Geology

Lecture 2: The geological cycle & Plate Tectonics

3 types of rock: Igneous (Cooled down & crystallised from molten magma), Sedimentary (made from eroded fragments of other rocks) and metamorphic (those altered by heat or pressure) Rocks: Mixtures of minerals, variable properties Minerals; Compounds of elements, fixed properties. Rock properties largely depend on strength and stability of constituent minerals, interlocking or weakness of mineral structure, fractures, bedding and larger rock structures. Most rock-forming minerals are silicates compounds of oxygen, silicon and other elements. Rock properties can show extreme variations. It is useful to generalise in order to build an understanding of geology, but it must be accepted that rocks are not engineered materials and their properties do vary from site to site Rock Family Materials Origin Environment Rock Texture Rock Structure Rock Strength Major Types Igneous Crystallized from molten magma Underground, and as lava flows Mosaic of interlocking crystals Massive (Structureless) Uniform High Strength Granite, Basalt Sedimentary Erosional debris on earth surface Deposition Basins, Mainly Sea Mostly granular and cemented Layered, bedded, bedding planes Variable Low, Planar weakness Sandstone, Limestone, Clay Metamorphic Altered by heat/pressure Mostly deep inside mountain chains Mosaic of interlocking crystals Crystal orientation due to pressure Variable high, planar weakness Schist, Slate

Primary rock generation comes from the solidification of magma within the earth. Oceanic Crust 5 10 km mainly basalt & dolerite Continental Crust 20 80 km think, mainly granite and gneiss Magma from inside the earth may erupt and produce igneous rocks. Most igneous rocks form underground as horizontal and vertical intrusions (Sills & dykes) or as large bodies of magma in the magma chambers or simply underplating the crust. Erosion of the earth is on ongoing process and is counteracted by mountains building (plate tectonics) Erosion can be physical caused by the action of ice, water or wind Erosion can also be chemical Crystalline rocks are broken down into individual crystals which are rounded to form grains (most sand grains start as quartz crystals) or chemically altered to form other less resistant crystals (feldspar crystals are altered to clay minerals) Sediments are the transported, mixed with biological remains and deposited in sedimentary basins.

Compaction & crystal cement growth will turn these sediments to rocks (lithification) These sediments maybe metamorphosed or transformed by the action of heat & pressure Deep burial of rocks will result in strong metamorphisis with high pressures and temperatures. When continents collide, extreme pressures are created which can form new rocks and cause folding and fracturing regional metamorphism In this manner, rocks are in a constant state of recycling with few documenting early earth history and all metamorphosed. This process is driven by a process called PLATE TECTONICS Plates & Plate Movement: Lithosphere is the relatively brittle outer rock layer, consisting of the crust and upper mantle. It is broken into large slabs known as plates. Convection currents circulate within the mantle because it is heated from below and convection cells have horizontal movements across their tops. Plate tectonics are the relative movements of the plates as they are shifted by the underlying mantle flows. Each plate is relatively stable, but disturbances along the plate boundaries cause most geological processes. Divergent plate boundaries Constructive: make new oceanic plate due to volcanic activity as the plate pulls apart. Basaltic magma is produced as a silicate liquid separated from iron rich mineral solid in partially melted mantle. This produces numerous dykes and submarine volcanoes. Excess magma can create islands (Tonga). Can form rift valleys, ocean ridges which may terrestrialise e.g. Iceland & Mid Atlantic Ridge. Convergent plate boundaries Destructive: When plates collide o Continent Ocean Collision: Normal orogenic belt where Melting of subducted oceanic plate and crumpling and deformation of continental plate forming a mountain range with volcanoes. E.g. Andes o Ocean Ocean Collision; One plate gets subducted & destroyed, magma creates island arc volcanoes (Java) or a chain of volcanic islands are produced e.g. Tonga o Continent Continent Collision: Collision, with orogenic maximum where plates are welded together. No plate can get subducted so plates welded together and crumpled to form a mountain chain. E.g. Himalayas. o Highest mountains are the youngest, smaller mountains often represent the eroded cores of old mountains. Constructive/Conservative plate boundaries: Sideways movement only. Plates slide past each other resulting in earthquakes e.g. San Andreas Fault Geological Environments: The overall geological character of a region whether or not it has metamorphic rocks, active volcanoes and/or earth movements, whether the sedimentary rocks are folded or unfolded relates to the plate tectonic processes. These are the background to the ground conditions of concern to the engineer. Stable Environments: On pates, Old Rocks, No volcanoes and small or no earthquakes. Unstable Environments: On or near plate boundaries, Earthquake and/or volcanism, Rapid erosion rates, critical slope angles. OROGENISIS: o Involves all the main geological processes except basaltic volcanoes. o Strong folding, overfolds and nappes; weaker folds away from boundary.

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Faults & thrusts under compression, and major earthquakes when they move. Regional metamorphism developed by heat and pressure at depth. Partial melting of continental crust creates granite batholiths within cores of metamorphic belts. Melted oceanic basalt mixes with continental mineral to form viscous andesite and rhyolite magmas and explosive volcanoes. Mineralization by migrating fluids in hot active zones Uplift of orogenic mountain chains, consequent rapid erosion and sediment production Thick sedimentation in adjacent subsidence zones, turbidites extend into oceans.