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s
= mass per unit volume of particles
= G
s
.
w
The ratio of the mass of water present to the mass of solid particles is called the water content, or
sometimes the moisture content.
From the soil model it can be seen that
w = (S
r
.e .
w
) / (G
s
.
w
)
Giving the useful relationship:
w .G
s
= S
r
.e
Volume-weight properties
Densities and unit weights
Density is a measure of the quantity of mass in a unit volume of material.
Unit weight is a measure of the weight of a unit volume of material.
There are two basic measures of density or unit weight applied to soils: Dry density is a measure
of the amount of solid particles per unit volume. Bulk density is a measure of the amount of solid
+ water per unit volume.
The preferred units of density are:
Mg/m, kg/m or g/ml.
The corresponding unit weights are:
Also, it can be shown that
=
d
(1 + w) and
= g
d
(1 + w)
Volume-weight properties
Laboratory measurements
- Water content
- Unit weight
It is important to quantify the state of a soil immediately it is received in the testing laboratory
and just prior to commencing other tests (e.g. shear tests, compression tests, etc.).
The water content and unit weight are particularly important, since these could change during
transportation and storage.
Some physical state properties are calculated following the practical measurement of others; e.g.
void ratio from porosity, dry unit weight from unit weight & water content.
Laboratory measurements
Water content
The most usual method of determining the water content of soil is to weigh a small
representative specimen, drying it to constant weight and then weighing it again. Drying can be
carried out using an electric oven set at 104-105 Celsius or using a microwave oven.
Example: A sample of soil was placed in a tin container and weighed, after which it was dried
in an oven and then weighed again. Calculate the water content of the soil.
Weight of tin empty = 16.16 g
Weight of tin + moist soil = 37.82 g
Weight of tin + dry soil = 34.68 g
Water content, w = (mass of water) / (mass of dry soil)
= (37.82 - 34.68) / (34.68 - 16.16)
= 0.169
Percentage water content = 16.9 %
Laboratory measurements
Unit weight
Clay soils: Specimens are usually prepared in the form of regular geometric shapes, (e.g. prisms,
cylinders) of which the volume is easily computed.
Sands and gravels: Specimens have to be placed in a container to determine volume (e.g. a
cylindrical can).
Example
A soil specimen had a volume of 89.13 ml, a mass before drying of 174.45 g and after drying of
158.73 g; the water content was 9.9 %. Determine the bulk and dry densities and unit weights.
Bulk density
= (mass of specimen) / (volume of specimen)
= 174.45 / 89.13 g/ml
= 1.957 Mg/m
[1 g/ml = 1 Mg/m]
Unit weight
= 9.81m/s x Mg/m
= 19.20 kN/m
Dry density
d
= (mass after drying) / (volume)
= 158.73 / 89.13
= 1.781 Mg/m
d
= / (1 + w)
= 1.957 / (1+0.099)
= 1.781 Mg/m
Dry unit weight
d
= / (1 + w)
= 19.20 / (1+0.099)
= 17.47 kN/m
Volume-weight properties
Field measurements
Measurements taken in the field are mostly to determine density/unit weight. The most common
application is the determination of the density of rolled and compacted fill, e.g. in road bases,
embankments, etc.
Note: These methods are covered in detail by BS1377. You should understand the general
principle that density is calculated from the mass and volume of a sample. How a sample of
known volume is obtained depends on the nature of the soil. You are not expected to remember
the details of each method.
The core cutter method
This method is suitable for soft fine grained soils.
A steel cylinder is driven into the ground, dug out and the soil shaved off level. The mass of soil
is found by weighing and deducting the mass of the cylinder. Small samples are taken from both
ends and the water content determined.
The sand-pouring cylinder method
This method is suitable for stony soils
Using a special tray with a hole in the centre, a hole is formed in the soil and the mass of soil
removed is weighed.
The volume of the hole is calculated from the mass of clean dry running sand required to fill the
hole.
The sand-pouring cylinder is used to fill the hole in a controlled manner. The mass of sand
required to fill the hole is equal to the difference in the weight of the cylinder before and after
filling the hole, less an allowance for the sand left in the cone above the hole.
Bulk density
= (mass of soil) / (volume of core cutter or hole)
Description and classification
Current state of soil
- Soil history: deposition and erosion
- Soil history: ageing
- Density index (relative density)
- Liquidity index
- Predicting stiffness and strength from index properties
The state of soil is essentially the closeness of packing of the grains in the range:
Closely packed ` Loosely packed
Dense ` Loose
Low water content ` High water content
Strong and stiff ` Weak and soft
The important indicators of the current state of a soil are:
current stresses: vertical and horizontal effective stresses
current water content: effecting strength and stiffness in fine soils
liquidity index: indicates state in fine soils
density index: indicates state of compaction in coarse soils
history of loading and unloading: degree of overconsolidation
Engineering operations (e.g. excavation, loading, unloading, compaction, etc.) on soil bring
about changes in its state. Its initial state is the result of processes of erosion and deposition. It is
possible for the engineer to predict changes that could result from a proposed engineering
operation: changes from the soil's current state to a new future state.
Current state of soil
Soil history: deposition and erosion
Original deposition
Most soils are formed in layers or lenses by deposition from moving water, ice or wind.
One-dimensional compression occurs as overlying layers are added. Vertical and horizontal
stresses increase with deposition.
Erosion
Erosion causes unloading; stresses decrease; some vertical expansion occurs.
Plastic strain has occurred; the soil remains compressed, i.e. overconsolidated.
Subsequent changes
Subsequent changes may occur in the depositional environment: further loading/unloading due to
glaciation, land movement, engineering; and ageing processes.
Current state of soil
Soil history: ageing
The term ageing includes processes that occur with time, except loading and unloading. Ageing
processes are independent of changes in loading.
Vibration and compaction
Coarse soils can be made more dense by vibration or compaction at essentially constant effective
stress
Creep
Fine soils creep and continue to compress and distort at constant effective stress after primary
consolidation is complete.
Cementing and bonding
Intergranular cementing and bonding occurs due to deposition of minerals from groundwater,
e.g. calcium carbonate; disturbance due to excavation fractures the bonding and reduces strength.
Weathering
Physical and chemical changes take place in soils near the ground surface due to the influence of
changes in rainfall and temperature.
Changes in salinity
Changes in the salinity of groundwater are due to changes in relative sea and land levels, thus
soil originally deposited in sea water may later have fresh water in its pores, such soils may be
prone to sudden collapse.
Current state of soil
Density index (relative density)
The void ratio of coarse soils (sands and gravels) varies with the state of packing between the
loosest practical state in which it can exist and the densest. Some engineering properties are
affected by this, e.g.shear strength, compressibility, permeability.
It is therefore useful to measure the in situ state and this can be done by comparing the in situ
void ratio (e) with the minimum and maximum practical values (e
min
and e
max
) to give a density
index I
D
e
min
is determined with soil compacted densely in a metal mould
e
max
is determined with soil poured loosely into a metal mould
Density index is also known as relative density
Relative states of compaction are defined:
Density
index
State of
compaction
0-15% Very loose
15-35 Loose
35-65 Medium
65-85 Dense
85-100% Very dense
Current state of soil
Liquidity index
In fine soils, especially clays, the current state is dependent on the water content with respect to
the consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). The liquidity index (I
L
or LI) provides a
quantitative measure of the current state:
where
w
P
= plastic limit and
w
L
= liquid limit
Significant values of I
L
indicating the consistency of the soil are:
I
L
< 0 ` semi-plastic solid or solid
0 < I
L
< 1 ` plastic
1 < I
L
` liquid
Current state of soil
Predicting stiffness and strength from index properties
Preliminary estimates of strength and stiffness can provide a useful basis for early design and
feasibility studies, and also the planning of more detailed testing programmes. The following
suggestions have been made; they are simple, but not necessarily reliable, and should be not be
used in final design calculations.
Undrained shear strength
s
u
= 170 exp(-4.6 I
L
) kN/m
[Schofield and Wroth (1968)]
s
u
= (0.11 + 0.37 I
P
) o'
vo
kN/m
where o'
vo
= vertical effective stress in situ
[Skempton and Bjerrum (1957)]
Stiffness
The slope of the critical state line may be estimated from:
= I
P
.G
s
/ 461
[After Skempton and Northey (1953)]
The compressibility index may be estimated from:
C
c
= ln10 = I
P
G
s
/ 200
(where I
P
is in percentage units)
Description and classification
BS system for description and classification
- BS description system
- Definitions of terms used in description
- British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
BS 5930 Site Investigation recommends the terminology and a system for describing and
classifying soils for engineering purposes. Without the use of a satisfactory system of description
and classification, the description of materials found on a site would be meaningless or even
misleading, and it would be difficult to apply experience to future projects.
BS system for description and classification
BS description system
A recommended protocol for describing a soil deposit uses ninecharacteristics; these should be
written in the following order:
compactness
e.g. loose, dense, slightly cemented
bedding structure
e.g. homogeneous or stratified; dip, orientation
discontinuities
spacing of beds, joints, fissures
weathered state
degree of weathering
colour
main body colour, mottling
grading or consistency
e.g. well-graded, poorly-graded; soft, firm, hard
SOIL NAME
e.g. GRAVEL, SAND, SILT, CLAY; (upper case letters) plus silty-, gravelly-, with-fines, etc. as
appropriate
soil class
(BSCS) designation (for roads & airfields) e.g. SW = well-graded sand
geological stratigraphic name
(when known) e.g. London clay
Not all characteristics are necessarily applicable in every case.
Example:
(i) Loose homogeneous reddish-yellow poorly-graded medium SAND (SP), Flood plain
alluvium
(ii) Dense fissured unweathered greyish-blue firm CLAY. Oxford clay.
BS system for description and classification
Definitions of terms used in description
A table is given in BS 5930 Site Investigation setting out a recommended field indentification
and description system. The following are some of the terms listed for use in soil descriptions:
Particle shape
angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded, flat, elongate
Compactness
loose, medium dense, dense (use a pick or driven peg, or density index )
Bedding structure
homogeneous, stratified, inter-stratified
Bedding spacing
massive(>2m), thickly bedded (2000-600 mm), medium bedded (600-200 mm), thinly bedded
(200-60 mm), very thinly bedded (60-20 mm), laminated (20-6 mm), thinly laminated (<6 mm).
Discontinuities
i.e. spacing of joints and fissure: very widely spaced(>2m), widely spaced (2000-600 mm),
medium spaced (600-200 mm), closely spaced (200-60 mm), very closely spaced (60-20 mm),
extremely closely spaced (<20 mm).
Colours
red, pink, yellow, brown, olive, green, blue, white, grey, black
Consistency
very soft (exudes between fingers), soft (easily mouldable), firm (strong finger pressure
required), stiff (can be indented with fingers, but not moulded) very stiff (indented by sharp
object), hard (difficult to indent).
Grading
well graded (wide size range), uniform (very narrow size range), poorly graded (narrow or
uneven size range).
Composite soils
In SANDS and GRAVELS: slightly clayey or silty (<5%), clayey or silty (5-15%), very clayey
or silty(>15%)
In CLAYS and SILTS: sandy or gravelly (35-65%)
BS system for description and classification
British Soil Classification System
The recommended standard for soil classification is the British Soil Classification System, and
this is detailed in BS 5930 Site Investigation. Its essential structure is as follows:
Soil group Symbol Recommended name
Coarse soils Fines %
GRAVEL
G GW 0 - 5 Well-graded GRAVEL
GPu/GPg 0 - 5 Uniform/poorly-graded GRAVEL
G-F GWM/GWC 5 - 15 Well-graded silty/clayey GRAVEL
GPM/GPC 5 - 15 Poorly graded silty/clayey GRAVEL
GF GML, GMI... 15 - 35 Very silty GRAVEL [plasticity sub-group...]
GCL, GCI... 15 - 35 Very clayey GRAVEL [..symbols as below]
SAND
S SW 0 - 5 Well-graded SAND
SPu/SPg 0 - 5 Uniform/poorly-graded SAND
S-F SWM/SWC 5 - 15 Well-graded silty/clayey SAND
GPM/GPC 5 - 15 Poorly graded silty/clayey SAND
SF SML, SMI... 15 - 35 Very silty SAND [plasticity sub-group...]
SCL, SCI... 15 - 35 Very clayey SAND [..symbols as below]
Fine soils >35% fines Liquid limit%
SILT M
MG Gravelly SILT
MS Sandy SILT
ML, MI... [Plasticity subdivisions as for CLAY]
CLAY C
CG Gravelly CLAY
CS Sandy CLAY
CL <35 CLAY of low plasticity
CI 35 - 50 CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CH 50 - 70 CLAY of high plasticity
CV 70 - 90 CLAY of very high plasticity
CE >90 CLAY of extremely high plasticity
Organic soils O [Add letter 'O' to group symbol]
Peat Pt [Soil predominantly fibrous and organic]