Musiclech: TEN MINUTE MASTERS pam a cu TN pee LU UNCLES Ts) pe UPC aU MUR Cay peso RUN I" Dee UT10 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Analogue synthesis. | Arranging rhythm 5 Audio analysis 9 Burning audio CDs 13 Cabling 18 Compression types 25 Compressing audio 27 Compression 52 Copyright 36 Delay 40 Digital errors 44 Digital audio 48 Envelopes 52 EQ 56 Exciters 60 Fades and crossfades 64 Filters 68 FireWire 72 Contents19 FM synthesis 76 20 Granular synthesis 30 21 Harmonics 84 22 Microphones 88 23 MIDI 92 24 Mixers 96 25 Oscillators 100 26 Plug-ins 104 2/7 Reverb (0a 28 Samplers /i2 29 Sequencers 1/4 30 Stereo 120 31 String synths and samplers /24 32 Surround sound 128 33 Synchronisation 152 34 Time and pitch 136 35 Vocoders [40 36 Wireless 144 Index 143Analogue synthesis Many forms of synthesis are now available to the musician, but it wasn’t always so. It wasn’t until the development of electronic circuitry that musi- cians had the most powerful creative force at their disposal. Arguably, the first ‘electronic synthesizer’ was the Theremin developed by Leon Theremin in the 1920s, During the next two decadles there appeared various electron ic organs and then the RCA Music Synthesizer. Abasic synthesizer patch using jst the throo main analogue madules - VCO, VOF and VOA. ver Low pass ps +——> > Ne Any [\ > ASR ELid Several companies began developing synthesizer circuits although Robert Moog is commonly regarded as the father of synthesis, primarily through the development of voltage control. Moog synthesizers appeared commercially in 1964 and the rest, as they say, is history Hardwired Most early analogue synths, Moogs in particular, were modular in nature, That is, you got a set of synth modules that you had to patch together your- self in order to make a sound. It’s a very flexible system, but it means you need to know a bit about synthesis before you can even get the thing to squeak : Many modules ended up being connected in the same way, so a natural development was to produce an instrument with the common routings pre- set or hardwired. This traded sore flexibility for ease of use, but it proved a popular move and most synths, particularly those with a keyboard designed for performance, soon had a degree of hardwiring in them,Propellahead's Reason isa rack containing synth mules you ca link Agethor with vital patch cords ‘Analogue synthesis Why analogue? Technology has moved on apace since the 1960s. We now have reliable and powerful digital circuitry plus, with modern computers. the ability to emulate synth circuitry in software. Even though there are no voltages, as such, in soft synths, many adopt @ pseudo CV system. These include Arturia’s Moog Modular V and Propellerheads Reason, among others. Even moder hard- ware synths — which are, of course, built with digital circuitry — interface witt the user through analogue-type controls. And there are still companies such as Analogue Systems [www.analoguesystems.co.uk) and Doepfer (www.doepfer.de] that produce genuine analogue synth modules Why? Well, the reasons are three-fold, First of all, the principles of ana~ logue synthesis are easy to understand and fairly intuitive. If you understand the basics, it’s fairly easy to get acquainted with any synth — far easier than having to learn @ new form of synthesis. However, even alternative forms of synthesis use building blocks from analogue synthesis such as envelope generators and filters, Secondly, there is something very appealing about lwiduling dials and moving sliders - these things are fun to work with. Soft synths aren't so hands-on, but they're still fun, usually meny times more powerful than hard- ware instruments and much, much cheaper. Finally, many old analogue synthesizers had a distinc- tive sound - the Moogs were famous for their ‘fat sound, a result of the filters used in their construction. Devotees claim this character is not found in digital synths, and many software developers have worked hard to emulate vintage synth circuitry in software So can a soft synth of @ hardware synth that uses dig- ital circuitry genuinely be called analogue? Strictly speak- ing, analogue synthesizers are those created with ana- logue (as opposed to digital) circuitry. The first synthesiz~ ers were analogue because, well, digital circuits had not een invented, However, the term has expanded to include almost any synth that behaves in an analogue fashion How's it done? The analogue synthesis approach to creating sound is pretty simple. It uses. three main building blocks ~ tone generation, tone shaping and volume shap. ing. In other words, you take a waveform produced by an oscillator, use a fil- ter to change the tone, and shape the volume with an envelope. Linking modules together is fine, but you need a way to control them and to play specific pitches, rather than having to twiddle a dial every time you want a new sound, The big breakthrough came with Moog's development of voltage control. This revolutionised analogue synthesizers and led to the development of modules such as the VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator) \VCF [Voltage Controlled Filter) and VCA (Voltage Controlled Amplifier) The pitch of a VCO was determined by voltages from a keyboard. The cut-Analogue synthesis off frequency of a VCF could be controlled by voltages from other modules. ‘And the ADSR envelope generated voltages to control the VCA. The CV {Control Voltage) system enabled the output of any module to be patched to the input of any other — an incredibly powerful and versatile system. IF there was a downside it was the lack of standardisation. And this had nothing to do with the CV principle, but the way in which it was implement- ed, In true music industry style, different manufacturers used different volt- age systems, so it wes difficult to connect one company's synthesizer to another's, but eventually @ one-volt-per-octave system came to dominate. Gates and triggers To control pitch, each key on a keyboard generates a voltage — the higher the key, the higher the voltage and the higher the pitch. In addition, a synth key- board generates twio other signals - a gate pulse and a trigger signal. The gate pulse lasts as long as a key is held down, telling the synth when @ key is pressed and when it's released. This controls the envelope generator — the Attack phase begins when a key is pressed and the gate pulse starts, and the Release phase begins when the key is released and the gate pulse ends. Some instruments, particularly modular systems, also have a trigger sig- ral. This is simply an on/off signal, a short blip, that’s generated as soon as a key is pressed, even if one is already being held down. It can be sent to the VCO to generate a new pitch, but without triggering a new envelope, enabling the player to create a slur. Gates and triggers are not normally a feature of hardwired instruments as their functions are incorporated into the design. = s ‘ E eteas ey pressed Keyreleoed Time. ate pase Cae pose ‘On ‘oF Analogue essentials * As well as the VCO, VCF and VCA, there are several other core analogue syn- thesis modules. These are discussed below: + LFO The Low Frequency Oscillator is undoubtedly the most common ‘additional module. Its low frequency oscillations can be applied in moderation to the VCO, VCF and VCA to add musical nuances such as vibrato and tremolo, or in excess to produce sirens and sounds that change tone over a long period of time. You can, in fact, build a very usable synth from just these four modules - VCO, VCF, VCA and LFO. + Sub-oscillatoriFrequency Divider Sub-oscillators were popular in early hardwired synths. They added another oscillator to the output, usually an The Gate pulse generated by a hayboard ‘determines when the ADSR generator ‘triggers.4 Analogue synthesis octave or two below the original oscillator, to thicken the sound. More Tech terms modern multi-oscillator synths can use a ‘normal’ oscillator, so dedicated sub-oscilators became less important. However, some modular synths Vibrato have a Frequency Divider that can be used as a sub-oscillator, but which A variation in pitch pro- have many more uses such as creating pulses to trigger other sounds, duced by applying an effects or a sequencer. LFO to the VCO. + Ring Modulator Tris has two inputs and one output. The output is @ combination of the sum and difference of the two input frequencies. Tremolo Without doing any hard sums, this usually produces frequencies that ‘A variation in amplitude ‘inbetween’ the notes in our Western scale. It’s most commonly used to produced by applying create ‘metallic’ sounds, an LFO to the VCA. = Glide/Portamento!Siew Limiter Hardware synths have Glide or Portamento controls. Medular synths have a Slew Limiter. Their purpose Siar is the same — to slide a note from one pitch to another, much the same The generation of a new effect as sliding your finger up a guitar string. Keyboard players cannot pitch withiout Wiegering produce Unis effect naturally because each key produces a distinct the ADSR envelope: semitone pitch. This module gives them ‘slide-abiity’ ‘ + Sample & Hold AS its name suggests, this samples the input signal and Frequency divider holds it until it’s told to take another reading, Let's say you plug 2 ‘A module that divides sawtooth into the input and use a square wave for the trigger — when the the source frequency by square wave moves to the top of its cycle it triggers a new sample. ‘two, four, eight or some ‘Assume the square cycle is four times longer than the sawtooth cycle other amount. This can Each time the S&H generator is triggered, the sawtooth wave will be 2 be used as a sub-oscil- litte higher in its cycle, s0 if you fed this into a VCO, you'd get four lator-or to-genetate rising pitches, Slow down the square wave and you'd get more pitches in rhythmic trigger pulses the series. IF the two waveforms are not in sync or if you apply a random to control other mod- ‘waveform such as noise to the input, then the output will be ue unpredictable, Plug this into a VCO for a random series of notes er apply toa filter for a random series of tone changes. Subtractive synthesis ‘A type of synthesis, ike we've looked at the key principles behind analogue synthesis and some of analogue synthesis, that the core modules used in analogue synthesizers. Not only will these help you starts with a harmon to understand and use any analogue synthesizer, but they will also be useful cally rich sound source when you come to use other forms of synthesis, too such as a square wave, and then removes har- 4 ‘monics by filtering, Further info ‘The very best primer on sound and synthesis is no longer available, ut ro apologies for mentioning it. Beg borrow or steal a copy of A Foundation For Electronic Music, published by Roland Corporation, one of a four-b00k set called The Synthesizer, designed for users of Roland’s 100M modular’ synthesizer. There are thousands of references on the web. Start by taking a look at these www.geocities.com/roland_rock/analog-htm www. fortunecity.com/emachines/e1 1/86/synth3.htm! www.synthesizers.com hittp://code404.com/faqArranging rhythm. - The rhythm section is best described as the instruments which normally drive the rhythmic aspect of any composition or song. As such, they play @ pivotal role in just about every contemporary composition in one way or another, particularly in dance music Traditional rhythm sections would have comprised drums, bass, guitar and piano, but with the advent of electronic instruments, this collection has expanded to include Keyboards and synths. Although the sounds may have changed from the original construct, the methodology behind the way these instruments work together is largely unchanged. Rhythm sections first distinguished themselves in jazz and big bands. with their primary role being the driving force behind the lead instruments. In the case of a big band, this would have meant backing anything up to 21 horn players. With that kind of force of numbers to contend with, it’s hardly sur- prising that rhythm sections became the musical engine for most groups, playing hard in order to be heard above the rest of the band. In a contemporary setting, little has changed, and it’s no surprise that the kick or bass drum in most dance tracks maintains a “4-to-the-floor’ feel in order to hammer home the beat. ‘An example of basic drum groove. Notice the 4-t0-the-aor ‘Amore elaborate version of a basic drum groove. The ‘ick part nattet on the bottom ine of the stave, ick and hi-hat parts are more embellished. Instrumentation The drum kit is the backbone of any rhythm section. It consists of three basic elements which provide the mainstay of any groove: the bass drum (or kick), snare drum and hi-hats. In one self-contained unit, it provides everything needed to power a song along: kick to provide a solid foundation to the time signature, snare to break up each bar on the second and fourth beats, and the hi-hat to sub-divide the beat further into 8th or 16th notes. ‘Other elements within the kit include cymbals and toms,, but these are generally used for embellishment or to indicate a change in the song struc- ture Before the advent of the electric bass, the bass part would traditionally have been played on an upright double bass. Today, we have many synths,Aranging thythm both hardware and sofware, which can also provide this component for us. One popular option is Trilogy, from Spectrasonics, an all-in-one package that can realistically re-create upright, electric or synth basses. Guitars and keyboards share a very similar role within a rhythm section. In 70s-derived funk, the guitar is crucial, providing chordal elements which drive forward in &th- and 16th-note divisions. Keyboards often provide a similar role rhythmically, particularly after the advent of the Hohner Clavinet or Fender Rhodes. In a more contemporary setting, many guitar parts have been replaced by synth sounds, which work ina very similar way. By arrangement When starting an arrangement, it's often a good idea to put your drums and bass in first. Given the wealth of good-quality sample CDs on the market these days, you may choose to use a loop. Alternatively, you may choose to program your own parts or mix-and-match with existing loops. In either case, make sure that the groove you are aiming for is achievable with the loop you are using. If you're programming your drum track, keep the individual ele~ ments of the kit on separate tracks, as it will make it easier to adjust the arrangement should you decide to change it later. Once the drums are in place, move on to the bass part, but before laying anything down, consider the range that the instrument will play across. Bass sounds can appear very strong in one register of the keyboard. but really lose impact in anather, so it's worth thinking about the line you want to play, working out the lowest note of the phrase and making sure that it doesn’t sound weak in that register. In addition to this, try to natch some elements of your bass line to the kick drum that you have already laid down, Bass lines have far more impact if the notes you want to emphasise within @ phrase are matched to a beat on the kick drum, The obvious choice is the first beat of the phrase, but that’s not always the most appropriate, Consider Prince's Alphabet Street: there is a rest on the first beat of every other bar. It initially sounds a little strange, bout it's highly innovative and it works. On the other hand, think of Good Times by Chic, in which the very distinctive and relentless bass pattern is tracked by a kick pattern which backs it up ~ possibly the finest example of a definitive bass line. The shape of space Once your drum and bass elements are taking shape, it's time to add key- boards or guitar. If you want to use both instruments, itis often a good idea to leave a little space between the respective parts for one to interplay with the other. You could explore the question-and-answer device, whereby the guitar plays a line which is subsequently ‘answered’ by a keyboard chord or rif. Alternatively, the guitar could follow the rhythm of the track = much the same as the hi-hat - while the keyboard plays sustained chords. One of the best examples of this sort of interplay can be found on the Seritti Politti album Provision; producer/programmer Dave Gamson uses an extensive array ofArranging rhythm timbres which blend together to form a wonderful tapestry of sound. Arranging the mix Having thought about the notes the various instruments will play, it’s now time to consider where to place those instruments in your mix. A basic con- cept to bear in mind when mixing is that the lower-frequency instruments should be panned centrally in the mix. This is not a hard-and-fast rule, but it works effectively in the majority of situations. It is. a good idea to think about the way the instruments you have used will sound in a live environment — not at Wembley Stadium, where there will be monitoring wedges and top-quality gear, but at your local pub, with only average facilities. Ensure the Kick drum and the bass are panned dead centre and work on mixing these two instruments first. The bass will probably require a little com- pression to give a good foundation to the mix. One by one, add the other percussive elements until the entire kit is in place. The snare often tends to sit in the middle of the mix, too, while hi-hats sound best when panned to one side (which side you choose is a matter of personal preference). If you have a guitar part, balance out the hi-hat by placing it on the oppo- site side. Too much rhythm on one side of the mix won't give the impression of space that you probably want. By the same token, the keyboard will prob- ably be less rhythmic, so offset that against the guitar part so that they are on opposite sides. The final mixdown Mixing is a good example of a task that requires an objective, focused approach, As you become more skilled at arranging and mixing a rhythm sec- tion, you should find that you begin to get a solid, tight sound, with an ele- iment of space between the various instruments and phrases. You can pick up many tricks and techniques from listening closely to the type of music you want to make. Initially, you will have to train your ear to isolate the various parts in an overall mix, but it becomes easier with prac- tice. There is much to learn from past masters; listen to as wide a range of music as you can to broaden your appreciation of different approaches. ‘Above all, be brave and experiment. As long as you keep copies of your 7 Generally speaking, the sizeof a band is to some extent determined by the geare of musict plas. A smal, traditional jazz band may simpy comprise piano, bass and drums (ef) Players tend to playin close proximity to each ahern dort be hear cleat. Atypical on= stage line-ups shown below.8 Arranging rhythm Tech terms Rhythm section Collective name for the instruments that comprise the driving force behind a band: drums, bass, guitar, keyboards and percussion. Arranging The process of distributing the chords and melody of a song across a set of instruments. This is sometimes known as orchestration, although this is linked more with classical music 4-to-the-floor ‘A term often used by drummers to refer to the kick/bass drum playing on every beat of the bar. Drum score ‘A drum part notated on a standard musical stave. The kick is positioned ‘on the bottom line, snare on the middle line and the hi-hat on the top line. Further info Books Arranging Music For The Real World, Vince Corozine Basic Concepts Of Arranging And Orchestrating Music, Tom Bruner Arranging In The Digital World, Corey Allen ‘Software Trilogy Total Bass Module, Spectrasonics www.spectrasonics.net Ustening Lovesexy. Prince Good Times, Chic Provision, Scritti Politti