Chapter-9 Solid Wastes:

The term solid waste includes garbage (food wastes), rubbish (paper, plastics, wood, metal, throw away containers, glass), demolition products ( bricks, pipes, masonary), sewage treatment residue (sludge and solids from the coarse screening of domestic sewage), dead animals, manure and other discarded materials. According to the central pollution control board, the daily per capital generation of municipal solid waste in India ranges from 100gm in small towns to 500gms in large towns. The recyclable content is said to be between 13-20%. The output of daily waste depends upon the dietary habits, life styles, living standards and the degree of urbanisation and industrialization. Solid waste, if allowed to accumulate is a health hazard becausea) it decomposes and favours fly breeding b) it attracts rodents and vermin c) the pathogens which may be present in the solid waste may be conveyed back to mans food through flies and dust. d) There is possibility of water and solid pollution. e) Heaps of refuse present an unsightly appearance and nuisance from bad odours.

Collection of Solid Wastes

In India, there is no house to house collection system. People are expected to dump the refuse in the nearest public bin, which is usually not done. Waste is dispersed all along the street and some is thrown out in front of and around the houses. As a result an army of sweepers is required for sweeping the streets in addition to the gang fro collecting the refuse from public bins. The waste in then transported in refuse collection vehicles to the place of ultimate disposal.

Segregation of Wastes
Metals and glasses are separated as they can be easily recycled Paper can also be recycled Organic components are separated for composting

Cow dung and human excreta *** he separated and colleced for *** and electric power generation. Combustible matters are separated for incineration. Highly combustible substances like flash, papers, plastics cardboards and ** scrap. Combustible like wood scraps, cartons, floor sweepings

Animal & vegetable wastes of restaurants and other combustible articles from hospitals and industries. Inert residues are finally separated and are land filled.

Once the garbage is collected, useful or recyclable articles are segregated. In India, some people just do this kind of work an earn their livelihood my selling renewable resources handpicked from garbage. In developed countries, household waste is separated in the categories such as organic material, paper, glass, other categories etc. This separation is often done in homes by using different bins for the disposal of different items. In developing countries, waste is not separated though some cities are trying to persuade the public to segregate waste.

DISPOSAL METHODS
There is no single method of refuse disposal which is equally suitable in all circumstances. The principle methods of waste disposal are1. Dumping Waste is dumped in one lying areas partly as a method of reclamation of land but mainly as an easy method of disposal of dry waste. As a result of bacterial action, waste decreases considerably in volume and is converted gradually into humus. Calcutta disposes of its refuse by dumping and the reclaimed land is leased out for cultivation. The drawbacks of upon dumping area) The waste is exposed to flies and rodents b) It is a source of nuisance from the small and unsightly appearance. c) The loose refuse/waste is dispersed by the action of wind. d) The drainage from dumps contributes to pollution of land surface or ground water A WHO expert committee (1967) condemned dumping as a most in sanitary method that creates public health hazards a nuisance and severe pollution of environment. Dumping should be outlawed and replaced by sound procedures. 2. Sanitary Landfills It is an engineering method of disposing solid waste on land. It is the most satisfactory method where suitable land is available. It differs from ordinary dumping in that the material is placed in a trench or other prepared area, adequately compacted and bulldozers and covered ie bunches of dust at the conclusion of each days operation and a final cover of 2 fee when the area is full. The environment problems of rolling garbage in open disposal on land are not encountered in sanitary landfills. On the contrary sanitary landfills helps in reclamation of otherwise unsuitable land for fruitful use chemical, bacteriological and physical changes occur in buried waste. The temperature rises to over 60C within 7 days and hills the pathogens and hastens the decomposition process. Then

it takes 2-3 weeks to cool down. Normally it takes 4-6 months for complete decomposition of organic matter into innocuous mass. There basic landfilling operation methods are generally used. These are1. Trench Method: When the level ground is available, the trench method is usually chosen. A long trench = 2-3 in deep 4-12 in wide, depending upon local conditions. The waste is compacted and covered with excavated earth. 2. Area method: This method is used for filing land depression, disused quarries and day pits. The waste is deposited, packed and consolidated in uniform layers upto 22.5m deep. Each layer is sealed on its exposed surface with a mud cover at least 30cm thick. This method often has the disadvantage of requiring supplemental earth from outside sources. 3. The ramp method- This method is well suited where the terrain is moderately sloping. Some excavation is done to secure the covering material. The selection of site for landfill should be very carefully done after careful environment impact assessment. The following points should generally be considered Site should be sufficiently away from the municipal are but not too far to make transportation very costly. Internal and approach to the site should be available. Area of the site should be sufficiently large to last for a long period (10-12 yrs). Water should be sufficiently away.

Incineration
Waste can be disposed of hygienically by learning or incineration. Incinerations are carefully engineering furnaces in such a way as to utilize the heat so generated. Mostly steam is generated and sold to nearby industries. This partly recovers the cost of waste collection, compaction and burning. Some articles in the wastes are not good fuel and produce correction fumes. PVC plastics used in manufacture of pipes and hoys on burning release chlorine which combine with stream to produce hydrochloric acid. This acid corrodes the steam pipes. Therefore careful segregation of such materials is desirable before compaction and incineration. Hospital waste which is particularly dangerous is best disposed of by incineration. Incineration is practiced in several of industrialized countries particularly in large cities due to lack of suitable land. This method involves heavy outlay and expenditure, besides manipulative difficulties in the incinerator. Further, disposal of waste by burning in a loss to the community in terms of much needed manure. There is one another method of breaking down the solid waste involving heat i.e pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is the distructive distillation in the absence of oxygen. Substances like cellulose, rubber, plastics are the main bulk of the solid wastes. On exposure to high temperature, these

are broken down in the gases like CO , Co, H , C H , C H , CH and liquids like tar, light oil, and liquid and water soluble distillate and solid tar.
2 2 2 2 2 4 4

Composting
It is a method of combined disposal of waste and night soil/sludge. It is a process of nature in which organic matter breaks down under bacterial action resulting in the formation of relatively stable humus like materials called compost which has considerable manorial value for the soil. The principle by-products are Co2, water and heat. The heat produced during composting 60C or higher over a period of several days destroys eggs and larvae of flias, weed seeds and pathogenic agents. The end product compost contains few or no disease producing organisms and is a good soil builder containing small amounts of major plant nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates. The advantages of composting are: Technology is simple and doesnt require much *** Plant nutrients (N,P &K) are attained. Thus resource is recovered.

Methods of Composting
i) Anaerobic Composting: It is a common practice followed in farming Anaerobic bacteria the degradation of bio degradable matters. It is normally done,. Degradable organic matter is put in puts with layers of cow dung as a source of bacteria and covered with soil. At the end of 6-9 months, decomposition is complete and the resulting manure is well decomposed, odourless, innocuvers materials of high manurial value ready for application to the land. The operation of the process but the long time taken does not make it attractive option for disposal of solid wastes. Besides the compost is not free from pathogens. ii) The Aerobic composting- In this process, the bacterial action takes place in the presence of oxygen. It is a very viable option because of the following reasons Decomposition or degradation is rapid, normally completed within 4-6 weeks. During the process, temperature increases billing harmful pathogens, need seeds, insect eggs. The end product is safe to handle. Some favourable conditions should be maintained for best results i.e. Moisture content should be between 20-40% excess moisture stimulates anerobic bacteria. Temperature should not rise above 70C. Periodic turning of the waste controls the temperature and allows access of air. A carbon/nitrogen ratio of 30 is best suited for the microorganisms. The end product has the ratios of 20.

Control of wind and flues is important

iii) Mechanical composting- Mechanization can be introduced into the process to accelerate it and mechanical composting is done in 2 ways. Windrow process Close cell process

The Excel Industries Ltd, Bombay has developed a controlled aerobic composting process with the following strategies Waste sanitation at the site of first collection (bins from thee the garbage is lifted). Controlled aerobic composting and mechanical screening of digested compost. Many plants based on these principles (Excels technology) have been established in several cities in India. This technology is ideally suited for large towns where the quantity of garbage collected is high with low garbage input, it does not become cost effective. An attractive method of low cost aerobic composting, which is practical and suitable for small towns, has been developed by Ms. Almitra H. Patel. This process, however doesnt produce germs free compost t the extend as in the Excels process. This compost can be prepared with the normal farm compost prepared in compost puts in its hygiene level. iv) Vermi Composting: This h as been recently developed as a low cost method of garbage treatment using certain species of earthworms as the composting agent. Extensive works on vermicomposting have been done in the Bhawalhar Earthwarm institute, Pune and Sambalpur University, Orissa. This method has been found very suitable for treating kitchen wastes at domestic level, in hotels and hostels. Pilot scale experiments are in progress at different places to extend this to community scale.

Hazardous Waste Management

Radioactive Pollution Radioactive pollution is a physical type of environmental pollution. It differs from other pollutions of air, water, soil or land in respect that it not only 1 affects critically the individuals but also brings physiological changes in the I subsequent generations. Radionuclides contaminate air, water,.and soil and dangerously deteriorate man's vital life support system. Any radioisotope with a sufficient long half-life introduced into the environment is reported to find its way into human's body. Even the smallest increase in radiation above the natural background radiations is reported to cause risks. Increasing the usage of nuclear testing, X -ray fluoroscopy, radars, and luminous substances like' Colour TV's and installation of power plant pose new dimensions of radiation pollution. Radiation is the emission of energy from a point of origin. Any electromagnetic or particulate radiation capable of producing ions, directly

or indirectly, by interaction with matter is referred to as Ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is generated during various medical, nuclear and industrial uses. Sources, Effects and Control of Radioactive Pollution Sources of Radio active Pollution The two main sources of radioactive pollution are i) and ii) Man-made sources Natural Sources The natural sources of radioactivity are considered mainly of the cosmic radiation received from the space, and the naturally occurring radioisotopes present in the environment and those contained within the body of the organisms. The cosmic radiations are of extraterrestrial origin, which probably arise from the sun or even beyond it. They are consisted of particles of very high energy, primarily of protons and some heavy nuclei. These cosmic particles collide with the gas molecules of the upper atmosphere bringing about intense ionization in gases accompanied with the formation of secondary cosmic rays composed mainly of neutrons, mesons, and gamma rays. Eventually a complex mixture of particles reaches the earth as cosmic rays. These particles also form substantial quantities 3 and 14c in the atmosphere. Natural sources

Another source of natural radiation is the presence of radionuclides in the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. All the elements above atomic number of 82(Lead) are radioactive in nature and emit a variable quantity of radiations. The most abundant naturally occurring radionuclides on the earth are Uranium, Thorium and Potassium - 40. Soils, rocks and even building material contain small quantities of 40K; and Uranium and its daughters. Man-Made Sources Man causes radioactive pollution by testing of nuclear weapons establishment of nuclear power plants, mining and refining of plutonium an< thorium, and preparation of radioactive isotope. 1. Nuclear Weapons: Testing of nuclear arms comprises: (a) The use of Uranium 235 and Plutonium 239 for fission. (b) Hydrogen or lithium as fusion material. Atomic explosions are uncontrolled chain reactions. They give rise to very large neutron flux conditions that cause other materials in the surrounding environment to become radioactive. Huge clouds of fine radioactive particles and gases are thrown up in the environment and are carried away to distant areas by the agency of wind. Gradually they settle down on earth as fall out or are brought down by rain. 2. Atomic Reactors and Nuclear Fuel: The most common fuel used for fission in the nuclear power plants are uranium, thorium and plutonium. Uranium undergoes several processes, right from its mining to its inception into the reactors. The spent materials obtained from the reactors, after the energy has been utilized, are reprocessed to recover unburnt uranium, plutonium and some other important isotopes, which can be used in medicine or for some other useful purposes. The whole operation from the mining of the fuel to its final disposal is called nuclear fuel cycle.

At almost all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle, liquid, gaseous and solid radioactive wastes are released having a tremendous potential to contaminate the environment and hence, a great care is to be taken for the environmental safety during the nuclear operations. 3. Radioactive Isotopes: Radioactive isotopes such as 125,' 14c and 32p and their compounds find wide usage in scientific research institutions contain varying amounts of radioactive materials. When this wastewater reaches the different water sources such as rivers, streams, lakes etc. through the sewers they cause water pollution. Radioactive iodine and phosphorus also enter the food chain through water and may finally reach man through fish etc. 4. Other Sources: During different medical treatments, varying concentrations of radiations enter the human body for instance, X-rays are common for detecting skeletal disorders, and therapy for cancer patients often includes radium and other isotope radiations. It has been reported that about 240 million dental and medical X-rays are taken annually and that 15 million tests using radioactive materials as tracers in the human body are also made. A common types" of ionizing radiation is X-ray which is produced by radiographic equipment, X-ray therapy equipment, dental X-rays that can operate at a voltage about 10 KV produce more penetrating radiation and may be more hazardous, if not properly shielded. Effects of Radioactive Pollutants Most of the damages 'caused by radioactive pollutants stem from their capacity to produce high-energy radiations, which are very harmful to a living system. There are-two main modes in which radioactive pollution can be dangerous to a biological system. (i) Damages caused by radiations from outside source. (ii) Damages caused by radiations from sources inside the body. The effects can be of 2 types: 1. Instantaneous 2. Delayed types Instantaneous On exposure be 100-250 reads- fatigue, nausea, vomiting, anemia, diarrhea, loss of **, saddening of slun, anemia. 250-400 bluster formation, *** of skin, burning sensation, loss of sight natural resistance and fighting capacity organist germs is reduced, **** Around 10,000 - ** individuals by damaging heart, brain. Delayed Most common & dreaded in cancer of different types. Genetic defects on ovary and testes affecting Reproductive ability and deformation of produced offsprings He young children grow into short men, retarded growth Low activity effluents and precipitation are first subjected to normal waste-water treatments like fiocculation, precipitation, sorption, filtration and ion-exchange process. Then different

categories of radioactive materials are separated. Radioactive isotopes or nuclides are usually strontium and cesium. Ion exchange, filtration and evaporation are done in low solid content and low to medium radioactive effluent wastes from nuclear power plants. The wastes from boiling water reactors and high pressure reactors are drained to (i) radioactive waste hold up tanks where from they are passed to (ii) filtration unit. Filtered liquid is then taken to demineraliser unit. Then it is subjected to evaporation in (iii) evaporators. The gases emitted from the evaporator are led to a (iv) gas waste treatment system while the slurry is either sent to (v) deep under ground slurry tanks or (vi) packed in disposal drums. Another method of medium level waste is called hydrofracture. In this process very deep wells are drilled passing through different rock strata say upto 300 to 400 metres. Through strong metal casing with perforated sides, the geological formations like layers between the rocks are fractured under an applied high pressure. In the deep fractures of crevices thus formed, the radioactive concentrates mixed with fly ash, or cement is injected so that the radioactivity is locked deep underground in the crevices. They are supposed to decay there, away from human environment and away from normally tapped ground waters. Bituminiza tion is still another method in which the wastes are solidified and immobilized from its natural flow in ecosystem. High radioactivity wastes need very careful and elaborate processing treatments. The first step is to separate the unfissioned uranium from the products of fission or harmful fractions. The spent fuel is allowed to cool for about three and half months during which period the short half-life components like I decay sufficiently. Then the waste is finely cut into small bits and treated to hot nitric acid. Uranium oxide gets dissolved and leached down. The left over solid is put in drums and buried deep in the ground. The leached liquid fraction of nitric acid and uranium fission products are then subjected to a solvent extraction process in which uranium and plutoniurn are recovered and then separated using nitric acid
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