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an1 x1
an2 x2
ann xn
bn
where
a11a12 a1n a21a22 a2n . . . , . . . . . an1an2 ann x1 x2 . , . . xn b1 b2 . . . bn
Substitution Although simultaneous linear equations may be expressed in several unknowns, we begin with the most simple, namely two simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns. Consider the equations below:
a11 x1 a21 x1 a12 x2 a22 x2 b1 b2 (B1) (B2)
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Appendix B
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Subtracting, we obtain
a11a22 x1 a12 a21x1 a22 b1 a12 b2
which gives
x1 a22 b1 a11a22 a12 b2 a12 a21
EXAMPLE B1
Use substitution to find the solutions for the following following linear equations: 2x1 x1 8x2 2x2 2 5
Now, substituting the above expression into the second equation, we have ( 1 4x2) 2x2 2x2 x2 5 6 3
Finally, we have x1 1 4 ( 3) 11
Determinants While substitution may be used for solving simultaneous linear equations in two variables, it is lengthy and particularly complicated when solving for more than two unknowns. An easier method used for solving simultaneous linear equations involves using determinants. We begin by expressing the simultaneous linear equations (B1) and (B2) as a product of matrices:
Column 1 a11 a12 x1 a21 a22 x2 Column 2 Column 3 b1 b2 (B3)
A determinant is a set of coefficients which has the same number of rows and columns and which may be expressed as a single value. The number of rows (or columns) defines the order of a determinant. The second-
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Appendix B
order determinant corresponding to the coefficients of the matrix equation (B3) consists of the elements in columns 1 and 2 and is expressed as
D a11a12 a21a22
The value of the second-order determinant is found by taking the product of the upper left term and the lower right term (elements of the principal diagonal) and then subtracting the product of the lower left term and the upper right term (elements of the secondary diagonal). The result is given as
D a11a22 a12 a21
The unknowns of the simultaneous linear equations are found by using a technique called Cramers rule. In applying this rule, we need to solve the following determinants:
x1 b1a12 b2 a22 a22 b1 a11a12 a11a22 a21a22 a12 b2 a21a12
and
x2 a11b1 a21b2 a11b2 a11a12 a11a22 a21a22 a21b1 a21a12
The application of Cramers rule gives the solution for each unknown by first placing the determinant of the coefficient matrix in the denominator. The numerator is then developed by using the same determinant with the exception that the coefficients of the variable to be found are replaced by the coefficients of the solution matrix. The resulting solutions are precisely those found when we used substitution.
EXAMPLE B2
equations:
Use determinants to find solutions for the following linear 2x1 x1 8x2 2x2 2 5
Solution
x1
11
Appendix B
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The solution of third-order simultaneous linear equations is similar to the method used for solving second-order equations. Consider the following third-order simultaneous linear equation:
a11x1 a21x1 a31x1 a12 x2 a22 x2 a32 x2 a13 x3 a23 x3 a33 x3 x1 x2 x3 b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3
The value of the third-order determinant may be found in one of several ways. The first method works for only third-order determinants, while the second method is a more general approach which evaluates any order of determinant.
Method I.
1. Begin by writing the original columns of the third-order determinant. 2. Copy the first two columns, placing them to the right of the original determinant. 3. Add the product of the elements of the principal diagonal to the products of the adjacent two parallel diagonals to the right of the principal diagonal. 4. Subtract the product of the elements of the secondary diagonal and also subtract the products of the elements along the two other parallel diagonals. add subtract
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a21 a22 a23 a31 a32 a33 a21 a22 a31 a32
EXAMPLE B3
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Appendix B
Solution
Now, adding the products of the principal diagonal and adjacent diagonals and subtracting the products of the secondary diagonal and adjacent diagonals, we have D (3)( 2)(2) (1)(3)(2) ( 2)(1)(3) (2)( 2)( 2) (3)(3)(3) (2)(1)(1) 49
METHOD II. This evaluation of determinants is achieved by expansion by minors. The minor of an element is the determinant which remains after deleting the row and the column in which the element lies. The value of any nth-order determinant is found as follows:
1. For any row or column, find the product of each element and the determinant of its minor. 2. A product is given a positive sign if the sum of the row and the column of the element is even. The product is given a negative sign if the sum is odd. 3. The value of the determinant is the sum of the resulting terms. As before, Cramers rule is used to solve for the unknowns, x1, x2, and x3, by using determinants and replacing the appropriate terms of the numerator with the terms of the solution matrix. The resulting determinants and solutions are given as follows:
b1 a12 a13 b2 a22 a23 b3 a32 a33 a11 a12 a13 a21 a22 a23 a31 a32 a33
x1
a31(a12 a23
a13 a22)
b1(a22 a33
Appendix B
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x2
a23 a31)
b2 (a11a33 D
a13 a31)
b3 (a11a23
a13 a21)
x3
b2(a11a32 D
a12 a31)
b3 (a11a22
a12 a21)
EXAMPLE B4
using minors.
Solve for x1 in the following system of linear equations 3x1 x1 2x1 x2 2x2 3x2 2x3 3x3 2x3 1 11 3
(1) (2
1 3 6)
2 2
(2) (2) (3
1 2 4)
2 3
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Appendix B
x1
2 2
( 3)
1 2 4)
2 3
( 4 2
49 (11)(2 6) 49
(3)(3
PRACTICE PROBLEM