack (as formed temporarily out of a chaff &c. (Marathi) kh drang, khudrang

, to hold or fend off grain,

adj. c.g. self-coloured; as subst. m. N. of a f. a kind

kind of blanket having the natural colour of the wool (L. 37). khudr

of coarse woollen blanket. (Kashmiri) Pa. kotthal -- f. sack (?) ; Pk. kotthala -- m. bag, grainstore (kha -- m. bag < *ktha?); K. k thul, lu m. large bag or parcel , kothj f. small do. ; S. kothir f. bag ; Ku. kuthlo large bag, sack ; B. kthl satchel, wallet ; Or.
62

kuthai, thui, kothai, thii wallet, pouch ; H. kothl m. bag, sack, stomach (see *kttha -- ) , l f. purse ; G.koth m. large bag , f. purse, scrotum ; M. koth m. large sack, chamber of stomach (= pe k) , n. sack , f. small sack ; -- X g -- : S. gothir f. bag , L. gutthl m.(CDIAL 3511) Ta. kaam travelling sack placed on a bullock, pack-saddle. Ka. kaale, kaa, kae, kale double bag carried across a beast. Te. kaalamu, kalamubullock-load consisting of two bags filled with goods. / Cf. Mar. kah a bag having opening in the middle (DEDR 1174) g f. sack P., gik -- f. blanket BHS ii 215. [ Drav. EWA i 345 with lit.]Pa. ga -- sathata -- covered with a woollen rug , gaka -- m. woollen rug with a long fleece ; NiDoc. goni sack ; Gy. pal. g ni bag, purse , eur. gono m. sack ; Ash.g carpet , Wg. g, ge, Dm. gni; a. gn saddlebag ; K. guna f. pair of large saddlebags usu. of goat's hair for carrying grain ; S. gu f. coarse sackcloth ; L. gf. sack ; P. g f. hair cloth, hempen sacking , g f. sack ; B. gun sacking ; Or. go sackcloth, sack, corn measure, ragged garment ; Bi. gon grain sack ; H. gon f. sack ; G. gi f. sacking, sack ; M. go f. sack , f. sackcloth , m. large grain sack .Addenda: g -- : WPah.kg. gv f. (obl. -- i) sack for corn ; <-> Md. (RTMV1) gni sack Ind. (CDIAL 4275) gamu. [Tel. of Tam. .] n. A waist cloth or modesty piece. [

gi ] gi. [Skt.] n. A sack, sackcloth. a sackful. [Tel.] gtamu. [Tel.] n. A sack, a bag. (Telugu) One-horned heifer: koiyum heifer kho square (Santali) rhombus or angle. ko angle. Rebus readings of the four hieroglyphs (rice-plant, scarf, heifer, lathe) are: 1. Glyph: kolmo seedling, paddy plant; rebus: kolami forge, smithy (Te.)

2. WPah.kg. dhu m. woman's headgear, kerchief , kc. dhau m. (also dhahu m. scarf , J. dh(h)u m. Him.I 105). dhau m. (also dhahu) m. scarf (WPah.) (CDIAL 6707) Rebus: dhatu = mineral (Santali) dhtu mineral ( ali) dhtu mineral (Vedic); a mineral, metal (Santali); dhta id. (G.) H. dhn to send out, pour out, cast (metal) ( DIA 6 ). 3. koiyum heifer (G.) [ kiya ] ke, kiya. [Tel.] n. A bullcalf. . k* A young bull. Plumpness, prime. . a pair of . [ kruke ]

bullocks. ke adj. Young. ke-ku. n. A young man. kru-ke. [Tel.] n. A bull in its prime. (Marathi)

[ kha ] m A young bull, a bullcalf.

[ gda ] gda. [Tel.] n. An ox. A beast. kine, cattle.(Telugu) koiyum

63

(G.) Rebus: ko artisans workshop (Kuwi); B. kd to turn in a lathe; Or. kunda lathe, kdib, kud to turn ( Drav. Kur. kud lathe) ( DIA 95) 4. Drawing. Reconstruction of the glyphic elements in standard device shown in front of a heifer on many Indus inscriptions. This glyph also occurs on many punch-marked coins of the historical periods clearly linking it to the repertoire of a mint. sangaa, lathe, portable furnace; aga (G.) = lathe sango a lathe; s ghiyo a worker on a lathe (G.lex.) s ga part of a turner's apparatus (M.); s g lathe (Tu.)(CDIAL 12859). sgaa That member of a turner's apparatus by which the piece to be turned is confined and steadied. To take into linkedness or close connection with, lit. fig. (Marathi) [ sg ] f The machine within which a turner confines and steadies the piece he has to turn. (Marathi) [ saga ] f (Commonly ) A pan of live coals or embers. (Marathi) san:gho, sagha (G.) = firepan; sagha, aghai = a pot for holding fire (G.)[cul saga portable hearth (G.)] Rebus 1: Guild. [ sgaa ] f (Verbal of ) Linking or joining together (Marathi). association. fellow. [ sagati ] f (S) pop. c or & f Union, junction, connection, c A companion, associate, comrade, ) A comprehensive or general term for S) With, together with, in company or [ sagati ] c (S) pop. [ sagatsbat ] m (

Companions or associates. companionship, society. connection with.

[ saga ] m (S) Union, junction, connection, association, [ sag ] prep (

[ saghta ] m S Assembly or assemblage; multitude or heap; a collection

together (of things animate or inanimate). [ saghaa ] v i (Poetry. ) To come into contact or meeting; to meet or encounter. (Marathi) G. s gh m. lathe ; M. s ga f. part of a turner's apparatus (CDIAL 12859) Rebus 2: stone-cutting. sangho (G.) cutting stone, gilding (G.); san:gatar = stone cutter; san:gatari = stone-cutting; san:gsru karan.u = to stone (S.) san:ghiyo, a worker on a lathe (G.) Rebus 3: saghaayati strikes (a musical instrument) R., joins together Kaths. [gha]Pa. saghaita -- pegged together ; Pk. saghaia<-> joined , caus. saghavi; M. s ga to link together . (CDIAL 12855). Rebus 3: battle. jangaiyo military guard who accompanies treasure into the treasury (G.) [ $ weapon (offensive). (Skt.) Tv.] An armour. [ ]A

Allograph 1: M. s ga f. a body formed of two or more fruits or animals or men &c. linked together (CDIAL 12859). Oriya. saghib to mix up many materials, stir boiling curry, tie
64

two cattle together and leave to graze (CDIAL 12860). A body formed of two or more animals is a composite animal glyphic ligature. Allograph 2: s g m. frame of a building (M.)(CDIAL 12859) Allograph 3: 1. Sh. kr m. hair on head and body ; K. oku m. hair of female privities . 2. P. jago m. plaited hair worn round loins by faqirs ; N. jagar mane , jagao tangled hair , jagalo matted and dishevelled hair . (CDIAL 5075). Allograph 4: jgh f. shank (ankle to knee) RV., ratha -- jagh -- f. part of a chariot lex.Pa. jagh -- f., Pk. jagh -- f.; Gy. eur. ang, pl. ga f. thigh, knee ; a. a , l -ag plough handle ; Tor. calf of leg ; K. zang f. leg , S. agha f.; L. jagh, (Ju.) gh f. leg (from hip down) ; P. jagh f. thigh ; WPah. bhal. hag f. leg , bhad. zhag f.; Ku. j f. thigh , gng. a; N. gh, j hip, thigh ; A. z leg ; B. j, ji thigh, leg ; Or. jagha thighs and hips , gh calf of leg ; Mth. gh thigh , Bhoj. jh, Aw. lakh. gh; H. gh, g f. thigh , gar m. thigh and leg ; G. g(h) f. thigh , M. g(h) f., Ko. ga f.; Si. dangaya calf of leg (CDIAL 5082). [ jghikuu

] jnghikuu. [Skt.] n. A courier, an express. janghika a. swift-footed; m. run ner(Skt.) jghika[ $ Allograph 5: L. (Ju.) ] Running. 1 A courier, an express;

Rj. T.7.1335. -2 A camel. ghil longlegged .(CDIAL 5178).

Allograph 6: kaa n. (m. R.) cart khr., aka -- f. RV., akaik -- adj. P.gaa, k -f. small cart Mrcch. 2. *aggaa -- . 3. *akkaa -- or *chakkaa -- . [ak2?] 1. Pa. sakaa -m.n. cart, waggon, cartload , Pk. sagaa -- , sayaa -- n., saaha -- m.n., saga -- , iy -- f.; OSi. (Brhm) hakaa, hakaa,yahaa a measure of capacity , Si. ya cart .2. K. hagoru m. cart ; B. sag bullock -- cart , Or. sagaa (sagai driver of a cart ); Bi. sga, sagga smaller cart , Mth. saga; H.sagga, saga m. cart , sag f. small cart .3. S. chakio m. cart ; P. chak, chik m. large two -- wheeled bullock -- cart ; B. chak, ak cart ; Or. chakaa hackney carriage ; Bi.chaka large cart , Mth. chakka, chak; H. chak m. twowheeled bullock -- cart ; G. chak n., m. cart ; M. sk m. the box of a load -- cart .(CDIAL 12236). Allograph 7: sangur m. (sg. dat. sangaras ), a mountain (esp. when steep and f. pl.

difficult) (iv. 1651, 1684, 177; Rm. 562, 738, 974, 184); a hill (El.). sangar-mla f.pl. a line of mountain peaks. -mla ph la
65

inf. the mountain peaks to blossom, early dawn to appear. -mla ph lawun -

adv. at early dawn. -mla ph lawa n moment of early dawn. -wath pass.(Kashmiri) Rebus: or

adv. at the ), a mountain

f. (sg. dat. -wati -

[ jaga or jagaa ] f Strong attachment; inseparableness (esp. among animals)

of them that have always been yoked together. Hence close or thick friendship; close confederation or concert. (Marathi). Thus, the depiction of a standard device in front of a onehorned heifer may represent, rebus, a confederation of turners workshops (lapidaries, engravers, turners -knda). When a trough is shown in front of an animal hieroglyph, the representation may convey, rebus, the message of a guild (pattar, pattuu) of smiths/artisans Alternative rebus reading: or [ jgaa ] f ( H) Goods taken from a shop, to be retained or [ jgaa ] ad Without

returned as may suit: also articles of apparel taken from a tailor or clothier to sell for him. 2 The account or account-book of goods so taken. definitive settlement of purchase--goods taken from a shop. (Marathi) Functions of many seals to denote source of product and for approval trade transactions The rebus reading of one-horned heifer + standard device hieroglyphs indicates koiyum one-horned heifer denoted a turner, metal engraver and sgaa lathe/furnace denoted fortified settlement/article for approval. The combined hieroglyphs occur on the largest number of inscriptions of the Indus script corpora. The seals with these hieroglyphs on inscriptions had two functions: 1. To denote the source of the products -- ka stone (ore) metal[ sgaa ] guild of sangar fortification; and 2. To indicate that the products being couriered through documentation on a seal are for approval befor finalisation of contract for the trade or barter transaction or for acceptance in the treasury (warehouse). The use of tablets, seals and seal impressions is a remarkable advance over the use of tallies and tokens and was necessitated by the guild of artisans as a corporate form. If tablets were used to denote work done on workers platforms, seals were used to consolidate the products brought from these workers platforms into a workshop for creating an inventory record of products subject to approval (by the treasury). Seal impressions were used to convey these products from the warehouse (treasury) inventoy to the destination unit of the guild. In the case of products received by units of the guild, say, in Elam or Mesopotamia, it is possible that cuneiform records were created adding information on the quantities, prices (or barter items) and contracting parties.
66

One-horned heifer [read rebus as koiyum heifer (Gujarati); rebus: ko 'artisan's workshop' (Kuwi) ko = place where artisans work (G.) [kaa] f A fold or pen. (Marathi) kd to turn in a lathe(B.) knda engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems (Marathi) ko 'artisan's workshop' (Kuwi) ko = place where artisans work (G.) cri koya smithy (Tu.) [kaa] f A fold or pen. (Marathi) Or.kunda lathe, kdib, kud to turn ( Drav. Kur. kud lathe) ( DIA 95) A. kundr, B. kdr, ri, Or. kundru; H. kder m. one who works a lathe, one who scrapes, r f., kdern to scrape, plane, round on a lathe; kundakara m. turner ( kt.)( DIA 9 ). [ kndaa ] n ( ) Setting or infixing of gems.(Marathi) [ khdakra ] n an engraver; a carver. other's work. [ khdi ] n engraving; carving. & n. en graving; carving. Sculpture; carved work or work for the carver. engraving: also sculptured or carved work. of sculpture or carving. exacting of money by importunity. v figures from paper. 4 A goldsmith's die. or , [ khda ] f (Verbal of n. engraving; carving; interference in v. to engrave; to carve. v. [ khdakma ] n ) The price or cost [ khdagir ] f Sculpture, carving, [ khdavaa ] f ( ) Digging, engraving &c. 2 fig. An

[ khdita ] a engraved. (Bengali)

. 3 An instrument to scoop out and cut flowers and [ khda ] v c & i ( H) To dig. 2 To engrave. [ khd ] f ( Dug. 2 [ khdva ] p of

To question minutely and searchingly, to probe.

H) Price or cost of digging or of sculpture or carving. Engraved, carved, sculptured. (Marathi)

Scarf [read rebus as dhau m. (also dhahu) m. scarf (WPah.) (CDIAL 6707) Rebus: dhatu minerals ( antali); dhtu mineral ( ali)]

H006 composite bovid (imagined?) With one horn, pannier, neck rings, standard device in front. The pictorial motif with a combination of hieroglyphs has been decrypted: kh ko sanga turners workshop (in) stonefortified settlement or (with) stone-observation post of the metal-workers guild. The corresponding pictorial motif readings are: 1. kh pannier, . ko horn, heifer, 3. sanga lathe/portable furnace. The dotted circles shown on the bottom vessel of lathe/portable furnace denote turned, perforated beads the fish-eyes !!

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That the one-horned heifer is not a mythical animal, but is only a glyphic composition with orthographic emphasis on glyptic elements, is clear from the occurrence of the glyph with two horns, with the characteristic ring on neck, a pannier on its shoulder and a standard device in front. There are a number of glyptic elements on this ligatured device normally shown in front of the one-horned heifer. 1. 2. lathe in a turning motion on the top register gimlet 3. smoke emanating from the bottom register portable furnace 4. dotted circles inscribed on the portable furnace (bottom register). aga (G.) = lathe san:go a lathe; sa~ghd.iyo a worker on a lathe (G.lex.) sa~ga part of a turner's apparatus (M.); s~g lathe (Tu.)(CDIAL 12859). sgaa That member of a turner's apparatus by which the piece to be turned is confined and steadied. lit. fig. (Marathi) To take into linkedness or close connection with,

[ sg ] f The machine within which a turner confines and steadies

the piece he has to turn. (Marathi) [ saga ] f (Commonly ) A pan of live coals or embers. (Marathi) san:gho, sagha

(G.) = firepan; sagha, aghai = a pot for holding fire (G.)[cul saga portable hearth (G.)] h196b tablet portable furnace carried on shoulder Pict-123 Standard device which is normally in front of a one-horned bull. The device is flanked by columns of dotted circles. The dotted circles are an indication of perforation by the gimlet. m0008, m0021, h228B Carved Ivory Standard in the middle har501 Harappa 1990 and 1993. Standard device, model reconstructed after Mahadevan m 0 A ote the gimlet precisely indicated on the standard device on m1203A, the sharp point is drilling into a disc-shaped bead].
68

The structure has two elements. It depicts a `flow' or a `churning motion' on the upper element. The upper element ends in a tapering, sharp-pointed edge as it is rests (or just floats) on the lower element. The lower element is a bowl which also depicts some `spilling' or `drops' or alternatively, some `smoke or dust' and `dotted droplets'. I call it a `drill-lathe-stove', the lapidary's tools of trade. The upper element looks like a drill used by the lapidary to drill holes in, say, faience beads. The lower element is the stove to bake the inscribed object. The rationale for this interpretation is as follows: The upper element is the sharp-pointed drill bit depicted with zig-zag lines in a churning motion. The lower element is a portable stove depicted with flames or smoke emanating and bits of `drilled' articles depicted with dotted circles around the bowl. What was the cult object called? What does the homonym 'mean' san:gaa, lathe, portable furnace; rebus: battle; jangaiyo military guard who accompanies treasure into the treasury (G.) Rebus: sangho (G.) cutting stone, gilding (G.); san:gatar = stone cutter; san:gatari = stone-cutting; san:gsru karan.u = to stone (S.) san:ghiyo, a worker on a lathe (G.) omonym: sangar stone-fortified settlement, observation post ( ushto). Ga a ; Fort; head-quarters Ga a Fence; enclosure. (Oriya). jagla m. dyke lex. Ku. jar ford ; N. ghr, jar crossing place of a river, ford ; B. jagl, jal dyke, embankment round a field .(CDIAL 5080). There is a word in Gujarati (and cognate words of South asian languages which can be semantically clustered) which connotes both a `drill-lathe' and a `portable stove'. The word is sangai. Rebus: jangai is an extraordinarily specific, technical-professional term in Gujarati. It connotes an armored guard who accompanies the treasure brought into or taken out of the treasury. A cognate Sanskritized morpheme is jagada = a guard. cf. also jagati = pedestal. The lexeme jangai is consistent with san:gaa when decoded as fortified, guarded (treasury or warehouse).

69

[House I, HR-A area, Mohenjo-daro: Find spots of twelve seals together with many prestige objects, all from one house; Wheeler assumed that this was a temple; the house has rooms immediately adjacent to the exit, transit rooms having more than one door, terminal rooms with just one door; seals were found in all these rooms. After Jansen, Michael, 1986, Die Indus-Zivilisation: Wiederentdeckung einer fruhen Hochkultur, Cologne, 200f., fig. 125] Seals have been found in almost every exposed room excavated in Mohenjodaro. In room 85 in house IX of the HR-area in Mohenjodaro were found five unicorn selas. In this room a mass of shell-lay was foundalong withmany waste pieces of seashells indicating this to be a shell-cutters room (Mackay, 9 a: I, 195). Following some suggestions that this device could be a cult object, Mr. Mahadevan has attempted a decipherment of the device which appears on a number of seals of the Indus valley civilization, very often in front of the so-called 'unicorn' symbol. His interpretation is that this is a 'filter' in the soma-vedic tradition. Mahadevan's interpretation, inter alia, is premised on the graphical variants of the cult-object symbol in a number of seals. In some vivid seals, the object is clearly composed of a top part which has wavy lines connoting 'flow' according to Mahadevan and a sharp-edged-bottom connoting the culmination of the flow into a filter. Other graphic depictions include what appear to be splashes of drops of liquid. (I. Mahadevan, "The Cult Object on Cuneiform Seals: A Sacred Filtre?" in K. N. Dikshit, ed., Archaeological Perspectives of India since Independence, New Delhi, 1985, pp. 165-86.) See also: http://www.harappa.com/script/mahcult.html

Using the same graphic components clearly identified by Mahadevan, an alternative interpretation is possible. I would call this a drill-bit of a lathe. The wavy signs may be seen to connote 'churning' action. The sharp-edged-bottom (instead of being the culmination of the flow of a liquid into a filter) may connote the drill-bit. What appear to be splashes of drops of liquid may connote the splinters or dust which fly off from the churning lathe-action. The bottom register of the glyph showing a vessel with smoking embers, may simply connote a portable furnace or stove.
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Allographs: san:gai joined animals (M.) [ [ sgaa ] m f ( S) f A body formed of two or more (fruits, animals, men) linked or joined together. A float composed of two canoes or boats bound together: also a link of two pompions &c. to swim or float by (Marathi) saghayati joins together Sarvad., causes to collect Kaths. [gha] Or. saghib to mix up many materials, stir boiling curry, tie two cattle together and leave to graze . (CDIAL 12860) [ sgaa ] v c ( ) To link, join, or unite together (boats, fruits, animals). [ sgaa ] f (Verbal of ) Linking

2 Freely. To tie or bind up or unto. (Marathi)

or joining together. sagha m. fitting and joining of timber R. [gha] Pa. nv -- sagha - , dru -- s raft ; Pk. sagha -- , aga -- m., -- f. pair ; Ku. sg m. doorframe ; N. sar, sihr threshold ; Or.saghi pair of fish roes, two rolls of thread for twisting into the sacred thread, quantity of fuel sufficient to maintain the cremation fire ; Bi. sghr triangular packet of betel ; H. sgh m. piece of cloth folded in triangular shape ; G. s gh m. lathe ; M. s ga f. a body formed of two or more fruits or animals or men &c. linked together, part of a turner's apparatus , m.f. float made of two canoes joined together (LM 417 compares saggarai at Limurike in the Periplus, Tam. agaam, Tu. jagala double -- canoe ), s g m. frame of a building , f. lathe ; i. sangaa pair ,hangua, ang double canoe, raft . Addenda: sagha -- : Md. angoi junction ? (CDIAL 12859)]

Rebus: sangho (G.) = cutting stone, gilding; san:gatar = stone cutter; san:gatari = stone-cutting; san:gsru karan.u = to stone (S.), can:katam = to scrape (Ta.), san:kaa (Tu.), san:kaam = to scrape (Skt.)[ can:katam = to scrape (Ta.), san:kad.a (Tu.), san:kaam = to scrape ( kt.) s ngn ; adj. c.g. stony, made of stone; firm, solid, strong (iv. 1778; Rm. 131, sangn-bun, with [ sagna ] a ( .

firm foundations); severe, excessive; grave, serious (K.Pr. 138). (Kashmiri)

P) Built or made of stone. 2 Hard, firm, solid, compact; opp. to flimsy and fragile. 3 fig. Firm, decided, definite, peremptory;-as speech, a measure. 4 Complete, entire, full, perfect. See [ sga ] a (S & )

That is with all its members, parts, wings, appendages, and appertaining particulars; complete.]
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m1430C, body of bison, three heads: bison, antelope, bull; a pair of goat(s), tree. bison, bos gaurus sal; rebus: sal workshop ( antali) mha antelope; rebus: me iron ( o.) angar bull angar blacksmith. Rebus: kandi beads ( a.)(DEDR 215). kha ivory ( .) Rebus: khaaran, kharun pit furnace ( antali) [kandi (pl. l) beads, necklace (Pa.); kanti (pl. l) bead, (pl.) necklace; kandi bead (Ga.)(DEDR 5).]

ence, the depiction of dotted circles (like perforated beads) surrounding a firealtar and also on ivory objects. [ khat ] n Among gamesters. An ivory counter &c. placed to represent a sum of money. (Marathi) The dotted circles also adorn the standard device which is a drill-lathe, sangaa [ khaa ] A piece, bit, fragment, portion.(Marat hi) kandi beads ( a.)

rga made of horn Sur., n. bow MBh. [ ga -- ] Pk. saga -- made of horn ; a.lau. g f.(?) horn (or < ga -- ). (CDIAL 12409). *rgala horned . [rga -- ] a.lau. agala a small horn ; K. h gul m. the stag Cervus wallichii .(CDIAL 12410).

72

Source: S. Sinha, A. M. Izhar, R. K. Pan and B. K. Wells, "Network analysis of a corpus of undeciphered Indus civilization inscriptions indicates syntactic organization", Computer Speech and Language 25 (2011) 639-654. http://arxiv.org/pdf/1005.4997.pdf Rebus reading of standard device: [jgaa] f ( H) Without definitive settlement of purchase--goods taken from a shop for sale or approval --to be retained or returned as may suit. Rebus reading of one-horned heifer: kd to turn in a lathe(B.) knda engraver, lapidary setting or infixing gems (Marathi) The examples of recurring composite set of hieroglyphs (one-horned heifer + standard device) on seals with sign hieroglyph sequences can be interpreted as: list of goods taken for approval from a turners workshop. The specific goods in the list constitute the syntactic sequences which can be related rebus to the readings of each sign as a hieroglyph.
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This may indicate that some of the inscribed seals are documentation of a bill of lading (with technical specifications of the product) for approval, before a sale or barter is finally consummated, just as a tablet may be a documentation of a product from a workers platform taken into the accounting workshop for getting documented on a seal (as a bill of lading of a product list for approval).

An alternative interpretation is that the composite set of hieroglyphs (one-horned heifer + standard device) denote that the turners workshop (within) a fortified settlement. Dotted circle glyph: context, vedi glyph, ivory artifacts

lit. to collect stones, stone-cutter, mason. [ ] .

(Dasa, Syamasundara. Hindi sabdasagara. Navina samskarana. 2nd ed. Kasi : Nagari Pracarini Sabha, 1965-1975.) , sang 2 , mason.

m. a stone (Rm. 199, 143, 1412; YZ. 557).

L. 65 gives a list of the most common local stones used for ornaments, and other purposes. These are (in his spelling) bilor, a white crystal; sang-i-baswatri, a yellow stone used in medicine; sang-i-dlam, used by goldsmiths; sang-i-farash (p. 64), a kind of slate; sang-iNadid, of a dark coffee colour; sang-i-Nalchan, a kind of soap-stone, from which cups and plates are made; sang-i-Mus, of a black colour; sang-i-Ratel, of a chocolate colour; sang-iShalamar, of a green colour; sang-i-sumk, coloured blue or purple, with green spots; Takht-iSulimn, coloured black, with white streaks. sang-dil khra adj. c.g. stony hearted, hard hearted, obdurate (iv. 487; cf. Rm. 143). sang-ior -khrah (= ) m. a hard stone, flint (Rm. 1548, 1624). sang-i-

marmar m. marble (Gr.M.). sang-i-phras a touch-stone of gems; a philosopher's stone (converting anything it touches into gold) (iv. 1616, 192; K.Pr. 184). -sr 74

 ( ) m. stoning (to death), lapidation (H. viii, 8); (in Ksh.) public general abuse; a shark, a water-elephant, a Gangetic crocodile (the ghaiyl of India). -sr gahun &dotbelow; m.inf. to be stoned, to suffer lapidation; to become the object of general public abuse. -sr karun to stone to death; to make (a person) the object of general public abuse. sanga-lth soil. (Kashmiri) (? cf. ) m. (sg. dat. -ltas m.inf.

), hard gravelly, or stony,

sga-lar - f. a necklace composed of beads and pieces of glass or stone at intervals (El.; cf. s ni-sga-lar, s.v. s n 1). r m. heap RV., a measure of quantity (= 1 droa) rgS. Pa. Pk. rsi -- m. (Pk. also f.) heap ; a. ra heap of grain , Kho. ra; Sh.gil. (Lor.) l, pl. laie heap , S. rhi f. (rsi f. principal sum and P.rs f. stock H.), Ku. N. B. rs, Or. rsi; Bi. rs heap of grain after winnowing , (SMunger) large milkpail ; Mth. rs heap , rsi, ris large milkpail ; OAw. rs f. heap , H. G. M. rs f.; Si. rs -- a, rh mass, crowd , Md. res. -- Deriv.: N. rasyunu to collect ; A. rhi accumulated, saved . Addenda: r -- : Garh. rs heap ; A. rhak plentiful . (CDIAL 10720) H r [S. ; P. rsh], s.m. A heap of winnowed corn (=rs). (Platts, John T. (John Thompson). A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English. London: W.H. Allen & Co., 1884.) Glyph and rebus decoding: patthara [cp. Late Sk. prastara. The ord. meaning of Sk. Pr. Is stramentum] . tone, rock i. . 2. Stoneware Miln 2. (Pali) Pa. Pk. Patthara m. stone , S. patharu m., L. (Ju.) pathar m., khet. Patthar, P. patthar m. ( forms of Bi. Mth. Bhoj. H. G. below with atth or ath), Wpah.jaun. ptthar; Ku. Pthar m. slates, stones , gng. Pth*lr flat stone ; A. B. pthar stone , Or. Pathara; Bi. Pthar, patthar, patthal hailstone ; Mth. Pthar, pathal stone , Bhoj. Pathal, Aw.lakh. pthar, H. pthar, patthar, pathar, patthal m., G. patthar, pathr m.; M. pthar f. flat stone ; Ko. Phttaru stone ; Si. Patura chip, fragment ; -- S. pathir f. stone in the bladder ; P. pathr f. small stone ; Ku. Pathar stone cup ; B. pthri stone in the bladder, tartar on teeth ; Or. Pathur stoneware ; H. patthr f. grit , G. pathr f. prastar -- : Wpah.kg. ptthr m. stone, rock ; pthreu to stone ; J. pthar m. stone ; Omarw. Pthar precious stone . (CDIAL 8857) sagh m. association, a community Mn. [han1]Pa. sagha -- m. assembly, the priesthood ; A. sagha -- m. the Buddhist community ; Pk. sagha -- m. assembly, collection ; OSi. (Brhm inscr.)saga, Si. sanga crowd, collection . -- Rather < saga -- : S. sagu m. body of pilgrims (whence s go m. caravan ), L. P. sag m. (CDIAL 12854). sgata united AV., n. union MBh. [Cf. sgati -- f. meeting RV. -- gam] Pa. sagata -- met ; Pk. sagaya -- met , n. union ; A. xg, x bhr burden suspended from one pole and carried by two or more persons ; Si. ngaya three oxen yoked together . (CDIAL 12844).
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Sangha [fr. sa+h; lit. "comprising." The qusi pop. etym. at VvA 233 is "dihi -- sla -smaena sanghabhvena sangha"] 1. multitude, assemblage Miln 403 (kka); J i.52 (sakua); n 589 ( ti); 680 (deva); D iii. (miga); Vv 55 (acchar=samha VvA 37).(Pali) rga made of horn Sur., n. bow MBh. [ ga -- ] Pk. saga -- made of horn ; a.lau. g f.(?) horn (or < ga -- ). (CDIAL 12409). *rgala horned . [rga -] a.lau. agala a small horn ; K. h gul m. the stag Cervus wallichii .(CDIAL 12410).

khika relating to a shell W. 2. *khin -- (akhin -- f. mother -- of -- pearl Blar.). [akh -- 1] 1. K. hngi snail ; B. s kh possessing or made of shells . 2. K. hogi f. pearl oyster shell, shell of any aquatic mollusc .(CDIAL 12380). sort of sea-snail; popularly (Marathi) [ akhin ] pop. A

Hieroglyph: veh octopus (Lahnda) h1018 copper plate inscription -- ligature of octopus with one-horned heifer; m0297 seal with similar ligature.

Rebus: Enclosure containing many houses veh, veh m. courtyard, (Ju.) enclosure containing many houses (L.) vea , veha, vehe a small territorial unit (Ka.IE8-4) A. beran act of surrounding ; Or. behaa, i girth, circumference, fencing, small cloth worn by woman . (CDIAL 12131). P brah, s.f. (3rd) A fortification, defence, rampart, a ditch, palisade, an entrenchment, a breastwork. Pl. ey. (Pushto). Pk. vha -- m. wrap ; S. vehu m. encircling ; L. veh, veh m. fencing, enclosure in jungle with a hedge, (Ju.) blockade , veh,veh m. courtyard, (Ju.) enclosure containing many houses ; P. veh, be m. enclosure, courtyard ; Ku. beo circle or band (of people) , bei fetter ; N.berh, ber wrapping , ber -- br wrapping up ; A. ber wall of house, circumference of anything ; B. be roll, turn, fence, enclosure , be fence, hedge ; Or. beha girth, fence round young trees , be wall of house ; Mth. be hedge, wall , beh granary ; H. beh, be, beh, be m. enclosure, cattle surrounded and carried off by force , be f. ring on ankle ; G. veh m. finger -- ring , veh m. circular log, joint of the fingers ; M. veh n.f. ring , m. circumference ; Si. veu twisted string, bandage . v -: WPah.kg. be m. palace , J. be m. id., esp. the female apartments , kul. be building with a courtyard ; A. also ber fence, enclosure (CDIAL 12130). S. vehau to twist ; L. veha to wind, bandage, bind, surround ; Ku. beo to fence in, enclose ; N. bernu to roll, fold up ; A. beriba to surround (with fence or wall) , B. be, Or. behib, Mth. behab; H. behn to enclose, surround ; M. veh to twist, surround ; Si. veanav to twist, entwine, (SigGr ii 464) wrap . -- X bandhati: Pk. vehia -- wrapped up ); H. bhn, bdhn (see also vyati) to plait, braid, fold (CDIAL 12132). bri trader (Ka.Te.); biyri (M.); vypri (Skt.) K. bra.] 1. Sale, trade; pram, n. < Pkt. bra. [T. bramu,

. 2. Bargaining, higgling and haggling;

76

. . 3. High value; designation (Or.) . Behar-mahptra (EI 28) prob. Vyavahrika-m. official . trade, &c. [ [ brizu ] brzu. [H.] n. An account. A total sum, or

bramu ] bramu. [Tel.] n. Trade, dealing, a bargain, ( buyer. or journey. being a mere expletive.) , .

bra-ku. n. One who makes a bargain, a purchaser, bra-katte. n. A woman who bargains or purchases. to go on a trading [ brja ] f The total of an

bram-u. v. n. To bargain. bri. n. A man of the Beri or merchant caste.

addition: also a sum or an amount. 2 A figure or a set of figures of a column or of a row. 3 Adding. v , . [ vpra ] m ( S through H) Traffic, trade, commerce. [ vypra ] m (S) Work or action generally; any working or acting; any work, operation, business, or proceeding. 2 Trade, traffic, commerce, mercantile business. (Marathi) bpr 1 m. traffic, trade, commerce. (Kashmiri) trader, dealer. (M.) [ vpr ] m ( or H) A merchant,

pram, n. < bra. 1. Form, shape; . 3. Idol; image. ." . ." . v. .

.(

. 273,

.) 2. Body;

[ bramu ] bramu. [Skt.] n. An

Archaeological framework for metals trade at Susa/Mesopotamia Bronze came to Mesopotamia from the Far East. The earliest tin-bronze is dated to the fourth millennium BC, attested archaeologically at Sialk and Susa (Iran). A hook with 0.99 % tin, 1.5 % arsenic and 2.4 % nickel was excavated in Azerbaijan. At Tepe Yahya, a dagger with 3.0 % tin, 1.1 % arsenic has been excavated. The earliest appearance of tin bronze in Western Asia has been reported from Mesopotamia (Tepe Gawra, Kish, Ur, and Tell Judeidah) and southwestern Iran (Susa) and Luristan in west central Iran (Kalleh Nissar) in the late fourth and the beginning of the third millennium BCE, whereas the extensive use of tin and tin bronze can be dated around the mid-third millennium over a large area extending from the Persian Gulf to the Aegean (Pernicka et al. 1984, Stech & Pigott 1986, Weeks 1999, Fleming et al. 2005). Since Mesopotamia, the Khuzestan plain and Luristan all lack metallic resources, ancient metallurgists depended on their adjacent mineral-rich neighbouring regions including the Iranian plateau for the supply of raw materials (Figure 1). The fact that metals and other materials had to be imported from the east or the south is repeatedly mentioned in the cuneiform texts from Mesopotamia. [Nima Nezafati, Ernst
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Pernicka & Morteza Momenzadeh, 2009, Ancient Tin; Old Question & A New Answer http://www.docstoc.com/docs/117971375/Rethinking-the-tin-mountains-(Helwing-2009) Extracted From/Source: Antiquity Vol 80 No 308 June 2006] http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Science/tin.htm While Nima Nezafati et al indicate the possibility of tin source at Deh Hosein, along the Persian Gulf, cuneiform records do indicate Meluhha as the source of ancient tin. Persian Gulf settlements like Deh Hosein might have been used as trading posts for tin received from other sites of Meluhha. Indus writing used hieroglyphs: context bronze-age Meadow: The earliest (Indus) inscriptions date back to 500 B . h1522A sherd. Slide 124. Inscribed Ravi sherd. The origins of Indus writing can now be traced to the Ravi Phase (c. 3300-2800 BCE) at Harappa. Some inscriptions were made on the bottom of the pottery before firing. Other inscriptions such as this one were made after firing. This inscription (c. 3300 BCE) appears to be three plant symbols arranged to appear almost anthropomorphic. Slide 131. Inscribed sherd, Kot Dijian Phase. This sign was carved onto the pottery vessel after it was fired and may indicate the type of goods being stored in the vessel or the owner of the vessel itselfThis symbol becomes very common in the later Indus script. I suggest that the word associated with this glyph is tagaraka, tabernae montana. Rebus: tagara tin (Ka.); tamara id. ( kt.) Allograph: agara ram. Since tagaraka is used as an aromatic unguent for the hair, fragrance, the glyph gets depicted on an ivory comb of Tell Abraq. The semant. tin may explain why a ram (or goat) is ligatured to a fish glyph. Tin alloyed with copper mineral yields bronze: aya fish. Rebus: aya metal.+ agara ram. Rebus: tagara tin yields bronze. m0410, m0482 Seal Indian hieroglyph composition comparable to Egyptian hieroglyph reading armer Glyph: ayo fish (Mu.) Rebus: aya = iron (G.); ayah, ayas = metal (Skt.) Glyph: kru a wild crocodile or alligator (Te.) Rebus: khr a blacksmith, an iron worker (cf. bandka-khr) (Kashmiri) Combined rebus reading: ayakra iron-smith ( ali)
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Susa, limestone vat, Middle Elamite period (c. 1500 BC 1100 BCE). Louvre Musuem. Inscribed ritual basin of middle Elamite period (c. 15th century BCE), Susa. The basin showed a ligature of goat-fish. Choice of glyphs such as goat or fish and ligaturing as an orthographic medium links Susa/Uruk and Meluhha (Indus script) as a cultural interaction sphere. It is likely that hieroglyphic writing systems of Proto-Elamite, Proto-Sumerian and Indus writing systems evolved independently to code the unique characteristics of languages represented dealing in lists and category descriptions related to property, inventory, economic administration or corporate (guild) management and not necessarily sentences and narrative texts of cultural traditions. In one case, token impressions on bullae may have been replaced by inscribed glyphs (as proto-writing) and in another, categorization might have been achieved by using duplicate tablets (as evidenced by the HARP findings of multiples of inscribed tablets) to compile important information needed for bills of lading (achieved by using seal impressions). The book, Indian hieroglyphs (2011) seeks to demonstrate that pictographic representation and writing evolved together to represent semantics of language, to meet the trade/economic imperative of administering the guild transactions of the bronze age in the cultural context of Indian linguistic area. The most significant finding of this work is that almost all glyphs (both pictorial motifs/field symbols and text sign glyphs) of Indus script are readable rebus and hence, meanings documented precisely in Mleccha/Meluhha language of Indian linguistic area. A revolutionary change had occurred in the patterns of social organization with the arrival of the bronze age. Apart from products made of stone, terracotta, wood, bone, ivory and turbinella pyrum, new materials (mineral resources, sand and stone ores) were located, mined, obtained and new processes such as smelting and forging were invented to work in guild corporate forms on metals, ingots, alloys, forging, turning, smithy, use of anvils and various types of furnaces. Archaic accounting of tokens and bullae (together with tablets creating seal impressions) would have required an enormous expansion adding to the list of goods and types of transactions necessitated by the bronze age production and trade activities. Accounting for these varieties of transactions would have necessitated either the invention of writing like the syllabic cuneiform or the Indus script using hieroglyphs. A store-keeping record by categories, a bill of lading was also required when trade goods were stored in warehouses and couriered (by trade caravans) across long distances. The invention of Indian hieroglyphs served these requirements necessitated by the arrival of the bronze age. Writing was necessary not only to write names (as shown in cuneiform texts), but also to describe traded commodities such as industrial products -grinding stones, minerals, metal alloys, metal ingots, tools/weapons, and jewellery of turbinella pyrum, gold or silver or semi-precious stones brought out of the lapidaries or smiths or miners work-sites, workshops or warehouses.
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The Meluhhan settlers of Uruk who created the hieroglyphs of Uruk trough, of Indus script and of the Nar Mer Palette are of the same scribe guild whose language was Indus language, mleccha (meluhha) and who had learnt the literate art of writing to represent (vikalpa) human speech sounds. Allograph Indus script glyph: ptra trough in front of wild/domesticated/composite animals. attar trough (DEDR 40 9) 4080 Ta. avity, hollow, deep hole; pattar (DEDR 4080) Rebus: pattar , n. < T. battuu. A caste title of goldsmiths. It was a smiths guild at work on circular platforms of arappa using tablets as category tallies for the final shipment of package with a seal impression. Trough as a hieroglyph That the trough pictorial is a hieroglyph is emphatically demonstrated by its being shown even in front of wild animals such as tiger or rhinoceros. There are examples of trough glyph are shown in front of wild, domesticated and composite animals an evidence for the use of trough glyph as a hieroglyph, together with the animal glyph. Maybe, the 19 circular working platforms of Harappa were used for assembling many types of products the trough glyph denoting the working platform and the animal glyph denoting the product type (e.g. copper, gold, metal alloy, output of furnaces (of various types), minerals). Glyph: ptra, (l.) s. Vessel, cup, plate; receptacle. [lw. Sk. Id.] (Nepali) ptramu A utensil, . Hardware. Metal vessels. (Telugu) pattal, n. . Rebus: pattar , n. < T. battuu. A caste title of goldsmiths; . K. paae.] Anvil; ( .( .) pattal , n. 1. A . . 19, 23). pattar , n. 1. See
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pattar 1. A wooden bucket; ( . 19, 23).

paaai , n. prob.

- +

-. 1. [T. paika,

, 821). 2. [K. paai.] Smithy, forge;

wooden bucket; (

, 1, 4, 5. 2. Wooden trough for

feeding animals;

, 257). Paar-ai community;

guild as of workmen (Ta.); pattar merchants; perh. Vartaka (Skt.) Patthara [cp. Late Sk. Prastara. The ord. meaning of k. r. Is stramentum] . tone, rock i. . 2. Stoneware Miln 2. (Pali) Pa. Pk. Patthara m. stone , S. patharu m., L. (Ju.) pathar m., khet. Patthar, P. patthar m. ( forms of Bi. Mth. Bhoj. H. G. below with atth or ath), Wpah.jaun. ptthar; Ku. Pthar m. slates, stones , gng. Pth*lr flat stone ; A. B. pthar stone , Or. Pathara; Bi. Pthar, patthar, patthal hailstone ; Mth. Pthar, pathal stone , Bhoj. Pathal, Aw.lakh. pthar, H. pthar, patthar, pathar, patthal m., G. patthar, pathr m.; M. pthar f. flat stone ; Ko. Phttaru stone ; Si. Patura chip, fragment ; -- S. pathir f. stone in the bladder ; P. pathr f. small stone ; Ku. Pathar stone cup ; B. pthri stone in the bladder, tartar on teeth ; Or. Pathur stoneware ; H. patthr f. grit , G. pathr f. *prastarapaa -- , *prastaramrttik -- , *prastarsa -- .Addenda: prastar -- : Wpah.kg. ptthr m. stone, rock ; pthreu to stone ; J. pthar m. stone ; Omarw. Pthar precious stone . (CDIAL 8857) paarai workshop (Ta.) pattharika [fr. Patthara] a merchant Vin ii.135 (kasa).( ali) cf. attharati [pa+tharati] to spread, spread out, extend J i.62; iv.212; vi.279; DhA i.26; iii.61 (so read at J vi.549 in cpd pda with spreading feet, v. l. patthaa). pp. patthaa (q. v.). &sup5; pattar, n. perh. Vartaka. Merchants;

. (W.) battuu. n. The caste title of all the five castes of artificers as vala b*, carpenter. The circular platforms could have served as prastara for the articles taken for display from out of the storage pots. During excavations of the circular platform area on Mound F numerous Cemetery H-type sherds and some complete vessels were recovered in association with pointed base goblets and large storage vessels that are usually associated with arappa eriod . outh fo the platforms was a furnace. A large kiln was also found just below the surface of the mound to the south of the circular platforms. http://www.harappa.com/indus4/e6.html The circular platforms are used in conjunction with the products taken out of the kiln (furnace) and large storage vessels which could have been plced in the center of any of the street platforms, constituting the main market street of early times of Harappa settlement. Circular platforms (with a dia. Of 1.5 m) found within rooms (of a coppersmith) as in Padri might have served as working platforms for the brass-workers, lapidaries, artisans of the civilization or as a display counter if the room was used as a shop for sales. The recovery of copper tablets with inscriptions is an
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indication that the workers platforms where these were recovered were used to make copper and other metal artefacts.

Archaeology and language: Archaeological context of Indus writing, ca. 3500 BCE Indian sprachbund had speakers of Meluhha (Mleccha) at the find spots of seals, tablets, artifacts (over 6000) with Indus Writing. Select find spots map (After Bryan K. Wells, 2011, Epigraphic Approaches to Indus Writing, Oxbow Books).

Contributions made by linguists have resulted in an understanding of the nature of Indus language, which is coded in Indus writing system hieroglyphs. Indus writing corpora and evidence related to proto-Indian or proto-Indic or Indus language: Meluhha (mleccha) Indus writing corpora have now reached about 6000 inscriptions. Contributions made by many scholars, and additional archaeological finds since the discovery of the first seal with Indus writing by Alexander unningham, have helped identify, orthographically, about 958 sign hieroglyphs + about 00 field symbol hieroglyphs. ( ome examples are presented in Annex A: Indus writing hieroglyphs). Evaluation of Indus writing hieroglyphs in an archaeological context has been effectively presented by Massimo Vidale. (Vidale, Massimo, 2007, The collapse melts down: A reply to Farmer, Sproat & Witzel. East and West 57 (1-4): 333-366.) http://www.docstoc.com/docs/8916249/Indus-script-decoded-language----Massimo-Vidale.
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ypothesising that 958 sign hieroglyphs + 00 field symbol hieroglyphs are read rebus as on the Narmer Palette of the Egyptian hieroglyphic tradition, a large vocabulary set of over 2000 glosses of Indus language have been identified. Many of these glosses are neither Indo-European nor Dravidian but constitute the substratum anguage X + Munda vocables which have been documented in Indo-Aryan and Dravidian etymological dictionaries (Comparative Dictionary of Indo-Aryan Languages, compiled by RL Turner http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/soas/ ; Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, compiled by Thomas Burrow and Murray B. Emeneau http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/burrow/) and also in Munda etyma (Edited by STAMPE-D Pinnow Versuch and Munda's thesis combined, 1984; Munda materials from David Stampe website www.ling.hawaii.edu/Stampe/AA/ETYM/Stampe&Munda, plus other materials in preparation at the University of Hawaii). These insights of language studies, mainly related to ancient vocabulary, suggest the following hypothesis which is tested in a rebus reading of Indian writing hieroglyphs which started ca. 3500 BCE: A substratum list of vocables of Language X + Munda constitute the core vocabulary of Meluhha, the Indus language. Meluhha as a language is attested on the Shu-ilishu cylinder seal (with Akkadian cuneiform writing) and also in many ancient texts starting from Manu in Sanskrit. In one reference, a clear mention is made of rya vcas and mleccha vcas arya speech and mleccha (cognate meluhha) speech both forms of speech used by the same people: daha, dasyu. The identification of mleccha as the language of the Indus script writing system is consistent with the following theses which postulate an Indian linguistic area (sprachbund), that is an area of ancient times when various language-speakers interacted and absorbed language features from one another and made them their own: Emeneau, 1956; Kuiper, 1948; Masica, 1971; Przyludski, 1929; Southworth, 2005. Emeneau, MB, 1956, India as a linguistic area, Language 32, 1956, 3-16. Kuiper, FBJ, 1948, Proto-Munda words in Sanskrit, Amsterdam, 1948 1967, The genesis of a linguistic area, IIJ 10, 1967, 81-102 Masica, CP, 1971, Defining a Linguistic area. South Asia. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Przyludski, J., 1929, Further notes on non-aryan loans in Indo-Aryan in: Bagchi, P. C. (ed.), Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in Sanskrit. Calcutta : University of Calcutta: 145149 Southworth, F., 2005, Linguistic archaeology of South Asia, London, Routledge-Curzon. Daha, dasyu, people

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Dasyu is a general reference to people. Dasyu is cognate with dasa, which in Khotanese language means man. It is also cognate with daha, a word which occurs in ersepolis inscription of Xerxes, a possible reference to people of Dahistan, a region east of Caspian sea. Strabo wrote :"Most of the scythians, beginning from the Caspian sea, are called Dahae Scythae, and those situated more towards the east Massagetae and Sacae." (Strabo, 11.8.1). Close to Caspian Sea is the site of Altyn-tepe which was an interaction area with Meluhha and where three Indus seals with inscriptions were found, including a silver seal showing a composite animal which can be called a signature glyph of Indus writing. Excerpt from Encyclopaedia Iranica article on cognate dahyu country (often with reference to the people inhabiting it): DAHYU (OIr. dahyu-), attested in Avestan dax iiu-, da hu- country (often with reference to the people inhabiting it; cf. AirWb., cot. 706; Hoffmann, pp. 599-600 n. 14; idem and Narten, pp. 54-55) and in Old Persian dahyu- country, province (pl. nations; Gershevitch, p. 160). The term is likely to be connected with Old Indian dsyu enemy (of the Aryans), which acquired the meaning of demon, enemy of the gods (Mayrhofer, Dictionary II, pp. 28-29). Because of the Indo-Iranian parallel, the word may be traced back to the root das-, from which a term denoting a large collectivity of men and women could have been derived. Such traces can be found in Iranian languages: for instance, in the ethnonym Dahae (q.v., i) men (cf. Av. ethnic name [fem. adj.] dh, from d ha-; AirWb., col. 744; Gk. Dai, etc.), in Old Persian dah the Daha people (Brandenstein and Mayrhofer, pp. 113-14), and in Khotanese daha man, male (Bailey, Dictionary, p. 155).

Reproduction of drawing on a pottery vessel found in Shahr-i Sokhta, Iran. Late half of 3rd Millennium B.C. In five pictures a goat steps toward a tree, climbs it up, eats leaves and comes down. This picture is one of earliest examples of artist's attempt to show motion in means of animation. Source: Trace of a photo of the reproduction presented together with the vase in National Museum of Iran. Covering an area of 151 hectares, Shahr-i Sokhta was one of the worlds largest cities at the dawn of the urban era. In the western part of the site is a vast graveyard, measuring 25 hk.s. It contains between 25,000 to 40,000 ancient graves. (Sandro Salvatori And Massimo Vidale, Shahr-I Sokhta 1975-1978: Central Quarters Excavations: Preliminary Report, Istituto italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, 1997.) Two glyphs: ram and tree. me ram. Rebus: me iron ( o.Mu.) kui tree. Rebus: kuhi smelter furnace.

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Tepe Yahya. Seal impressions of two sides of a seal. Six-legged lizard and opposing footprints shown on opposing sides of a double-sided steatite stamp seal perforated along the lateral axis. Lamberg- Karlovsky 1971: fig. 2C Shahr-i-Soktha Stamp seal shaped like a foot. Shahdad seal (Grave 78) A proto-Indic language is attested in ancient Indian texts. For example, Manusmti refers to two languages, both of dasyu (daha): rya vcas, mleccha vcas. mukhabh rupajjnm y loke jtayo bahih mlecchavcascryav cas te sarve dasyuvah smth Trans. All those people in this world who are excluded from those born from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and the feet (of Brahma) are called Dasyus, whether they speak the language of the mleccha-s or that of the rya-s. (Manu 10.45)] This distinction between lingua franca and literary version of the language, is elaborated by Patajali as a reference to 1) grammatically correct literary language and 2) ungrammatical, colloquial speech (de). Ancient text of Panini also refers to two languages in ik: Sanskrit and Prkt. Prof Avinash Sathaye provides a textual reference on the earliest occurrence of the word, anskrit : triaicatuh airv varh ambhumate math | prkite samskte cpi svayam prokt svayambhuv || (pinis ik) Trans. There are considered to be 63 or 64 var-s in the school (mata) of shambhu. In Prakrit and Sanskrit by swayambhu (manu, Brahma), himself, these var-s were stated. This demonstrates that pini knew both samskta and prkita as established languages. (Personal communication, 27 June 2010 with Prof. Shrinivas Tilak.) hapter of Bharatamunis Nyastra is a beautiful discourse about Sanskrit and Prakrit and the usage of lingua franca by actors/narrators in dramatic performances. Besides, Raja Shekhara, Kalidasa, Shudraka have also used the word Sanskrit for the literary language. (Personal communication from Prof. TP Verma, 7 May 2010). Nyastra XVII.29-30: dvividh jtibhca prayoge samudht mlecchaabdopacr ca bhratam varam arit The jtibh (common language), prescribed for use (on the stage) has various forms. It contains words of mleccha origin and is spoken in Bhratavara only Vtstyyana refers to mlecchita vikalpa (cipher writing of mleccha) Vtstyyanas Kamasutra lists (out of 64 arts) three arts related to language: dea bh jnam (knowledge of dialects) mlecchita vikalpa (cryptography used by mleccha) [cf. mleccha-mukha copper ( kt.); the suffix mukha is a reflex of mh ingot (Mu.) akara muika kathanam (messaging through wrist-finger gestures)

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Thus, semantically, mlecchita vikalpa as a writing system relates to cryptography (perhaps, hieroglyphic writing) and to the work of artisans (smiths). I suggest that this is a reference to Indian hieroglyphs. It is not a mere coincidence that early writing attested during historical periods was on metal punch-marked coins, copper plates, two-feet long copper bolt used on an Aokan pillar at Rampurva, Sohoura copper plate, two pure tingots found in a shipwreck in Haifa, and even on the Delhi iron pillar clearly pointing to the smiths as those artisans who had the competence to use a writing system. In reference to Rampurva copper-bolt: ere then these signs occur upon an object which must have been made by craftsmen working for Asoka or one of his predessors. (F.R. Allchin, 1959, Upon the contextual significance of certain groups of ancient signs, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London.) Mahbhrata also attests to mleccha used in a conversation with Vidura. atapatha Brhmaa refers to mleccha as language (with pronunciation variants) and also provides an example of such mleccha pronunciation by asuras. A Pali text, Uttardhyayana Stra 10.16 notes: ladhdhaa vimnusattaam riattam purvi dullaham bahave dasy milakkhuy; trans. though one be born as a man, it is rare chance to be an rya, for many are the dasyu and milakkhu. Milakkhu and dasyu constitute the majority, they are the many. Dasyu are milakkhu (mleccha speakers). Dasyu are also rya vcas (Manu 10.45), that is, speakers of Sanskrit. Both rya vcas and mleccha vcas are dasyu [cognate dahyu, da ha, daha (Khotanese)], people, in general. 1 A fisherman; Ms.8.48,49;1.34. $ Rm.7.46.32;

a fisherman (Apte.

Lexicon) Such people are referred to in Rgveda by Vivmitra as Bhratam janam. Mahbhrata alludes to thousands of mlecchas, a numerical superiority equaled by their valour and courage in battle which enhances the invincibility of Pandava (MBh. 7.69.30; 95.36). innows map of Austro-AsiaticLanguage speakers correlates with bronze age sites. http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/faculty/stampe/aa.html See http://kalyan97.googlepages.com/mleccha1.pdf The areal map of Austric (Austro86

Asiatic languages) showing regions marked by Pinnow correlates with the bronze age settlements in Bharatam or what came to be known during the British colonial regime as Greater India. The bronze age sites extend from Mehrgarh-Harappa (Meluhha) on the west to Kayatha-Navdatoli (Nahali) close to River Narmada to Koldihwa- Khairdih-Chirand on Ganga river basin to Mahisadal Pandu Rajar Dhibi in Jharia mines close to Mundari area and into the east extending into Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Nicobar islands. A settlement of Inamgaon is shown on the banks of River Godavari. Bronze Age sites of eastern India and neighbouring areas: 1. Koldihwa; 2.Khairdih; 3. Chirand; 4. Mahisadal; 5. Pandu Rajar Dhibi; 6.Mehrgarh; 7. Harappa;8. Mohenjo-daro; 9.Ahar; 10. Kayatha; 11.Navdatoli; 12.Inamgaon; 13. Non PaWai; 14. Nong Nor;15. Ban Na Di andBan Chiang; 16. NonNok Tha; 17. Thanh Den; 18. Shizhaishan; 19. Ban Don Ta Phet [After Fig. 8.1 in: Charles Higham, 1996, The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia, Cambridge University Press].

Decoding Salut seal with Indian hieroglyphs (Indus script) Field symbol: Ox with a trough (?) in front.

[Note: the glyphic readings may need some edits as and when a high resolution photograph becomes available and, the glyphic elements have been read rebus, tentatively, consonant with Indus script hieroglyphs.] This was a stone seal with a perforated boss and was perhaps tied to a trade load from Meluhha. A variant of this hieroglyph (appearing on Salut seal) also occurs on the Kuninda coin which also showed other Indus writing hieroglyphs such as tree-on-railing, svastika. This hieroglyph is decoded as: ranku liquid measure; rebus: ranku tin. An Indus Seal from the excavation of the Salut Early Bronze Age tower Field symbol: Ox with a trough (?) in front. This was a stone seal with a perforated boss and was perhaps tied to a trade load from Meluhha. Glyphic elements read rebus: Blacksmith guild; Native metal + tin + turned metalwork from furnace. ran:ku = liquid measure (Santali) Rebus: ran:ku = tin (Santali) kna corner (Nk.); Tu. ku angle, corner (Tu.); Rebus: kd to turn in a lathe (B.)
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Glyph: dma, damr young bull (A.)(CDIAL 6184). Glyph: *agara1 cattle . 2. *dagara -. [Same as a- gara -- 2 s.v. *agga -- 2 as a pejorative term for cattle] 1. K. angur m. bullock , L. agur, (Ju.) gar m. horned cattle ; P. agar m. cattle , Or. agara; Bi. gar old worn -- out beast, dead cattle , dhr gar cattle in general ; Bhoj. gar cattle ; H. gar, gr m. horned cattle . . . d gar m. = prec. (CDIAL 5526) Rebus: hangar blacksmith (H.) Glyph: sal stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty ( .); sal workshop ( antali) Vikalpa: aar a splinter (Ma.) aaruka to burst, crack, sli off,fly open; aarcca splitting, a crack; aarttuka to split, tear off, open (an oyster) (Ma.); aaruni to crack (Tu.) (DEDR 66) Rebus: aduru native, unsmelted metal (Kannada) gaa four ( antali); rebus: ka fire-altar, furnace ( antali) Vikalpa: ponea four ( antali); rebus: pon gold (Ta.) abu an iron spoon ( antali) Vikalpa: Kol. (SR.) ge spoon (DEDR 1267). Rebus: Ta. kaai (v-, -nt-) to churn, turn in lathe, mash to pulp (as vegetables with the bowl of a ladle); kaaical polishing, enamelling, turned work in wood; kaaiccal turning on a lathe, that which is turned on a lathe. kaaica -paarai , n. < id. +. Turner's shop; . Loc. Glyph: S. bahu m. large pot in which grain is parched, Rebus; bhah m. kiln ( .) baa = a kind of iron (G.) Vikalpa: mego = rimless vessels (Santali) bhaa furnace (G.) baa = kiln (Santali); baa = a kind of iron (G.) bhaha -- m.n. gridiron (Pkt.) bahu large cooking fire bah f. distilling furnace; . bhah m. grain parcher's oven, bhah f. kiln, distillery, aw. bhah; P. bhah m., h f. furnace, bhah m. kiln; . bhah ke distil (spirits). ( DIA 9656) Rebus: ab, himba, hompo lump (ingot?) (Mu.) Rebus: baa = a kind of iron (G.) bhaa furnace (G.) pattar trough (Ta.) ptra, (l.) s. Vessel, cup, plate; receptacle. [lw. Sk. Id.] (Nepali) ptramu A utensil, .

Hardware. Metal vessels. (Telugu) Rebus paar-ai community; guild as of workmen (Ta.); pthar precious stone (OMarw.) (CDIAL 8857) Patthara [cp. late Sk. prastara. The ord. meaning of Sk. pr. is "stramentum"] 1. stone, rock S i.32. -- 2. stoneware Miln 2. (Pali) Pa. Pk. patthara -- m. stone , S. patharu m., L. (Ju.) pathar m., khet. patthar, P. patthar m. ( forms of Bi. Mth. Bhoj. H. G. below with atth or ath), WPah.jaun. ptthar; Ku. pthar m. slates, stones , gng. pth*lr flat stone ; A. B. pthar stone , Or. pathara; Bi. pthar, patthar, patthal hailstone ; Mth. pthar, pathal stone , Bhoj. pathal, Aw.lakh. pthar, H. pthar, patthar, pathar, patthal m., G. patthar, pathr m.; M. pthar f. flat stone ; Ko. phttaru stone ; Si. patura chip, fragment ; -- S. pathir f. stone in the bladder ; P. pathr f. small stone ; Ku. pathar stone cup ; B. pthri stone in the bladder, tartar on teeth ; Or. pathur stoneware ; H. patthr
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f. grit , G. pathr f. *prastarapaa -- , *prastaramrttik -- , *prastarsa -- .Addenda: prastar -- : WPah.kg. ptthr m. stone, rock ; pthreu to stone ; J. pthar m. stone ; OMarw. pthar precious stone . (CDIAL 8857) From one of the higher hills of the large ditch encircling the EBA tower currently excavated by IMTO some 300 m to the north-west of salut, came one stone stamp seal which, by virtue of its iconography, shape and incised inscription, can be considered a genuine (Greater) Indus Valley import. The seal shows a bull, facing right and standing in front of a rectangular feature, possibly an altar or maybe just a manger. Above this scene, stands a line of Indus alphabetical signs. The quality of the glyptic and the close resemblance with specimen coming from Indus Valley sites, seem to indicate that the seal is an original Indus import, rather than an imitation. Such characteristic square stamp seals marked the transition from Early Harappan to Mature Harappan, together with the appearance of the Indus script. This transition is dated around 2500 BC, a date after which various artefacts related to the Indus civilization started to be found in the Near East, from Mesopotamia to Iran, to Failaka and Bahrein. Among the few Bronze Age seals discovered so far in Oman, only two could be compared to the one from Salut EBA tower. One is a stamp seal found in Ras al-Jinz, also bearing Indus signs but made of a copper/bronze, and the other is a stone stamp seal from a tomb in Bisyah, with no inscription. Their overall shape and motifs induce to regard them as
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well as genuine imports, though in the case of metal seals, only very few examples are known from the Greater Indus Valley, thus leaving some doubts about a possible local production. Floor tiles depicting a serpent (Salut) Salut is a fortified settlement dating to the Iron Age (1300800 BC), located at the western foot of the Hajar mountain range, Bissiyah region, northern Oman. These are hieroglyphs: a pair of snakehoods. http://arabiantica.humnet.unipi.it/index.php?id=715&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=68&tx_ ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=711&cHash=2fe7666e8c http://arabiantica.humnet.unipi.it/fileadmin/Arabian_Files/pdf/EVO_XXVIII.pdf The remarkable findings reported from Salut, Oman are consistent with the central thesis of Indian Hieroglyphs. The writing in Indus Script is of artisan ancestors of Harosheth, (cognate kharo) tradition. It was harosheth hagoyim, a smithy of nations, indeed. Harosheth is spelt in pronunciation: khar-o'-sheth. Harosheth and cognate kharo may mean workmanship or art of writing, apart from connoting specifically blacksmiths writing system as artisans who invented early writing systems necessitated by the economic imperative of bronze-age trade. http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2011/12/indus-seal-from-excavation-of-salut.html What differentiates writing from art seen, for e.g., in rock art petroglyphs? Petroglyphs are pictures of reality (simple pictographs), for e.g., a hunting scene. Writing systems use glyphics to denote sounds of speech. It took over two millennia of civilizational history to graduate from pictographs to writing. Intimations of syllabic writing evidenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, cuneiform, proto-Elamite (?), Aramaic, kharo and brhm were phases in the invention of writing before a true phonetic-alphabetic system of writing was adopted to represent speech. There was an evolutionary phase between pictographic writing and syllabic writing. That stage was represented by Indian hieroglyphs which constituted a major breakthrough in the process of inventing writing. Indian hieroglyphs were direct representations of spoken words using a technique which is also used in Egyptian hieroglyphs: rebus glyphic representation of homophones (or, similar sounding words) which did NOT connote the phonemes related to the words associated with pictographs but connoted their homophones to create messages about bronze-age repertoire. I call this double-imaging of impressions in the mind, sphoa (flash of thought) in imaging or writing a representation through symbols of at least two or more associated substratum sounds of speech. A written record is created of impressions in the minds of the sender and recipient of communicated messsages. How did this sphoa come about? I suggest that this was necessitated by an economic imperative: arrival of the bronze-age and resultant need to create bills of lading of trade loads. For over two millennia before the dawn of the bronze-age, pictographs served the needs of inter-personal communication. The dawn of bronze-age created a game-changer; artisans were able to organize themselves to trade bronze-age artifacts which were surplus to
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their own needs of personal consumption and were available for trade exchanges with neighboring settlements. The industrial revolution heralded by bronze-age was supported by the concomitant revolution in messaging systems using writing to represent sounds of lingua franca, spoken language to message about bronze-age repertoire of artisans. "Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience and written words are the symbols of spoken words. Just as all men have not the same writing, so all men have not the same speech sounds, but the mental experiences, which these directly symbolize, are the same for all, as also are those things of which our experiences are the images. " [Aristotle, On interpretation, tr. by E.M. Edghill] http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/interpretation/ Invention of writing as sphoa, using Indian hieroglyphs for Meluhha language The mental experience that Aristotle recognizes is sphoa, a flash of understanding. When a person from the Indian linguistic area (sprachbund) looked at a glyph which looked like a ram, the word-sound which flashed in his or her mind was meha. This flash of word-sound also invokes simultaneously -- a similar sounding word me which has a meaning for him or her. This meaning is, 'iron' or semantically, some hard stone. In a cultural interaction setting of Meluhha speakers/traders, when two or more persons have contracted in a sprachbund -- to associate meanings with sounds of words, the image of a 'ram' will automatically flash in both the sender of the written message and the receiver of the written message, the words meha and me will flash the moment a glyphic of 'ram' is written down or seen in the document. Both have contracted to understand this to be me as the word which designates 'iron' -- a hard stone that has economic value and value in use when the metal is used to make tools or weapons. This flash, this sphoa, results in the invention of a writing system, c. 3500 BCE, and occurs together with or necessitated by the invention of the economic use of 'metal' native metal (meteoric iron?) or alloyed arsenical copper or bronze or brass or bellmetal (that is, mixed minerals: copper + tin/arsenic/zinc) -- in the bronze-age. In a flash of genius, writing stands invented to represent sounds of words and expands the use of tallies (and bullae) to keep account of material such as iron of economic value and adds a verbal tag to it using the method of rebus reading of glyphics. Citing a parallel from Egyptian hieroglyphic writing The Narmer Palette (Great Hierakonpolis Palette) Cairo J.E. 14716, C.G. 32169 Hierakonpolis ( orus Temple Main Deposit)

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The inventor of Egyptian hieroglyph represented Narmer (a name) by using two glyphics: cuttlefish (Nr) + awl (chisel)(Mr). The writing system evolved further with some syllabic representations. At the top of both sides of the Palette are the central serekhs bearing the rebus symbols nr (catfish) and mr (chisel) inside, being the phonetic representation of armers name. The Narmer Palette is a 63-centimetre tall (2.07 ft), shield-shaped, ceremonial palette, carved from a single piece of flat, soft dark gray-green siltstone. The Narmer Palette, also known as the Great ierakonpolis Palette or the Palette of Narmer, is a significant Egyptian archeological find, dating from about the 31st century BC, containing some of the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions ever found. It is thought by some to depict the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the king Narmer. On one side, the king is depicted with the bulbed White crown of Upper (southern) Egypt, and the other side depicts the king wearing the level Red Crown of Lower (northern) Egypt. Along with the Scorpion Macehead and the Narmer Maceheads, also found together in the Main Deposit at ierakonopolis, the armer alette provides one of the earliest known depictions of an Egyptian king. The Palette shows many of the classic conventions of Egyptian art which must already have been formalized by the time of the alettes creation. The Egyptologist Bob Brier has referred to the Narmer Palette as "the first historical document in the world". (Brier, Bob. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians, A. Hoyt Hobbs 1999, p.202). Cylinder seal of Uruk displaying a confronted-tiger motif sometimes described as a "serpopard" - 3000 BCE - Louvre Jasper cylinder seal: tiger-headed eagle, tiger-headed snake hood, tigers paws on the two animals bodies, Mesopotamia, Uruk. The motif is similar to the entwined snake hoods shown on Narmer Palette c. 31st century BCE. Reverse and obverse sides of Narmer Palette. Ht. 63 cm. Graygreen siltstone. Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Obverse side The obverse side of the some images used in Uruk. The
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Narmer Palette shows which link with images

bottom registers shows a bull and two entwined snake-hoods. At the top of both sides of the Palette are the central serekhs bearing the rebus symbols n'r (catfish) and mr (chisel) inside, being the phonetic representation of Narmer's name. (Wengrow, David, The Archaeology of Ancient Egypt Cambridge University Press). The serekh on each side are flanked by a pair of bovine heads with highly curved horns, thought to represent the cow goddess Bat. Below the bovine heads is what appears to be a procession, with Narmer depicted at almost the full height of the register (a traditional artistic representation emphasizing his importance) shown wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, whose symbol was the papyrus. He holds a mace and a flail, two traditional symbols of kingship. To his right are the hieroglyphic symbols for his name. Behind him is his sandal bearer, whose name may be represented by the rosette appearing adjacent to his head, and a second rectangular symbol that has no clear interpretation but which has been suggested may represent a town or citadel. (Janson, Horst Woldemar; Anthony F. Janson History of Art: A Survey of the Major Visual Arts from the Dawn of History to the Present Day Prentice Hall 1986). Immediately in front of the pharaoh is a longhaired man, accompanied by a pair of hieroglyphs that have been interpreted as his name: Tshet (this assumes that these symbols had the same phonetic value used in later hieroglyphic writing). Before this man are four standard bearers, holding aloft an animal skin, a dog, and two falcons. At the far right of this scene are ten decapitated corpses, with heads at their feet, possibly symbolizing the victims of Narmer's conquest. Above them are the symbols for a ship, a falcon, and a harpoon, which has been interpreted as representing the names of the towns that were conquered. Below the procession, two men are holding ropes tied to the outstretched, intertwining necks of two serpopards confronting each other, mythical felines with bodies of leopards (or more likely lionesses, given that there are no spots indicated) and snakelike necks. The circle formed by their exaggeratedly curving necks is the central part of the Palette, which is the area where the cosmetics would be ground. These animals have been considered an additional symbol for the unification of Egypt, but it is a unique image in Egyptian art and there is nothing to suggest that either animal represents an identifiable part of Egypt, although each had lioness war goddesses as protectors and the intertwined necks may represent the unification of the state. Similar images of such mythical animals are known from other contemporaneous cultures, and there are other
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examples of late-predynastic objects (including other palettes and knife handles) which borrow similar elements from Mesopotamian iconography. (Wilkinson, Toby A.H. Early Dynastic Egypt. p.6, Routledge, London. 1999.) At the bottom of the Palette, a bovine image is seen knocking down the walls of a city while trampling on a fallen foe. Because of the lowered head in the image, this is interpreted as a presentation of the king vanquishing his foes, "Bull of his Mother" being a common epithet given to Egyptian kings as the son of the patron cow goddess. (Breasted, , James Henry. Ancient Records of Egypt, Chicago 1906, part Two, 143, 659, 853; part Three 117, 144, 147, 285 etc). This posture of a bovine has the meaning of "force" in later hieroglyphics. A comparable glyphic composition occurs on a Chanhu-daro seal. Bison (gaur) trampling a prostrate person (?) underneath. seal from Chanhujodaro (Mackay 1943: pl. 51: 13). The prostrate person is seen to have a very long neck, possibly with neckrings, reminiscent of the rings depicted on the neck of the onehorned bull normally depicted in front of a standard device. 6113 Pict-98 It appears that the entwined snakes (as hieroglyphs) has a Sumerian connection. This is a scene from a ceremonial make-up palette c. 3300 BCE. Two jackals face standing up face each other. Two snakes flanking a circle have tigerheads in place of the snake-hoods, licking a ram. Some suggest that this may be an import from Sumer to the Nile Valley. Source: The depiction of rams in the context of faces of tigers is determinative that the sharpness, tempered metal sought to be achieved by the process of alloying is related to copper. Hence, the tiger glyphs could connot bronze or arsenic alloys of copper. A pair tiger glyphs then indicate cast bronze or arsenic alloys cast perhaps into bun ingots or cast into weapon or tool shapes hardened enough to be made with sharpened edges. http://www.nemo.nu/ibisportal/0egyptintro/2aegypt/index.htm The Sumer palette shows six antelopes, consistent with the pattern of depiction of six antelopes on Persian Gulf stamp seals which were discovered at Susa. Six antelopes have been read rebus: me bhaa goat + six; rebus: iron furnace. nake hood is read rebus: Glyph: snakes hood: paam. Rebus: padm temper, sharpness (of metal). nga snake; rebus: anakku tin (Akkadian), nga lead ( anskrit). If the ram glyph denotes melakku copper or me metal, the tiger glyph denotes an alloy of minerals: kol. When elongated like a snakes hood, the tiger represents a sharpened, tempered
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Impression of a

alloy padm kol -- which can produce sharp tools, sharp as the edge of a knife and weapons. Pair of snake-hoods is relatable to the glyph: dula pair. Rebus: dul cast (metal). Thus a pair of tigers with elongated necks made to look like snake-hoods cnnote cast alloy tempered metal. Such a snake-hood is shown on Indus script inscriptions by the tail of a composite animal to look like a snakes hood. Comparable to the elongated necks tigers entwined as serpents on Narmer Palette and on Uruk cylinder seal, there is a fantastic composition on some copper plates of Mohenjo-daro. One example of m0578 copper tablet is shown.

m0578At m0578Bt Orthography seems to have been effectively used to depict the hood of snake etymon: paam (Rebus: padm sharpness, temper like the edge of a knife. Maybe, the intention is to depict cast tempered metal by a worker in iron, badhi (since part of the rump of the composite animal looks like a rhinoceros). On a composite animal m1175, the tail is depicted to mimic a snakes hood. m1175 Worship of entwined snakes carved on stone, roadsite temple, Hampi Narmer palette is rebus method of writing . The name of the king ca. 31st century BCE was depicted by two glyphs (on top of the palette between two ox-heads): nr cat-fish + mr awl or chisel. Similar method of rebus representation of hieroglyphs was adopted on Indus script glyphs to detail technical specifications of products made by artisans (and NOT names).

Conclusions This monograph is a tribute to the painstaking work of archaeologists who have worked on sites in the Near East and South Asia and unraveled a kaleidoscope of the heritage of very ancient civilizations of Indus, Mesopotamia, Iran and Egypt. A multi-disciplinary effort has resulted in a sharper understanding of the link between archaeology and language. South Asia is now
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recognized as a sprachbund (linguistic area). The region where artifacts of seals and tablets with Indus writing have been found had a language of meluhha (mleccha) speakers. The vocabulary of meluhha (mleccha) provides a basis for interpreting (decoding) the hieroglyphs used on Indus writing. Further researches are needed continuing thee multi-disciplinary efforts of archaeologists and linguists and relating the archaeological finds of artifacts of the bronze-age to the written records of Indus writing corpora. This monograph is an effort in this multidisciplinary effort, with particular reference to the clues provided by the presence of Indus writing in Susa and interaction area of Susa with the Persian Gulf settlements and Meluhha (Indus) settlements. The preliminary conclusions are that Indus writing was in Meluhha and related to the workshops, and metallurgical repertoire (minerals, metals, alloys, furnaces, forges) of bronze-age artisans, lapidaries, engravers, masons. The Indus writing was a step forward from tokens, tallies, and bullae. Indus writing used tablets and seals to record transactions in artisan guilds which were evolving corporate forms for controlling by documenting bronze-age industrial processes and inventory. The documentation was done by scribes: kaa kanka furnace account scribes. The hieroglyph to connote this phrase was rim-of-jar.

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Trefoil as an Indian hieroglyph: association with veneration of ancestors, sacredness Abstract Sacredness connoted by the temple-priest explains the occurrence of the trefoil glyph on the two bases discovered in Mohenjo-daro, for holding ivalinga. Veneration of pitr-s (ancestors) is an ancient Indian tradition. Use of trefoil glyph is seen in Egyptian hieroglyphs, in Uruk and in Indus artifacts. 1) Heifer with trefoil inlays, Uruk (W.16017) c. 3000 BCE; shell mass with inlays of lapis lazuli, 5.3 cm long. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin; cf. Parpola, 1994, p. 213. 2) Trefoil decorated bull; traces of red pigment remain inside the trefoils. Steatite statue fragment. Mohenjo-daro (Sd 767). After Ardeleanu-Jansen, 1989: 196, fig. 1; cf. Parpola, 1994, p. 213. Trefoils painted on steatite beads. Harappa (After Vats. Pl. CXXXIII, Fig. 2) 4)Trefoils Painted On Steatite Beads, Harappa. 5) Trefoil on the shawl of the priest. Mohenjodaro. The discovery of the King Priest acclaimed by Sir John Marshall as the finest piece of statuary that has been found at Moenjodaro.draped in an elaborate shawl with corded or rolled over edge, worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm. This shawl is decorated all over with a design of trefoils in relief interspersed occasionally with small circles, the interiors of which are filled with a red pigment . Gold fillet with standard device hieroglyph. Glyph hole: pottar, pottal, n. < id. [Ka.poare, Ma. pottu, Tu.potre.] trika, a group of three (Skt.) The occurrence of a three-fold depiction on a trefoil may thus be a phonetic determinant, a suffix to pot as in potka. Rebus reading of the hieroglyph: potti temple-priest (Ma.) potR `" urifier "' . of one of the 16 officiating priests at a sacrifice (the assistant of the Brahman), (Vedic). ptr1 *cleaning instrument ( the otr's soma vessel RV.). [p](CDIAL 8404) Trefoil as an Indian hieroglyph Thanks to Carlos Aramayo for the insights on links with Egyptian hieroglyphs. For a detailed discussion of Indian hieroglyphs from circa 3500 BCE, see: http://tinyurl.com/7rbcer2

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Hieroglyph (Greek for "sacred carving") or hieroglyphics ( []). Sacredness connoted by the temple-priest explains the occurrence of the trefoil glyph on the two bases discovered in Mohenjo-daro, for holding ivalinga. Veneration of pitr-s is an ancient Indian tradition. This is also paralleled in the Sit-Shamshi bronze from Susa on a Uruk statue and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Bronze arched sistrum (musical instrument) with Hathor head decoration. Egypt, Late Period, after 600 BC. From the British Museum online catalogue. This is a remarkable example of use of hieroglyphs to convey meaning of a human face with petals as ears of a cow ( athor or Bat associated with sistrum). The note presents the use of trefoil glyph in Egyptian hieroglyphs, in Uruk and in Indus artifacts. 1) Heifer with trefoil inlays, Uruk (W.16017) c. 3000 BCE; shell mass with inlays of lapis lazuli, 5.3 cm long. Museum, Berlin; cf. Parpola, 1994, p.

Vorderasiatisches 213.

2) Trefoil decorated bull; traces of red pigment remain inside the trefoils. Steatite statue fragment. Mohenjo-daro (Sd 767). After Ardeleanu-Jansen, 1989: 196, fig. 1; cf. Parpola, 1994, p. 213. Trefoils painted on steatite beads. Harappa (After Vats. Pl. CXXXIII, Fig. 2) Statue, Uruk (W.16017), C. 3000 BCE; Calfl With Trefoil Inlays. Trefoils Painted On Steatite Beads, Harappa. Steatite Statue Fragment; Trefoil-Decorated Bull; Remain Inside The

Mohenjodaro (Sd767); Traces Of Red Pigment Trefoils.

Trefoil on the shawl of the priest. Mohenjodaro. The discovery of the King Priest acclaimed by Sir John Marshall as the finest piece of statuary that has been found at Moenjodaro.draped in an elaborate shawl with corded or rolled over edge, worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm. This shawl is decorated all over with a design of trefoils in relief interspersed occasionally with small circles, the interiors of which are filled with a red pigment . Gold fillet with standard device
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hieroglyph.

Two bases decorated with trefoil and a lingam. Smoothed, polished pedestal of dark red stone. National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi. After Mackay 1938: 1,411; II, pl. 107:35; cf. Parpola, 1994, p. 218. Trefoil Inlay Karachi; After Mackay Decorated Base: National Museum Of Pakistan,

1938 (possibly associated with ivalinga). Cylinder (white shell) seal impression; Ur, Mesopotamia (IM 8028); white shell. height 1.7 cm., dia. 0.9 cm.; cf. Gadd, PBA 18 (1932), pp. 7-8, pl. I, no.7; Mitchell 1986: 280-1, no.8 and fig. 112; Parpola, 1994, p. 181; fish vertically in front of and horizontally above a unicorn; trefoil design. The burial coach in the form of a divine cow. The bed is made of wood, coated with gold, the disc of the sun between the lyre form the horns of the Divine Cow identifies the Goddess Hathor. Net weight is 75 Kg. Head of Hathor Cow of the Royal Couch Tut Ankh Amun Treasures c. 1341 BCE 1323 BCE. Prenomen : Nebkheperure Tutankhamen's funeral bed is made in the bovine form of the goddess Hathor with the solar disc between her horns. This is the bed on which Tutankhamen's coffin was layed. http://www.egyptmyway.com/images/photo/egmuseum/tutanchamon_hathorbed_b530.jpg

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Hathor and Psammetik: Psammetik, who deposited this statue in his tomb, was a high official with immortal; "overseer of seals","governor of the palace". He is placed here under the protection of the Hathor cow, goddess of love and joy. Polymer model: 11.5"H, polymer and hand finished Ajrak (Sindhi: )is a name given to a unique form of blockprinted shawls and tiles found in Sindh, Pakistan. Ajraks are also worn by the Seraiki people of Southern Punjab and Kutch. Trefoil in Arabia is called Shamrakh. That by the medieval period a vigorous trade in mordant-printed and resist-dyed cottons extended to the Red Sea and Egypt was confirmed by archaeological finds in those regions. Unfortunately, textile fragments discovered in the 1930s at Fustat, near modern Cairo in Egypt, were handled unscientifically. Considerable numbers of the fragments, including a substantial percentage of mordant-printed and indigo-dyed batik resist cotton fabrics from India, were widely dispersed among museums and private collections in the West with little information about their position in the dated layers of the Fustat excavations. http://www.minpaku.ac.jp/publication/newsletter/8_03.html#(6) Glyph of shawl, a gaudy dress for an idol; rebus: potti priest The glyphs decorating the shawl are trefoils, that is, three hollow circles. Read rebus, the shawl is potti. potti, pottika n. Same as. Doll's clothes, a gaudy dress for an idol or for a little girl. (Telugu) S. pot f. shawl Pk. potta -- , taga -- , tia -- n. cotton cloth , pott -- , ti -- , tullay -- , putt -- f. piece of cloth, man's dhot, woman's s , pottia -- wearing clothes (CDIAL 8400) ptramu a cloth (Telugu) pttu , n. < . 1. Hole, hollow (Tamil) buhi mala a bead with wide hole (Santali) peaa three (Santali) posta red thread employed to make borders of cloth ( antali) pta2 m. cloth , ptik -- f. lex. 2. *ptta -- 2 (sanskrit- ized as ptra -- 2 n. cloth lex.). 3. *pttha -- 2 ~ pavsta<-> n. covering (?) RV., rough hempen cloth AV. T. Chowdhury JBORS xvii 83. 4. pnt -- f. cloth Divyv. 5. *pcca -- 2 < *ptya -- ? (Cf. pty = ptn samha P.gaa. -- p ta -1?). [Relationship with prta -- n. woven cloth lex., plta -- bandage, cloth Sur. or with pavsta -- is obscure: EWA ii 347 with lit. Forms meaning cloth to smear with, smearing poss. conn. with or infl. by pusta -- 2 n. working in clay (prob. Drav., Tam. pcu &c. DED 3569, EWA ii 319)] 1. Pk. pa -- n. cloth ; a.ar. pwok cloth , pg net, web (but lau. dar. pwk cotton cloth , Gaw. pk IIFL iii 3, 150). 2. Pk. potta -- , taga -- , tia -- n. cotton cloth , pott -- , ti -- , tullay -- , putt -- f. piece of cloth, man's dhot, woman's s , pottia -- wearing clothes ; S. pot f. shawl , potyo m. loincloth ; L. pot, pl. t f. width of cloth ; P.
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pot m. child's clout , pot to smear a wall with a rag ; N. poto rag to lay on lime -- wash , potnu to smear ; Or. pot gunny bag ; OAw. pota smears, plasters ; H. pot m. whitewashing brush , pot f. red cotton , potiy m. loincloth , pot m. baby clothes ; G. potn. fine cloth, texture , pot n. rag , pot f., tiy n. loincloth , pot f. small do. ; M. pot m. roll of coarse cloth , n. weftage or texture of cloth , potr n. rag for smearing cowdung .3. Pa. potthaka -- n. cheap rough hemp cloth , potthakamma -- n. plastering ; Pk. pottha -- , aya -- n.m. cloth ; S. potho m. lump of rag for smearing, smearing, cloth soaked in opium . 4. Pa. ponti -- rags . 5. Wg. p cotton cloth, muslin , Kt. pu; Pr. pu duster, cloth , puk clothes ; S. poco m. rag for plastering, plastering ; P. pocc m. cloth or brush for smearing ,poc to smear with earth ; Or. pucara, pucur wisp of rag or jute for whitewashing with, smearing with such a rag . (CDIAL 8400) < id. n. 1. Praise, applause, commendation; Malabar; , 1.--int. Exclamation of praise; ( . ptti p i ,

. (W.) 2. Brahman temple-priest of . (W.) 3. See

. 13, 92) (Tamil) potR `" Purifier "'N. of one of the 16 (RV. Br. rS.

officiating priests at a sacrifice (the assistant of the Brahman), Hariv.)

trika, a group of three (Skt.) The occurrence of a three-fold depiction on a trefoil may thus be a phonetic determinant, a suffix to pot as in potka. Rebus reading of the hieroglyph: potti temple-priest (Ma.) id. n. 1. Praise, applause, commendation; Malabar; , 1.--int. Exclamation of praise; ( . ptti p i , <

. (W.) 2. Brahman temple-priest of . (W.) 3. See

. 13, 92) (Tamil) potR `" Purifier "'N. of one of the 16 +. ( .( . (W.) . . 171, ).
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officiating priests at a sacrifice (the assistant of the Brahman (RV. Br. rS. Hariv.) To praise, worship, adore; 3). . ... . 189.) p u, n. <

p a, n. prob. id. Grandfather;

p imai, n. < id. Honour, reverence; -. A system of watching; ( .

-+

p u-, 5 v. tr. 1. To praise,

applaud;

.(

.) .(

( .) 3. To protect, cherish, keep with great care; ( . . , 693) p unar

5, 60). 2. To worship; . , n. < (

-. 1. Relatives, kinsmen;

. 4, 52). 2. Those who understand; ( . 4, 55).

Rebus: Bi. pot jeweller's polishing stone ( DIA 840 ). [The dotted circle may denote a polished bead; hence, Pk. pott -- f. glass (CDIAL 8403).] Pk. pott -- f. glass ; S. pti f. glass bead , P. pot f.; N. pote long straight bar of jewelry ; B. pot glass bead , puti, ti small bead ; Or. puti necklace of small glass beads ; H. pot m. glass bead , G. M. pot f.; -exemes related to some glyphs and the use of red pigment: Pota [cp. Epic Sk. pota, see putta for etym.] the young of an animal J ii.406 (skara); Cp. i.102 (udda); nA 5 (sha). otaka ( -- ) [fr. pota1] 1. the young of an animal M i.104 (kukkua); J i.202 (supaa), 8 (hatthi); ii. 88 (assa colt); iii.174 (sakua); vA 5 (gaja). -- f. potik J i.207 (hasa); iv.188 (msika). -- 2. a small branch, offshoot, twig; in twig; in amba young mango sprout DhAiii.206 sq.; arai small firewood Miln 53. Sk. pota(ka) young animal and base pu -in pumas, pus "man"] Putta [Vedic putra, Idg. *putlo=Lat. pullus (*putslos) young of an animal, fr. pu, cp. Gr. pau=s, pai/s child, Lat. puer, pubes, Av. pupra, Lith. puttis (young animal or bird), Cymr. wyr grandchild; also Sk. pota(ka) young animal and base pu -- in pumas, pus "man"] (Pali) phe r a heifer (Santali) ptu male of animals (Telugu) A phonetic determinative of the trefoil motif. srj, nom. srk, gen. asn n. blood RV., asra -- n. Klid. 1. asn -- : Pr. us . 2. asr -- : a. lau. r, ku. el, dar. , ar. str.(CDIAL 971). Glyph hole: pottar, pottal, n. < id. [Ka.poare, Ma. pottu, Tu.potre.]

For designs on ancient cloth: cf. Pfister, R. 1938. Les Toiles Imprimes de Fostat et lHindoustan, aris : es Editions dArt et d istoire. Ritual bed in the shape of a cow with the sun disk between its horns, is identified with Mehitweret goddess of the flood and linked with the creation of the world. The decorated hide of these cows echoes the starry sky and the eyes are in the shape of the wedjat, the eye of the sky god Horus. The cow bed is also connected with the cycle of rebirth and resurrection Mehet-Weret was a goddess of afterlife. In the Old Kingdom, she was believed to have helped the pharaoh and Re reach the sky, by way of the Nile in the underworld.
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"I behold Ra who was born yesterday from the thighs of the goddess Mehet-Weret; his strength is my strength, and my strength is his strength." Who is this? "Mehet-Weret is the great Celestial Water, but others say that Mehet-Weret is the image of the Eye of Ra at dawn at his birth daily. "[Others, however, say that] Mehet-Weret is the Wedjat (Eye of Horus or Ra)." That Hathor is identified with Mehet-Weret is certain by references of the two as one in The Book of the Dead (Spell 186) where both are referred to as the wdjat (Wedjat, or "Eye of Horus"). However, this ancient cow goddess appears to have had no independent cult of her own, and was likely a conceptual figure of primeval creation; it is presumed that Hathor absorbed most of her sky attributes as early as the Old Kingdom, as exhibited by the many references of the two as identical in both the Pyramid and Coffin Texts. Source: Mehet-Weret, Celestial Cow, Goddess of Water, Creation and Rebirth by Caroline Seawright http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/mehetweret.htm

Viking, 10th century CE. Found at Roskilde, Denmark Female costume jewellery This trefoil (three-lobed) brooch is made of copper alloy. Each arm is decorated in Borre Style with a spreadeagled animal seen from above, its head in low, sunken relief facing in to the centre. A perforated lug on the back is for the attachment of a chain. Brooches of this type were used to fasten a cloak or shawl on the breast. The form is modelled on Carolingian trefoil fittings from sword-belts of the ninth century, presumably either seized by the Vikings in raids on the Continent, or perhaps obtained peacefully through trade or the exchange of gifts. The decoration, however, uses animal rather than plant motifs, a style with which the Vikings were familiar. Simpler versions appear to have been mass-produced.
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Length: 7.400 cm.Gift of Sir A.W. Franks. M&ME 1873,12-11,1 R.A. Smith, A guide to the Anglo-Saxon and (London, British Museum, 1923) http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_mla/t/trefoil_brooch.aspx Conclusion The trefoil is a hieroglyph read rebus. It connotes potr(i). Orthographically, it consists of pot hole + tr(i) three and hence depicted as three circles with holes combined into a shape of trefoil. pot young animal; hence, depiction of trefoil on the body of a young calf. pottia wearing cloth; hence, depiction of trefoil on the shawl shown over the shoulder and breast of the priest statuette. In a metallurgical context, pot jewellers polishing stone. ence, the depiction of dotted circles on many Indus writing corpora objects, for example, surrounding a fire-altar used for melting metals or heating crucibles. Rebus reading is: potri priest; poTri worship, venerate. anguage is Meluhha (Mleccha) an integral component of Indian sprachbund (linguistic area or language union). The trefoil is decoded and read as: potr(i).

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Annex A: Indus writing hieroglyphs

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Some Field Symbols (After Bryan K. Wells, 2011, Epigraphic Approaches to Indus Writing, Oxbow Books). Together with over 100 field symbols, Bryan Wells lists 958 signs of Indus Writing.

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