Exposure to Low Level of Arsenic and Lead in Drinking Water from Antofagasta City Induces Gender Differences in Glucose

Homeostasis in Rats Javier Palacios, Domingo Roman & Fredi Cifuentes

Biological Trace Element Research ISSN 0163-4984 Biol Trace Elem Res DOI 10.1007/s12011-012-9355-3

1 23

Your article is protected by copyright and all rights are held exclusively by Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. This e-offprint is for personal use only and shall not be selfarchived in electronic repositories. If you wish to self-archive your work, please use the accepted authors version for posting to your own website or your institutions repository. You may further deposit the accepted authors version on a funders repository at a funders request, provided it is not made publicly available until 12 months after publication.

1 23

Author's personal copy

Biol Trace Elem Res DOI 10.1007/s12011-012-9355-3

Exposure to Low Level of Arsenic and Lead in Drinking Water from Antofagasta City Induces Gender Differences in Glucose Homeostasis in Rats
Javier Palacios & Domingo Roman & Fredi Cifuentes

Received: 8 December 2011 / Accepted: 2 February 2012 # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012

Abstract Populations chronically exposed to arsenic in drinking water often have increased prevalence of diabetes mellitus. The purpose of this study was to compare the glucose homeostasis of male and female rats exposed to low levels of heavy metals in drinking water. Treated groups were SpragueDawley male and female rats exposed to drinking water from Antofagasta city, with total arsenic of 30 ppb and lead of 53 ppb for 3 months; control groups were exposed to purified water by reverse osmosis. The two treated groups in both males and females showed arsenic and lead in the hair of rats. The -aminolevulinic acid dehydratase was used as a sensitive biomarker of arsenic toxicity and lead. The activity of -aminolevulinic acid dehydratase was reduced only in treated male rats, compared to the control group. Treated males showed a significantly sustained increase in blood glucose and plasma insulin levels during oral glucose tolerance test compared to control group. The oral glucose tolerance test and the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance demonstrated that male rats were insulin resistant, and females remained sensitive to insulin after treatment. The
J. Palacios (*) Departamento de Qumica, Universidad Catlica del Norte, Angamos 0610, Antofagasta, Chile e-mail: jpalacios@ucn.cl D. Roman Laboratorio de Qumica Bio-Inorgnica y Analtica Ambiental, Departamento de Qumica, Universidad de Antofagasta, Angamos 601, Antofagasta, Chile F. Cifuentes Experimental Physiology Laboratory (EPhyL), Departamento Biomdico, Universidad de Antofagasta, Angamos 601, Antofagasta, Chile

total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol increased in treated male rats vs. the control, and triglyceride increased in treated female rats vs. the control. The activity of intestinal Na+/glucose cotransporter in male rats increased compared to female rats, suggesting a significant increase in intestinal glucose absorption. The findings indicate that exposure to low levels of arsenic and lead in drinking water could cause gender differences in insulin resistance. Keywords Gender differences . Arsenic . Lead . Drinking water . Insulin resistance . Rat

Introduction The prevalence of diabetes mellitus is increasing in Chilean population, similar to the USA, Canada, Argentina, and Uruguay [1]. The association between chronic exposure to inorganic arsenic at high levels (>100 ppb) and diabetes mellitus was confirmed by several epidemiological studies in Taiwan, Bangladesh, and Mexico [24]. The low-level lead exposure is associated with hypertension, cognitive dysfunction, neurobehavioral disorders, and renal impairment [5], but not with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Chronic arsenic exposure via drinking water has been reported in population of Antofagasta (latitude 23 38 S, longitude 70 24 W). Since September 2004, the total arsenic level in drinking water from Antofagasta City has approximately 40 [6] and 20 ppb [7]. The World Health Organization set 10 ppb as the recommended limit for arsenic in drinking water [8]. Unfortunately, there are no studies that show the toxic effects of lead in drinking water from Antofagasta city, only a few studies on the toxic effect of lead in salt rivers and in soil [9, 10].

Author's personal copy

Palacios et al.

Arsenic exposure can potentially induce type 2 diabetes mellitus by: homeostasis alteration of glucose, inhibition of glucose uptake by adipocytes and skeletal muscle [11, 12], or interference with the glucose metabolism in the liver [13, 14]. Other mechanisms that could be involved in glucose homeostasis are the Na+/glucose cotransporter and the activity of incretin in the small intestine. It is known that the Na+/glucose cotransporter activity is increased by diabetes mellitus and is regulated by insulin [15], but there are few studies on the effect of heavy metals on Na+/glucose cotransporter. Because Na+/glucose cotransporter (SGLT1; SLC5A1) is the primary glucose transporter involved in intestinal absorption of mammals [16], we studied this in rats. This cotransporter is located in the apical membrane of small intestinal brush, which has a 2:1 stoichiometry (sodium/ glucose; Km01050 M), and is inhibited by phloridzin, Ki0510 M [17]. The purpose of this study was to compare the insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis of male and female rats exposed to low levels of arsenic and lead in drinking water.

purified water by reverse osmosis (3 ppb As and <2 ppb Pb) for 3 months. All groups drank water from the time of weaning. Determination of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water The heavy metal level in drinking water from Antofagasta city was determined by hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry (HGAAS). The analytical precision (relative standard deviation), determined by quality assurance and quality control procedures, using duplicates, blanks, internal standards, and reference materials, was better than +10%. Determination of Arsenic and Lead in the Hair of Rats Total arsenic and lead levels in the hair of rats were determined by HGAAS, and then, the samples were mineralized according to a two-step procedure [18]. Multiple standard addition methodology was used for HGAAS determination, and the standard reference materials GBW07601 (GSH1, human hair) from the Institute of Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration, Langfang, approved by the State Bureau of Technical Supervision of the Peoples Republic of China were used to validate the total arsenic analysis. Sample mineralization was carried out in Teflon reactor bombs heated in a homemade refractory oven with an internal temperature sensor and external control. About 0.5 1.0 g of sample was attacked in the Teflon reactor bomb with 10 mL of concentrated HNO3. Samples were predigested overnight at room temperature and the reactor bombs heated to 150C for 2 h in the refractory oven. The digested subsample was diluted to 25 mL with 0.5 M HCl, and the heavy metals were determined by HGAAS. HGAAS measurements were done on GBC 909 PBT equipment coupled with a GBC HG-3000 hydride generator coupled with an electrothermal mantle GBC EHG-3000 (Australia) to determine total arsenic and lead content. One arsenic and lead hollow-cathode boosted discharge lamp from Photron (Australia) was used. Biochemical Analyses Serum triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol, and glucose were measured with a Hitachi 704 Chemistry Analyzer (Roche-Hitachi, Basel, Swiss); plasma insulin was determined by radioimmunoassay (Sensitive Rat Insulin RIA Kit, Linco Research, St. Charles, MO). The animals were fasted for 12 h prior to the blood draw. Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) was used to estimate insulin resitance [19]. The HOMA-IR was calculated as fasting glucose millimoles perliter fasting insulinmicro international units per milliliter=22:5.

Materials and Methods Drugs The following drugs were used in this study: thiopental sodium (Sigma, St. Louis, MO), -aminolevulinic acid (Merck, Germany), HgCl2 (Merck, Germany), 4-(dimethylamino) benzaldehyde (Merck, Germany), sodium arsenite (Merck, Germany), and phloridzin (Sigma, USA). The drugs were dissolved in distilled deionized water. Animals SpragueDawley rats, male and female (1516 weeks of age, 300450 g), from the breeding colony at the Antofagasta University were used. All rats were housed in groups of two or three in a temperature-controlled, lightcycled (08002000 hours) room with ad libitum access to drinking water and standard rat chow (Champion, Santiago). The investigation conformed to the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH Publication No. 8523, revised 1996), and the local animal research committee approved the experimental procedure used in the present study. Male and female rats were randomized into four groups (six to ten animals each): treated male rats, control male rats, treated female rats, and control female rats. Treated groups drank drinking water from Antofagasta city (30 ppb As and 53 ppb Pb), or control groups drank

Author's personal copy

Heavy Metals Induce Gender Differences on Glucose Homeostasis

The Oral Glucose Tolerance Test and Plasma Insulin Animals were fasted 12 h prior to administration of the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Samples of whole blood were collected from a lateral tail incision in male and female rats slightly anesthetized (dose of 20 mg/kg body weight with thiopental), as recommended by some authors [20, 21]. A level of glucose (2 g/kg body weight) via oral was used as previously described [12]. Glycemia was measured in the tail of rats every 15 min and for 90 min using OneTouch Ultra Blood Glucose System; in the same blood sample was also determined plasma insulin level by RIA. Blood -Aminolevulinic Acid Dehydratase The -aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D) activity of erythrocyte is a sensitive biomarker for arsenic and lead toxicity [22, 23]. The method is based on the conversion of -aminolevulinic acid by the enzyme to porphobilinogen. The activity of blood ALA-D was assayed according to Berlin and Schaller procedure [24]. Total volume of 0.2 mL of heparinized blood was mixed with 1.3 mL of distilled water and incubated for 10 min at 37C until complete hemolysis. The standard -aminolevulinic acid (0.01 M; 1 mL) was added to the samples, and then, the tubes were incubated for 60 min at 37C. Porphobilinogen formation is linear for at least 2 h at 37C. The enzyme activity was stopped after 1 h by adding 1 mL of HgCl2 (1.35 g per 100 mL of 10% trichloroacetic acid). The reaction mixture was centrifuged (3,000 rpm 10 min). An equal volume of Ehrlich reagent was added to the supernatant, and the absorbance was recorded at 555 nm after 5 min. The ALA-D activity was calculated by absorbance and hematocrit according to this relationship: ALA D activity Abs 100 2 35=Ht 60 0:062; where 20 conversion factor from -aminolevulinic acid to porphobilinogen, 350dilution factor, 60 min0incubation time, and 0.062 L mol 1 cm 1 is the extinction coefficient of porphobilinogen. Activity of Intestinal Na+/Glucose Cotransporter (SGLT1; SLC5A1) The rats were anesthetized by intraperitoneal administration of thiopental at a dose of 60 mg/kg body weight followed by a midline laparotomy. Briefly, the protocol used was from Diez et al. [25]. A segment of about 20 cm of proximal duodenum was perfused using two catheters. The intestinal content was washed out with physiological solution at 37C. After a period of equilibrium (10 min), a bolus of 1 g glucose in 1.5 ml 0.9% NaCl was infused within 1 min. Cotransporter SGLT1 activity was calculated as the difference between the concentration of glucose eluated, in the

presence or absence of 0.5 mM phloridzin (a specific competitive inhibitor of SGLT1), regarding the length of the segment of the small intestine and 10 min of absorption. Statistical Analysis All results were evaluated by ANOVA with Dunnett test to detect significant differences. Area under the curve (AUC) glucose and insulin values were calculated using the trapezoidal rule. All data are expressed as the meansstandard error of the mean, and p<0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results Determination of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water Chemical analyses of heavy metals from drinking water in Antofagasta city determined that the main toxic heavy metals present were arsenic (30 ppb) and lead (53 ppb). The rest of the heavy metals showed the following levels (in parts per billion or micrograms per liter): selenium (<5), cadmium (<5), mercury (<1), manganese (<10), copper (<10), and chromium (<0.01). Arsenic and Lead in the Hair of Rats To test the exposure of rats to arsenic and lead, we measured the levels of these heavy metals in the hair of rats. In the treated groups, the level of total arsenic detected in male rats was 0.5800.030 g/g dry hair, and in the female rats was 0.6500.080 g/g dry hair. In the same treated groups, the level of lead detected in male rats was 6.650.29 g/g dry hair, and in the female rats was 6.40.30 g/g dry hair. Arsenic and lead were undetectable in the control groups. Arsenic and Lead Toxicity in the Erythrocytes of Rats As shown in Fig. 1, there was a significant reduction in ALA-D activity of treated male rats (5.00.1 U/I) compared to control (6.90.5 U/I; p<0.01), while no significant reduction in the ALA-D activity was found in the treated female rats (6.11.3 U/I) compared to the control (6.10.8 U/I). Fasting Values of Glucose and Insulin Plasma As shown Table 1, the control male rats had greater levels of fasting glucose and lower fasting insulin level than treated male rats. The HOMA-IR showed that the values in the treated male rats (0.89 0.09) were significantly higher than the control group (0.560.08; p<0.01) than

Author's personal copy

Palacios et al.

Fig. 1 Effect of drinking water from Antofagasta city on ALA-D activity in erythrocytes. The ALA-D activity in erythrocytes of control (open bars) and treated (black bars) animals. Results are means standard error of the mean. **p<0.01 vs. the control

the treated female rats (0.540.03; p<0.01). This indicates that the treatment caused insulin resistance only in the male rats. Oral Glucose Tolerance Test To determine the effect of drinking water on glucose tolerance in rats, OGTT was performed in control and treated groups (Fig. 2). The OGTT curve profile was different in the female rats than in the males. For example in the female rats, the maximum value of plasma glucose was at 45 min, and in males was from 30 to 60 min. The slope of the curve of blood glucose (in OGTT), during the first 30 min, was significantly higher in the treated male rats than in females (7.30.6 mg glucosedL1 min1 male versus 4.90.4 mg glucosedL1 min1 female; p<0.01). Drinking water exposure significantly increased AUC of OGTT, both in the male rats (12,260881 mgdL1 min1
Table 1 Levels of blood glucose and plasma insulin in fasted rats after 3 months exposure Glucose (mM) Control female Treated female Control male Treated male 5.40.5 3.90.3** 5.80.1 5.30.4 Insulin (IU/mL) 2.750.37 3.140.21 2.260.29 3.820.34** HOMA-IR 0.730.09 0.540.03** 0.560.08 0.890.09**

Fig. 2 Oral glucose tolerance test in male and female rats. The rats were challenged with glucose (2 g/kg) via oral gavage, and blood samples were obtained from the tail vein. The control groups (male and female) and treated groups (male T and female T) were exposed to purified water and drinking water for 3 months, respectively. Values are expressed as meanstandard error of the mean. *p<0.05 and **p<0.01 vs. males control; &p<0.05 and &&p<0.01 vs. females control

control group versus 17,0981,323 mgdL1 min1 treated group; p<0.05) and female rats (11,317746 mgdL1 min1 control group versus 15,309485 mgdL1 min1 treated group; p<0.05). Insulin levels were also determined in the blood samples from treated groups and control groups during OGTT. As shown Fig. 3, the male rats were more resistant to insulin than the female rats, and these continued to be more sensitive to insulin after treatment. The drinking water caused a

Control rats drank purified water and treated rats, drinking water. Homeostasis model assesment of insulin (HOMA-IR) was calculated as Glucose millimolar Insulin micro international units per mililiter=22:5 . Values are expressed as meanstandard error of the mean **p<0.01 vs. the control

Fig. 3 Level of plasma insulin during an oral glucose tolerance test. Plasma insulin level was determined in control groups (male and female) and treated groups (male T and female T). Values are expressed as meanstandard error of the mean. **p<0.01 and ***p<0.001 vs. the male control

Author's personal copy

Heavy Metals Induce Gender Differences on Glucose Homeostasis

significant gender difference in the insulin AUC. The insulin AUC was significantly higher in the treated male rats (80.3 ngmL1 min1 control group versus 231.4 ng mL1 min1 treated group; p<0.05) than in the treated female rats (110.4 ngmL1 min1 control group versus 14 3.6 ngmL1 min1 treated group). We observed similar results in 3-month-old male rats exposed to arsenic 30 ppb sodium arsenite in purified water (Fig. 4), and no differences were found in female rats (data no shown). Plasmatic Levels of Lipids Drinking water treatment increased significantly levels of total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in male rats (Table 2). The triglyceride level was higher in the treated female rats than in males compared to the controls. The Activity of Intestinal SGLT1 The results showed that in treated male rats, the activity of intestinal SGLT1 was significantly increased (6.83 0.28 moles/cm min1) versus the control group (4.40 0.42 moles/cm min1; p < 0.001), and no differences were observed in the treated female rats (6.86 0.78 moles/cm min1) versus the control group (6.05 0.87 moles/cm min1; Fig. 5).

Table 2 Level of lipids in serum of fasted rats after 3 months exposure Tryglycerides Total LDL HDL (mg/dL) cholesterol cholesterol cholesterol (mg/dL) (mg/dL) (mg/dL) Control female Treated female Control male Treated male 429 757* 671 725 705 865 819 1136* 391 569 400 653** 233 295 211 253

Control rats drank purified water and treated rats, drinking water. Values are expressed as meanstandard error of the mean. *p<0.05; **p<0.01 vs. the control

Discussion It is known that high levels of inorganic arsenic in drinking water are associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes [24, 26], but other authors disagree

with this statement [27]. Moreover, it is unclear whether exposure to lead contributes to the disease of diabetes [28, 29]. The main toxic heavy metals present in drinking water from Antofagasta city were arsenic (30 ppb) and lead (53 ppb). After 3 months of treatment, we found that arsenic and lead accumulated in the hair of rats, and there were no significant gender differences. The presence of arsenic or lead in the hair of rats would primarily indicate that animals were exposed to these heavy metals. Indeed, arsenic and lead in the hair of the rat is directly correlated to arsenic in drinking water [30, 31]. Because the levels of arsenic and lead in hair of the rats are not biologically available (the hair is considered an excretory pathway), it is necessary to analyze the biological effects in the organism of rat [32]. To analyze the biological effects of arsenic and lead in the rat, we used ALA-D enzyme activity (in erythrocytes) as a sensitive biomarker [23]. There was a significant reduction in ALA-D activity of the treated male rats compared to the

Fig. 4 Oral glucose tolerance test in male rats treated with 30 ppb sodium arsenite in the purified water for 3 months. Values are expressed as meanstandard error of the mean. *p<0.05 and **p<0.01 vs. the control

Fig. 5 Effect of drinking water on the activity of intestinal SGLT1 in male and female rats. SGLT1 activity was measured under control conditions (open bars) or in the presence of treatment (black bars). Male and female rats drank tap water for 3 months. Values are expressed as meanstandard error of the mean. ***p<0.001 vs. the control

Author's personal copy

Palacios et al.

control group, whereas there were no significant differences in ALA-D activity of the female rats. These data suggest that the toxic effect was mainly in the male rats than in the females. It has been proposed that men may be more affected by the toxic effects of arsenic than women [33]. This hypothesis is supported by the methylation of inorganic arsenic which is considered a detoxification pathway [34]. Actually, women have a greater proportion of methylated metabolites of arsenic compared to men, which would decrease arsenic toxicity in the body [35, 36]. However, the theory of the methylation of inorganic arsenic as a detoxification process has been revised [37]; in fact, it was demonstrated that other trivalent methylated species have high toxicity [38]. Therefore, further investigation is required to get a deeper knowledge of detoxification mechanisms in gender differences. An important finding was that exposure to drinking water from Antofagasta city caused gender differences in glucose homeostasis. Indeed, in the treated groups only the male rats were insulin resistant, as indicated by measurements of glucose and insulin levels in blood during OGTT. The male rats showed a significantly sustained increase in blood glucose and plasma insulin levels during OGTT compared to the control group. In addition, HOMA-IR confirmed that insulin resistance was presented only in the male rats. In contrast to insulin resistance observed above, the treated female rats were more sensitive to insulin during OGTT. The lipid profile was associated with insulin resistance in male rats. In fact, total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol increased in the treated males vs. the control rats, while glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity decreased. These results suggest that lipid intake or lipogenesis exceeds the storage capacity of the tissues, leading to glucose intolerance and insulin resistance in the treated male rats. However, in the treated female rats, triglyceride level increased, and glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity did not change. This is consistent with improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in the female rats under excessive lipid metabolism compared with the male rats [39]. Another gender difference between the two groups after treatment was in the intestinal absorption of glucose. The activity of intestinal SGLT1 in the male rats increased compared with the females. In addition, the slope of the curve of glycemia during the first 30 min of OGTT was significantly higher in the treated male rats vs. the treated females. Therefore, the increase in intestinal glucose absorption may be another factor that enhances the postprandial blood glucose level in treated male rats. It is known that intestinal SGLT1 activity is inhibited by insulin in normal rats [15]. However, Fujica et al. showed that an increase in intestinal glucose absorption by SGLT1 cotransporter is associated with postprandial hyperglycemia before the onset of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia in obese

type 2 diabetic rats [40, 41]. Actually, we may hypothesize that intestinal SGLT1 activity was not inhibited by the high level of plasma insulin observed in the treated groups during OGTT. In fact, preincubation with insulin in a segment of intestine did not inhibit the SGLT1 activity in the treated male rats compared to the control group (data not shown). Although the purpose of this paper was not to examine whether insulin resistance was due to arsenic or lead, or both, we repeated OGTT in the male rats treated with 30 ppb sodium arsenite in purified water. The data indicated that arsenic (sodium arsenite) produced insulin resistance but less than in male rats exposed to drinking water. IzquierdoVega showed that exposure to 1.7 ppm sodium arsenite produced insulin resistance in the male rats [42]; Paul et al. found that 50 ppm sodium arsenite caused insulin resistance in mice [43]; glucose metabolism is altered by exposure to 50 ppb sodium arsenite in drinking water in mice [44]. Lin et al. showed that exposure to low levels of lead accelerates progressive renal insufficiency in patients with chronic renal disease (without diabetes) [28]. We think the lead could enhance resistance to insulin, but more experiments are required to fully understand this point. In conclusion, exposure to low level of arsenic and lead in drinking water of Antofagasta city alters the sensitivity to insulin in a gender-dependent way. The role of intestinal SGLT1 activity in the insulin resistance of male rats is relevant probably because it contributes to the increase of intestinal glucose absorption [45].
Acknowledgments We would like to thank Blanca Alvarez Carvajal from Laboratorio Clnico Hormonal RadioLab, Laboratorio Clnico Blanco for the technical assistance in this study. This work was in part supported by grants from Fondo Interno de Investigacin Cientfica de la Universidad Catlica del Norte (DGIP 220203-10301206) and Direccin General de Investigacin (DIRINV 1339-2007) de la Universidad de Antofagasta.

References
1. Carrasco EP, Perez FB, Angel BB, Albala CB, Santos JL, Larenas GY, Montalvo DV (2004) Prevalence of type 2 diabetes and obesity in two Chilean aboriginal populations living in urban zones. Rev Med Chil 132(10):11891197 2. Rahman M, Tondel M, Ahmad SA, Axelson O (1998) Diabetes mellitus associated with arsenic exposure in Bangladesh. Am J Epidemiol 148(2):198203 3. Coronado-Gonzalez JA, Del Razo LM, Garcia-Vargas G, Sanmiguel-Salazar F, Escobedo-de la Pena J (2007) Inorganic arsenic exposure and type 2 diabetes mellitus in Mexico. Environ Res 104(3):383389 4. Lai MS, Hsueh YM, Chen CJ, Shyu MP, Chen SY, Kuo TL, Wu MM, Tai TY (1994) Ingested inorganic arsenic and prevalence of diabetes mellitus. Am J Epidemiol 139(5):484492 5. Patrick L (2006) Lead toxicity, a review of the literature. Part 1: exposure, evaluation, and treatment. Altern Med Rev 11(1):222

Author's personal copy

Heavy Metals Induce Gender Differences on Glucose Homeostasis 6. Palacios J, Cifuentes F, Stegen S (2007) Chronic ingestion of arsenic (< 40 mu M) in tap water impairs vascular endothelium response in aorta of female rats. Clin Exp Hypertens 29(2):9898 7. Cifuentes F, Bravo J, Norambuena M, Stegen S, Ayavire A, Palacios J (2009) Chronic exposure to arsenic in tap water reduces acetylcholineinduced relaxation in the aorta and increases oxidative stress in female rats. Int J Toxicol 28(6):534541 8. WHO (2004) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. World Health Organization, Geneva 9. Sepulveda V, Vega J, Delgado I (2000) Severe exposure to environmental lead in a child population in Antofagasta, Chile. Rev Med Chil 128(2):221232 10. Queirolo F, Stegen S, Mondaca J, Cortes R, Rojas R, Contreras C, Munoz L, Schwuger MJ, Ostapczuk P (2000) Total arsenic, lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc in some salt rivers in the northern Andes of Antofagasta, Chile. Sci Total Environ 255(13):8595 11. Walton FS, Harmon AW, Paul DS, Drobna Z, Patel YM, Styblo M (2004) Inhibition of insulin-dependent glucose uptake by trivalent arsenicals: possible mechanism of arsenic-induced diabetes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 198(3):424433 12. Paul DS, Walton FS, Saunders RJ, Styblo M (2011) Characterization of the impaired glucose homeostasis produced in C57BL/6 mice by chronic exposure to arsenic and high-fat diet. Environ Health Perspect 119(8):11041109 13. Drobna Z, Walton FS, Paul DS, Xing W, Thomas DJ, Styblo M (2011) Metabolism of arsenic in human liver: the role of membrane transporters. Arch Toxicol 84(1):316 14. Boquist L, Boquist S, Ericsson I (1988) Structural beta-cell changes and transient hyperglycemia in mice treated with compounds inducing inhibited citric acid cycle enzyme activity. Diabetes 37(1):8998 15. Fujii Y, Kaizuka M, Hashida F, Maruo J, Sato E, Yasuda H, Kurokawa T, Ishibashi S (1991) Insulin regulates Na+/glucose cotransporter activity in rat small intestine. Biochim Biophys Acta 1063(1):9094 16. Ferraris RP, Diamond J (1997) Regulation of intestinal sugar transport. Physiol Rev 77(1):257302 17. Khan JM, Wingertzahn MA, Teichberg S, Vancurova I, Harper RG, Wapnir RA (2000) Development of the intestinal SGLT1 transporter in rats. Mol Genet Metab 69(3):233239 18. Welz B, Melcher M (1985) Decomposition of marine biological tissues for determination of arsenic, selenium, and mercury using hydride-generation and cold-vapor atomic absorption spectrometries. Anal Chem 57(2):427431 19. Pickavance LC, Wilding JP (2007) Effects of S 15511, a therapeutic metabolite of the insulin-sensitizing agent S 15261, in the Zucker Diabetic Fatty rat. Diabetes Obes Metab 9(1):114120 20. Cardoso AR, Carvalho CR, Velloso LA, Brenelli SL, Saad MJ, Carvalheira JB (2005) Effect of thiopental, pentobarbital and diethyl ether on early steps of insulin action in liver and muscle of the intact rat. Life Sci 76(20):22872297 21. Diehl KH, Hull R, Morton D, Pfister R, Rabemampianina Y, Smith D, Vidal JM, van de Vorstenbosch C (2001) A good practice guide to the administration of substances and removal of blood, including routes and volumes. J Appl Toxicol 21(1):1523 22. Warren MJ, Cooper JB, Wood SP, Shoolingin-Jordan PM (1998) Lead poisoning, haem synthesis and 5-aminolaevulinic acid dehydratase. Trends Biochem Sci 23(6):217221 23. Mittal M, Flora SJ (2006) Effects of individual and combined exposure to sodium arsenite and sodium fluoride on tissue oxidative stress, arsenic and fluoride levels in male mice. Chem Biol Interact 162(2):128139 24. Berlin A, Schaller KH (1974) European standardized method for the determination of delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase activity in blood. Z Klin Chem Klin Biochem 12(8):389390 25. Diez N, Barber A, Ponz F (1992) Role of -SH groups in rat sugar intestinal transport in vivo. Rev Esp Fisiol 48(2):127132 26. Kim Y, Lee BK (2011) Association between urinary arsenic and diabetes mellitus in the Korean general population according to KNHANES 2008. Sci Total Environ 409(19):4054 4062 27. Steinmaus C, Yuan Y, Liaw J, Smith AH (2009) Low-level population exposure to inorganic arsenic in the United States and diabetes mellitus: a reanalysis. Epidemiology 20(6):807815 28. Lin JL, Lin-Tan DT, Hsu KH, Yu CC (2003) Environmental lead exposure and progression of chronic renal diseases in patients without diabetes. N Engl J Med 348(4):277286 29. Tsaih SW, Korrick S, Schwartz J, Amarasiriwardena C, Aro A, Sparrow D, Hu H (2004) Lead, diabetes, hypertension, and renal function: the normative aging study. Environ Health Perspect 112 (11):11781182 30. Chen CJ, Hsu LI, Wang CH, Shih WL, Hsu YH, Tseng MP, Lin YC, Chou WL, Chen CY, Lee CY, Wang LH, Cheng YC, Chen CL, Chen SY, Wang YH, Hsueh YM, Chiou HY, Wu MM (2005) Biomarkers of exposure, effect, and susceptibility of arsenicinduced health hazards in Taiwan. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 206 (2):198206 31. Lesage FX, Deschamps F, Millart H (2010) Lead levels in fur of rats treated with inorganic lead measured by inductively coupled argon plasma mass spectrometry. Interdiscip Toxicol 3(4):118121 32. Subcommittee on Arsenic in Drinking Water NRC (1999) Arsenic in drinking water. The National Academies, Washington, DC 33. Vahter M, Akesson A, Liden C, Ceccatelli S, Berglund M (2007) Gender differences in the disposition and toxicity of metals. Environ Res 104(1):8595 34. Vahter M, Concha G (2001) Role of metabolism in arsenic toxicity. Pharmacol Toxicol 89(1):15 35. Hopenhayn C, Huang B, Christian J, Peralta C, Ferreccio C, Atallah R, Kalman D (2003) Profile of urinary arsenic metabolites during pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect 111(16):18881891 36. Lindberg AL, Ekstrom EC, Nermell B, Rahman M, Lonnerdal B, Persson LA, Vahter M (2008) Gender and age differences in the metabolism of inorganic arsenic in a highly exposed population in Bangladesh. Environ Res 106(1):110120 37. Kitchin KT (2001) Recent advances in arsenic carcinogenesis: modes of action, animal model systems, and methylated arsenic metabolites. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 172(3):249261 38. Dopp E, von Recklinghausen U, Diaz-Bone R, Hirner AV, Rettenmeier AW (2011) Cellular uptake, subcellular distribution and toxicity of arsenic compounds in methylating and non-methylating cells. Environ Res 110(5):435442 39. Hevener A, Reichart D, Janez A, Olefsky J (2002) Female rats do not exhibit free fatty acid-induced insulin resistance. Diabetes 51 (6):19071912 40. Fujita Y, Kojima H, Hidaka H, Fujimiya M, Kashiwagi A, Kikkawa R (1998) Increased intestinal glucose absorption and postprandial hyperglycaemia at the early step of glucose intolerance in Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rats. Diabetologia 41(12):14591466 41. Dyer J, Wood IS, Palejwala A, Ellis A, Shirazi-Beechey SP (2002) Expression of monosaccharide transporters in intestine of diabetic humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 282(2):G241 G248 42. Izquierdo-Vega JA, Soto CA, Sanchez-Pena LC, De Vizcaya-Ruiz A, Del Razo LM (2006) Diabetogenic effects and pancreatic oxidative damage in rats subchronically exposed to arsenite. Toxicol Lett 160(2):135142 43. Paul DS, Devesa V, Hernandez-Zavala A, Adair BM, Walton FS, Drobna Z, Thomas DJ, Styblo M (2008) Environmental arsenic as a disruptor of insulin signaling. Met Ions Biol Med 10:17

Author's personal copy

Palacios et al. 44. Pysher MD, Sollome JJ, Regan S, Cardinal TR, Hoying JB, Brooks HL, Vaillancourt RR (2007) Increased hexokinase II expression in the renal glomerulus of mice in response to arsenic. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 224(1):3948 45. Moriya R, Shirakura T, Ito J, Mashiko S, Seo T (2009) Activation of sodium-glucose cotransporter 1 ameliorates hyperglycemia by mediating incretin secretion in mice. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 297(6):E1358E1365