Method for the Determination of Completion of Composting

G. J. JANN, D. H. HOWARD1,
AND

A. J. SALLE

Department of Bacteriology, University of California, Los Angeles, California

Received for publication January 15, 1959

Composting may be defined as the biologic degradation of organic material, which contains a variety of readily decomposable compounds, into a relatively stable product or mass. A product or mass is produced which does not decompose or produce offensive odors as readily as the original material. Thus the chief aim of composting is to produce a relatively stable organic material approximately like that of a soil which has a carbon to nitrogen ratio of roughly 10: 1. Such material with a low carbon content, when added to the soil, prevents competition for nitrogen between growing plants and microorganisms. When a substance with a high carbon content is added to the soil, the bacterial population increases enormously taking out the soil nitrogen which otherwise would be available to the plants. Other important considerations for composting of organic materials are the reduction of bulk, ease of handling and storage, and prevention of offensive odors and accumulation of flies or other public health hazards. There is voluminous literature on composting dealing with the efforts and recommended procedures ranging in complexity from those of the individual home gardener to those of large scale processes. An excellent review of the literature on composting was published in Technical Bulletin No. 2 (1950b) which contained 610 references with numerous summaries. In their Technical Bulletin No. 1 (1950a) there is a complete review of commercial composting processes as employed abroad, particularly in Europe, and in the United States. The traditional method of composting is to place organic debris in a pile in a suitable area and allow the material to decompose. Periodically, the pile is turned and composting is allowed to continue. By this method, it takes from several months to a year to obtain a com-

claims to require only 12 hr but this does not seem biologically reasonable. The Frazier process in the United States was a mechanical method installed at the Union Stock Yards in Chicago but no longer in operation. Personal inspection of the product produced in this plant indicated an anaerobic process. The purpose of this work was to determine factors necessary for composting a variety of organic materials and to develop a method for determining the end of the composting period.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Composting chamber and equipment. The composting studies were carried out in an incubator to maintain constant temperatures. The material to be composted was placed in a glass cylinder made of Pyrex tubing having a diameter of 6.5 cm and cut to a length of 17 cm. Each end of the cylinder was fitted with a one-hole rubber stopper into which was inserted a piece of glass tubing measuring 9 mm inside diameter. The glass tubing inside the cylinder was flush with the rubber stopper and extended 4 cm outside of the cylinder. This served for the attachment of rubber tubing. The cylinders were incubated in a vertical position. Inside, on top of the bottom stopper, was placed a circular piece of glass cloth. This prevented the material from clogging the glass tubing and permitted a better distribution of air. Air was passed through the glass tubing in the bottom stopper and exhausted through the glass tubing in the top stopper. To prevent drying of the material undergoing composting, the air was first bubbled through a wash tower, containing water, by use of a sintered glass bulb. The water was held in the incubator at the same temperature at which composting was taking place. By this procedure it was possible to maintain a proper moisture content. The materials under investigation were fresh dried stock yard manure, coffee grounds obtained from a commercial producer of instant coffee, pear waste from a cannery in Northern California, household garbage, and Spanish moss, alligator grass, and water hyacinth from Louisiana. Nitrogen was determined by the method as given in Hawk, Oser, and Summerson (1948) and carbon was determined by the method of
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posted product. The commercial processes (Sanitary Engineering Research Project, 1950a) in Europe, such as the Verdier, Beccari, and Indore methods, attempt to speed up the process but still require about 20 to 90 days. In these processes, there is little or no control of environmental conditions. The Dano process, which is mechanized,
1 Present address: Department of Infectious Diseases, University of California, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California.

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Schollenberger (1945) in which per cent carbon is equal to per cent organic matter divided by the factor 1.724. Ash and organic matter determinations were made by combustion in a muffle furnace and pH determinations were made with a Beckman2 pH meter, model G. Microorganisms involved. No attempt was made to inoculate the manure with commercial preparations to promote composting. It was felt that the natural flora would be sufficient. This conclusion was in agreement with the studies carried out by the Sanitary Engineering Research Project of the University of California (1953). They employed two commercial preparations, one a starter containing enzymes, hormones, and bacteria, and the other a preparation containing actinomycetes and bacteria. Their results showed that these preparations did not enhance the composting process over the natural flora.
RESULTS AND DIscUSSION From previous work in this laboratory (Howard, 1953), the following factors have been determined in

composting:
Aeration. It is obvious from fermentation studies in general that aerobic conditions prompt a rapid and complete degradation of organic materials by microorganisms. Under anaerobic conditions, there is an accumulation of intermediary products. In these studies, a sufficient amount of air was used to prevent anaerobic conditions. Under such circumstances the compost had an earthy odor. If anaerobic conditions prevailed, degradation did take place but simultaneously there was an accumulation of intermediary products which gave an offensive odor. Therefore, aerobic conditions were maintained to effect a rapid and complete breakdown of readily decomposable organic

compounds.
Moisture. In these studies it was found that a moisture content of 60 to 70 per cent was best for composting. A lower moisture content did not promote maximal microbial activity although a higher content of water gave a muddy mass which interfered with

good aeration.
Temperature. The literature is extensive concerning the relative merits of two different methods of composting: the hot and the cold fermentation methods. The Krantz method of hot fermentation is a unique method of storage and subsequent decomposition of manure advocated extensively in Germany and discussed in some detail by Salter and Schollenberger (1939). Essentially, the process consists of a short period of intense aerobic fermentation leading to the rapid oxidation of carbohydrates causing a subsequent rise in temperature to 60 C. This original rapid
2

Beckman Instruments, Inc., Fullerton, California.

fermentation period is followed by a prolonged "ripening" period under anaerobic conditions during which time the temperature gradually falls. The method of cold fermentation consists of immediate packing of fresh manure into specially built structures. A covering of earth is frequently added to exclude air and keep the mass compact. This result is so completely attained that the temperature does not rise above 35 C with essentially anaerobic conditions prevailing throughout the heap. Salter and Schollenberger (1939) point out that the conditions are similar to those in a silo where a lactic acid fermentation takes place. In this work, several different temperatures were investigated to determine the optimum for the composting process. The temperatures used were 28 C, 37 C, and 55 C. It was found that at 28 C and 37 C, there was no perceptible activity on stock yard manure, a combination of stock yard manure and coffee grounds, Spanish moss, water hyacinth or alligator grass, even after 14 days. At 55 C with these materials, there was rapid composting. Although fresh alligator grass had a pH of 6.4, water hyacinth a pH of 6.8, and Spanish moss a pH of 4.7, rapid composting of these materials at 55 C was observed. After composting for 24 hr, the pH rose to 9.3; 8.5, and 8.0 respectively. The pH of fresh raw manure is about 8.5 and a mixture of manure and coffee grounds is of about the same pH. It was found that the most rapid composting took place at 55 C with an alkaline pH. With pear waste which had a pH of 3.8 and household garbage at pH of 4.5 it was necessary to alter conditions for composting. When these materials were placed at 55 C there was no activity even after 10 days. After a number of trial experiments it was found that, if the garbage and pear waste were held at 28 C for about 72 hr, they exhibited considerable mold growth. After this period, the material then subjected to 55 C underwent rapid composting. In the initial holding period at 28 C, the molds reduced the organic acid content so that the material became alkaline. When the material became alkalinie, composting did take place rapidly at 55 C. pH. It was found that an alkaline pH was necessary to obtain rapid composting. If manure, for example, were made acid to a pH of 6.0 with superphosphate to prevent evolution of ammonia, which was in abundance from the urea present, composting did not take place. This was true at 28 C, 37 C, and 55 C. Fresh pear waste and household garbage had a pH of 3.8 and 4.5 respectively. As explained above, composting did not occur at 55 C at these pH levels. The pH of these materials was changed to the alkaline side with lime and ammonium hydroxide then

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subjected to 55 C. When samples of garbage made alkaline with ammonium hydroxide were aerated at this temperature, they became acid again after 24 hr and no composting occurred. Although the samples treated with lime remained alkaline, composting did not take place. Composting with these highly acid materials was obtained only after an initial holding period at 28 C for about 72 hr until the material became alkaline as indicated above.

Completion of Composting The question might be raised as to when the composting process is complete. Conceivably, ash determinations could be used as a criterion but this has certain limitations. Firstly, in a very heterogeneous mass of organic debris, sampling would be a problem. Secondly, it is very time consuming. A sample must be weighed, dried, weighed again, combusted in a muffle furnace, cooled, weighed again, and the results calculated. Thirdly, and most important, it would not indicate anything but a loss in bulk; it would not give any information on the nature of the organic compounds
at the University of California, (Sanitary Engineering Research Project, 1953) suggest that ". a compost is considered finished when it may be stored in large piles indefinitely without beconming anaerobic or generating appreciable heat and may safely be put on agricultural soil because of its low C:N ratio, or the poor availability of its carbon." It is also suggested by this group that the carbon: nitrogen ratio could be used to determine the time necessary to complete composting. However, this would be costly and time consuming because of the determinations that would have to be made. If all conditions, particularly those of moisture and aeration, were ideal during the course of composting, temperature could be used as an indicator for determining the end of composting. In composting, the temperature in a pile will start from ambient temperature, rise to a plateau of about 65 C to 70 C and remain there for a period, then fall again to that of ambient temperature. The drop of ambient temperature would indicate completion of composting. The rate of rise, the extent of the plateau, and rate of fall of the temperature would depend on the nature of the material
. .

remaining. The group

on the outside of the pile and turning of the compost heap would disrupt the temperature curve. During the course of this work, a very simple method has been devised by which one can determine quite accurately when composting is completed. It is based on the principle of composting itself. A heterogeneous mass of organic matter such as garbage, manure, plant residues, and other waste matter is composed of a variety of organic compounds. As noted by Waksman (1932), these compounds consist of sugars, starches, and other simple carbohydrates that are soluble in cold or hot water; pentoses, pectins and other hemicelluloses; cellulose, lignin and tannins; fats; waxes; oils; sterols; fatty acids; and proteins and their derivatives. If compounds such as these in fresh raw organic matter are allowed to undergo decomposition under anaerobic conditions, an acid reaction is obtained with offensive odors. There are various organic intermediate compounds produced, such as organic acids and amines. In other words, there is an incomplete breakdown of the organic matter. In aerobic degradation or composting, the readily decomposable organic matter is rapidly broken down. Therefore, as composting proceeds, there will be less and less organic matter which is easily decomposed; the material is being stabilized. When such material undergoing composting is subjected to anaerobic conditions, it will not change in pH readily and will not produce offensive odors as composting approaches

completion. The test is carried out as follows: a 5.0-g sample is withdrawn from the composting chamber and placed into a screw cap tube measuring 20 x 150 mm. The tube is then placed in an incubator at 55 C. After 0, 24, 48, and 72 hr, the tube is withdrawn from the incubator, shaken well, and the pH of the contents determined. Table 1 shows the results of a typical determination
on manure. It can be noted from table 1 that, after composting for 144 hr, the pH of the manure sample held anaerobiTABLE 1 pH of manure held anaerobically in water at 55 C after certain intervals of composting
pH in Tube after:
Hr in Composter

being composted. However, the use of temperature as a criterion could not be used with any degree of certainty because ideal conditions could not be obtained. A low temperature could be the result of loss of aerobic conditions and of loss of moisture, and production of excessive heat during the high plateau could inhibit microbial activity. Also, in a pile of organic debris, the inside may well be undergoing composting
but

O hr

24 hr

48 hr

72 hr

0 24 48

72 96 120
144

there

may be

very

little activity

8.6 8.5 8.5 8.7 8.6 8.7 8.6

6.4 6.4 6.4 6.7 7.0 7.6 7.5

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.4 7.0 7.0

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.8 7.08

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G. J. JANN, D. H. HOWA]RD, AND A. J. SALLE

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cally at 55 C did not fall below 7.0 even after 72 hr, there any offensive odor present. This would indicate that all or at least most of the readily decomposable, organic matter was broken down and that the material was stabilized. On the other hand, in the earlier samples, there was a rapid change to the acid side indicating the accumulation of intermediary compounds produced from readily decomposable organic matter. Our basis for the determination of completion of composting is indicated by obtaining a pH of about 7.5 on material which is held for 24 hr anaerobically at 55 C. Aside from the stability of the organic debris as assessed by pH measurements, the physical properties such as color, texture, and odor confirm the pH evaluation. pH readings were recorded after 48 and 72 hr to show the stability of the composted organic matter. It is obvious that organic matter, when subjected to such conditions, will eventually break down and give an acid reaction. To maintain a neutral or alkaline reaction for 72 hr seems to be very significant in demonstrating that the organic material is stabilized. It is felt that the pH determination as a criterion for composting is very simple, fast, inexpensive, and above all a true measure of completion of composting. For the purpose of these studies, a completed compost is defined as a compost that will not undergo anaerobic fermentation in the absence of oxygen. This definition is in accord with the statement of the Sanitary Engineering Research Project (1953) report. "A compost is considered finished when it may be stored in large piles indefinitely without becoming anaerobic or generating appreciable heat." Under such conditions if the material became anaerobic it would show an acid reaction. In a large pile, it would take a certain amount of time for this to occur. In the pH test described, only a 5.0-g sample is used and conditions are created which would quickly give an acid reaction. When composting acid materials such as pear waste and garbage, the test began during the second stage of composting, namely 55 C. Chemical analyses. Chemical analysis on the materials composted are presented in tables 2 to 6. In all cases, the pH test was used as the criterion to determine the
TABLE 2 and composted stock yard
Percentage
Determination
or

end of the composting period. In tables 2 and 3 are shown the results obtained in 5 days on composting manure alone and manure with spent coffee grounds. It can be seen that there is a reduction of the carbon content and a corresponding increase in nitrogen reTABLE 3 Determinations of raw and composted stock yard manure with spent coffee grounds
Percentage or Ratio

Determination
Manure no. 1 with 20% coffee

Manure no. 1 with 30 % coffee

48.4 Carbon-raw................. 44.1 Carbon-composted . 2.66 Nitrogen-raw. ... 3.41 Nitrogen-composted C:N-raw .18.6:1 C: N-composted. 12.9:1

48.5 43.9 2.61 3.40 18.6:1 12.9:1

TABLE 4 Determinations on raw and composted pear waste

Determination
Percentage or Ratio

Carbon-raw ............................

Carbon-composted. Nitrogen-raw. Nitrogen-composted.

C:N-raw......

54.2 50.8

........ ......

C:N-composted..

0.79 1.43 68.6:1 35.5:1

TABLE 5 Determinations on raw and composted garbage

Determinations
Percentage or Ratio

Carbon-raw...

Carbon-composted..
........ Nitrogen-raw. .... Nitrogen-composted. C: N-raw ..... ................ .. C: N-composted.

53.5 44.9 1.09 1.97 49:1 22.8:1

TABLE 6 Determinations on raw and composted alligator grass, water hyacinth, and Spanish moss
Percentage or Ratio

Determinations of

raw

manure

Determinations

Alligator
Ratio

grass

Water hyacinth

Spanish
moss

Sample

Sample 2

Carbon-raw.................

Carbon-raw.

Carbon-composted .......... . Nitrogen-raw. Nitrogen-composted .........

C:N-raw .23:1
C:N-composted.

47.4 38.6 2.07 2.52

15:1

51.4 44.8 2.10 3.15 24:1

14:1

Carbon-composted ............. Nitrogen-raw. Nitrogen-composted

C:N-raw.

C:N-composted.
Organic matter-raw. Organic matter-composted.

45.7 32.4 1.68 1.73 27.2:1 18.7:1 78.7 55.8

45.9 38.1 2.69 2.17 17.1:1 17.5:1 79.1 65.3

54.5 50.9 2.37 1.83 23:1 27.8:1 93.1 90.9

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275

sulting in a lower carbon to nitrogen ratio. There is an unavoidable loss of nitrogen liberated as ammonia. Tables 4 and 5 show the results on composting pear waste and garbage respectively. The material was held at about 25 C for 3 days and then for an additional 5 days at 55 C. It is again evident from the results shown that the carbon: nitrogen ratio was reduced very significantly in a relatively short period. The results on composting alligator grass, water hyacinth, and Spanish moss are given in table 6. With alligator grass, there was the conventional lowering of the carbon: nitrogen ratio. The slight increase in nitrogen was not significant. Apparently, a great deal of nitrogen was lost as ammonia. The lowered carbon: nitrogen.ratio was due primarily to a significant loss of carbon. The organic matter content was also considerably lower. With water hyacinth and Spanish moss, the carbon: nitrogen ratio was not improved. As a matter of fact, in the case of Spanish moss, the ratio was higher in the composted material. Therewas a reasonable drop in the carbon content but again nitrogen was lost as ammonia. The results obtained on these three substances were not expected. The only explanation that might serve is the fact that the materials were shipped moist in closed metal containers. They remained closed on arrival until permission was granted to open by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. During the time that they were closed (about 2 weeks), there was a certain amount of anaerobic decomposition taking place. This initial breakdown resulted in the loss of ammonia when the material was subjected to 55 C and forced aeration. The conditions for composting as discussed have been translated successfully to a mechanized operation of 20-ton capacity. A report on this process will be published in the near future.

time. The factors necessary for rapid composting are an alkaline pH, a temperature of 55 C, suitable aeration, and a moisture content of 65 per cent. Materials such as pear waste and garbage which contain organic acids and thus have an acid reaction must first be incubated at room temperature where the organic acids are destroyed by fungi before being placed at 55 C. A simple procedure has been devised whereby it is possible to determine the end of the composting period. It is based on pH changes which take place in organic matter held at 55 C under anaerobic conditions. It was found that the organic material if fully composted or stabilized will maintain an alkaline pH for 24 hr under these conditions. Such a compost will not undergo anaerobic fermentation on storage.
REFERENCES

SUMMARY Factors have been determined whereby organic debris may be composted in a relatively short period of

HAWK, P. B., OSER, B. L., AND SUMMERSON, W. H. 1948 Practical physiological chemistry. The Blakiston Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. HOWARD, D. H. 1953 The nature of composting. Thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, California. SALTER, R. M. AND SCHOLLENBERGER, C. J. 1939 Farm manuire. Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull., 605, 1-69. Wooster, Ohio. Sanitary engineering research project, University of California, Berkeley, California. 1950a Composting for disposal of organic refuse. Series No. 37. Technical Bulletin, 1, 1-42. Sanitary engineering research project, University of California, Berkeley, California. 1950b Bibliography on disposal of organic refuse by composting. Series No. 37. Technical Bulletin, 2, 1-80. Sanitary engineering research project, University of California, Berkeley, California. 1953 Reclamation of municipal refuse by composting. Series No. 37. Technical Bulletin, 9, 1-89. SCHOLLENBERGER, C. J. 1945 Determination of soil organic matter. Soil Sci., 59, 53-56. WAKSMAN, S. A. 1932 Principles of soil microbiology. The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Maryland.