A NEW

ANALOGY

BETWEEN

MECHANICAL
SYSTEMS

AND

ELECTRICAL

:ByF. A. Frvso University Michigan of

By considering eachmass a linear mechanical in systemashaving two terminals, onefixedin the mass onefixedto theframeof reference, and everylinearmechanical system reduced a multiplicityof closed is to mechanical circuitsto whichforce and velocityrelations similar to Kirchhoff'slaws, may be applied. The conventional mechanical-electrical analogy derived is from the similarityof the equations v--f/z andl--E/Z. It is incomplete the following in respects whichlead to difficultyin its application. whichindicates lack of analogyin the use of nature of the analogous across" I. There is a fundamental a difference the the wordsUthrough" quantities in and
for instance,forcethroughand e.m.L across.

II. Mechanical elements series in mustbe represented electrical by elements in parallel,and vice versa. III. Mechanical impedances series in mustbe combined the reciprocal the as of sum of the reciprocals while electricalimpedances series additive. in are IV. There is an incompleteness the mechanical in analogues Kirchhoff'slaws. of The new analogyis derivedfrom the similarity of the followingequations: v--f andE-- IZ where is the reciprocal the mechanical of impedance usuallydeas freed.This newanalogyis complete all of the above-mentioned in respects which in the old analogy failed.It leadsto analogous relations a simplesortand permitsan of

equivalent electrical circuitto be drawn an easy in irtuitive manner.

INTRODUCTION

If a groupof physicalconcepts quantitiesare related to eachother or in a certain manner, as by equationsof a certain form, and another group of conceptsor quantities are interrelated in a similar manner, then an analogymay be said to existbetweenthe concepts the one of groupand thoseof the othergroup.The essential elemento analogy an is a similaritybetween relations the within onegroupand the relations within the other group.Two groupsof concepts may be analogous in somerespects not analogous otherrespects. and in An analogyis valuableto the extent that it permitsa knowledge o one field to be applied in another field. Sincemuch more is known of
the characteristics of electrical circuits than of certain kinds of mechani-

cal systems, is often valuableto discuss mechanical it a system terms in of its electricalanalogue.It will be shownthat the conventional mechanical-electrical analogy is incompletein certain important par-

ticularswhichmake it difficultto apply in practice.A new kind of mechanical-electrical analogy setforth belowwhichis morecomplete is than the old and permitsan equivalentelectricalcircuit to be drawnin
249

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250

JOUP. O1 NAL THEACOUSTICAL SOCIETY

[January,

a muchmorestraightforward and common-sense manner,not requiring suchcarefulreasoning eachstep. at

We have all learned at school that inductance in an electrical circuit

playsa part similar to massin a mechanical system. In substantiation of thisviewpointit is mentioned that the energystored the magnetic in field of the, inductanceis LI ' and the kinetic energy of a massis m; that the inductancetends to prevent a changeof current by

generating backe.m.f.of magnitude a LdI/dT just asa mass tendsto

prevent a changeof velocity by producinga reactingforce of magnitude md/dt. But onemight say with equaltruth that capacityplays the r51eof electricalmassbecause energystoredin the electrostatic the fieldof a condenser, CE, corresponds the kinetic energyof a mass, to m; and alsothat the condenser tendsto prevent a change e.m.f. of by absorbing currentof magnitude a CdF./dtjust as a masstendsto prevent a changeof velocity by producinga reacting force of magnitudemd/di. Similarly we have been told that capacity in an electricalcircuit plays a part similar to the compliance of a spring in a mechanical c system.And it is pointedout that the energystoredin the electrostatic field of the condenser CE corresponding the energy cf'stored is to in a springby a forcef; that a condenser hold a charge,CE, prowill portionalto the e.m.f. while a springundergoes displacement, proa cf, portionalto the appliedforce.But it may be saidwith equalreason that inductanceplays the part of electrical stiffnessbecausethe energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductance, LI , corresponds to the energy stored by a spring, cf; and also that an inductancewill

storea voltageimpulse(fEdt) of magnitude proportional the LI to

currentwhile a springundergoes displacement, proportional the a cf, to appliedforce? It is, therefore,evidentthat a new analogyis possible which force in is identifiedwith current rather than with e.m.f. as in the old analogy. In what follows,it will be shownthat the new analogy is more complete and moreusefulthan the old.
THE MECHANICAL ELEMENTS

We will confine our attention to the consideration of those mechanical

systems whereinall the forces and the resultingvelocities essentially are

For instance, Starling,Electricity Magnetisdn, 307. and p. a In Liven's, Ttteoryof Electricity, 416, it is said uIt must,however,be particularlyemp. phasized that we have no definiteproofthat this (magnetic)energyis kinetic,it is merelya
matter of convenient choiceso to regardit.

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1933]

F.A. FIRESTONE

251

in oneline. Many vibrating systems, includingtorsionalsystems, can be very simply reducedto sucha linear problem.The elements a of mechanical system assumed be of threekinds,springs, are to resistances andmasses, althoughpracticallyit may be difficultto realizeany oneof themin its pureform. We may assume that all of the elements in one lie horizontalline and that the positive direction along this line is from left to right.In orderto understand analogy detail,it isnecessary the in
to look carefully at the nature of eachkind of mechanicalelement and to be surethat we havea clearconception the meaningof the quantiof ties whichmay be usedin describing state. its A springhas two terminalsto which forcemay be applied,and since the forceis the samein all parts of the springwe will speakof the "forcethroughthe spring."The forcethroughthe springmay be assumed be positivewhenthe springis undertension,and the fact that to a springis undertension may be indicatedby an arrowin the positive

-v

-I-

--

Fro. 1. Spring.

Fro. 2. Re, sistanc.

Fxo. 3. Mass.

direction the right) asshown Fig. 1. Thisis merely convention (to in a which must be remembered. There will always be a positive force througha springwhenit is longerthan its unstrained length. If the left terminal a spring of through whichthereis a positive force(tension) is attachedto some object,then the spring on the positivesideof the lies objectand the objectwill be subjected a forcein the positivedirecto tion. If the right terminalof the springis attachedto the object,then the spring on the negative lies sideof the object,and the positiveforce throughthe springwill pull the objectin the negativedirection. The relative velocity of the terminalswill be calledthe "velocity difference across" spring simplythe "velocityacross." the or The velocitydifference counted is positive a giventerminalif in imagining at that terminal as fixed, the other terminal is movingin the positive direction. This may be indicated + and - signs in Fig. 1. Thus by as if westandat the left endof the spring andimagine asfixed,the plus it
signby our side will indicate that the other terminal is moving in the

positive direction the rightin the figure) awayfromus.Similarly, (to or the negativeat the right end indicatesthat if the right end is fixed,

theleftend bemoving thenegative will in direction theleft). Conse(to

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252

JOURNAL THEACOUSTICAL O1' SOCXET

[January,

quently, a plus sign at the left terminal of a springindicatesthat the

springis growinglonger,and viceversa. a torsional (In springthereis

no essentialdistinction between the two possibledirectionsof twist analogous lengtheningand shorteningin a linear spring. One may to merely assume arbitrarily that a counterclockwise velocity of the nearer terminal relative to the farther is a positive angular velocity difference across the spring; and likewise that a counterclockwise torque on the nearer terminal sends a positive torque through the spring.) A mechanical resistance may be visualizedas two massless concentric tubes with a layer of viscousoil between. It also has two terminals. With the sameconventions in the previousparagraphand as indias

catedin Fig. 2, a resistance have a positiveforcethroughit (tenwill sion)when the velocitydifference across is positiveat the left terit minal (resistance growing longer). It is not obviousthat a masshas two terminals.One cannotapply a forceto a springor to a resistance without grasping at two points,but it forcecan appantly be appliedto a massby contacting at onepoint it
only. But a force is itself a two-terminal element sinceaction and reaction are ,qual and opposite; is impossible pushor pull without it to standingon something. Thus in order that a forcemay act on a mass, the force must react againstanother mass,which may be the earth. The acceleration producedon a mass by a given force is the same whether that force reactsagainst a small massor againstthe earth. Sincewe measurethe velocityof the massrelative to the earth, and sinceany impressed forcemust in effect react againstthe earth, it is helpful to assume that every masshas two terminals,one of which is somearbitrary point of the mass,the other beinga point near the mass, whichis fixed to the earth, as shownin Fig. 3. Here againthe velocity difference acrossthe mass(relative velocity) of its terminalsis considered positiveat the left terminal when the right terminalis moving

to the right. (Whilein ordinary language speak thevelocity the we of of

massinsteadof the velocitydifference across mass,this is similarto the the caseof any two terminal electricalelement,one side of which is grounded,wherein the potential of the high side is the same as the potential differenceacross the element.) If we impresson a massan externalpositiveforcef' as shownin Fig. 4, the masswill receivean acceleration whichwill be positiveat the left terminal andwhichwill
call forth a reactive tensile force between the terminals of the mass

Anyunaccelerated of reference frame would equally do well.

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F. A. FIRESTONE

253

'/

,' [

FIG. 4.

A tensile force tending to pull these terminals together.

A compressiveforce tending to push these terminals apart.
r

A springin tension.The displacementdifferences must therefore be positive at the left terminal, meaning that as seen from the left terminal the right terminal must have moved in the positive direction. Springlengthened.

A spring in compression. The displacement dif-

ferencetherefore is negative theleft terminal. at

Spring shortened.

_
v q-"

r: must therefore have theThe difference Resistancesignvelocity intension. resistance shown,

r

growing longer.
Resistance compression, in growingshorter.

/7 Mass difference ..... with acceleration of shown signs

m must be in tension.The fight terminal is accelerating toward the right.
must be in tension.The left terminal is accelerating to the left.
Fro. 5.

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254

Jovsx.OrTHE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY

[January,

A andB, ofmagnitude f--ma. Thus tensile ft has the force produced a

tensileforcethroughthe massto the earth. It is asif the earth did not 4 4

liketo see masses accelerated acted them and on witha restraining

force. Assuming before as that a tensile forcethrough element an is

positive, is, theelement tryingto pullits terminals that is together,

thereis a positiveforcethrougha mass whenthereis an acceleration across whichis positiveat the left terminal. Similar conventions it can

beworked fora moment inertia a torsional out of in system. The above conventions summarized exemplified Fig. 5. are and in Mechanical elements beassumed beconnected will to mechanically in series when theyarejoined to end shown Fig.6. In such end as in an arrangement obvious theforce isit that through theelementsequal; all is if one elementin tension areallin tension. is they Likewise velocity the difference a series elementsthealgebraic ofthevelocity across of is sum

Fro. 6.

differences across eachelement. When a number of mechanicalelements

areconnected twocommon to junction points, shown Fig. 7, they as in maybesaid beconnectedparallel. connecting ontheright to in The bar isassumed remain to vertical. isobvious in such arrangement It that an
the velocity differenceacrossall of the elementsis the same.Further-

morethe total forcethrough combination the algebraic the is sumof

the separate forces throughthe elements. Springsand resistances may be connected either in seriesor in

parallel a number masses be connected parallel but of can in only,as oneterminal each of mass connected the earth.Two masses is to only maybe connected series in through otherelements shown Fig.6, as in
but if theywereconnected directlytogether, theywouldin effect in be parallel. course, Of springs resistances be connected and may eitherin
series in parallelwith masses. or

We may statetwo additional relations whichhold for any linear mechanical system, forcelaw and the velocity the law. According to theforce law,thealgebraic of all theforces sum acting anyjunction on
4 Or other frame of reference.

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1933]

F.A. Ftv.sov.

255

of mechanical elementsis zero. For instance if we considerthe central

junction Fig.7 andassume a force in that whose arrow awayfromthe is junctionshould counted be positive, then
f--f--f--f--f4=O.

The velocitylaw states that the algebraic sumof the velocitydifferences aroundany closed mechanical circuitis zero.It is necessary to take as the signof eachvelocitydifference first signwhichis seen the

onapproaching element going the in around circuit. the Thusin Fig.6

if the signs the velocities assumed shown, of are as
v - v + va - v4 = 0.

Also Fig. 10thevelocity applied in law around central the circuit would give v+v4+v-v=O.

Fro. 7.

We follow the usual convention definingmechanicalimpedance in

asthecomplex quotient theforce of through thevelocity and difference

across an element or combination of elements.

(This definition wasoriginally chosen with the conventional analogy in mind.) In a series mechanical of elements havingindividual impedances , z, zs,etc., the impedance the combination of of wouldbe
f
+ , + + +

1
1 1

1
1

/+7+7++
ance of the combination is

-+-+-++

Thus mechanical impedances series in add as the reciprocal the of sumof the reciprocals do electrical as impedances parallel.Similarly in if we have a numberof mechanical impedances parallel,the impedin

So mechanical impedances parallel are additive like electricalimin pedances series. in

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256

JOURNAL THEACOUSTICAL O1 SOCIETY

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In the above descriptionof the mechanicalelementsand the mechanicalcircuit no detailedassumption beenmade as to the nature has of any analogywith the electricaldrcuit which may be noted later, although someof the conventions were suggested analogy. By conby sideringeach massas having one terminal fixed to the frame of reference, every mechanicalsystemis reducedto a multiplicity of dosed mechanical circuits,thereby preparinghe way for the applicationof

electrical analogies.
THE CONVENTIONAL ANALOGY

The conventional mechanical-electricalanalogy may be derived from the fact that for most mechanicalsystems,an electrical system can be invented of sucha sort that the differential equation of motion in the two systems, expressed termsof displacement as in and charge, respectively, will be of the sameform. If impedances definedas in are the followingvectorial equations = f/z (mechanical) I = E/Z (electrical)

the form of the impedances derivedfrom the differentialequations as will be similar and will justify the following conventionalanalogy.
THE CONVENTIONAL ANALOGY
Mechanical
Electrical

Forcethrough (dynes) =f Velocityacross-- (cm/sec.) v Displacement across-- (cm) s Impulsethrough--p (dynesec.) Impedance (ohms)* =
Resistance r (ohms) = Reactance x (ohms) Mass--m (grams) Compliance-- (cm/dyne) Power=f (ergs/sec.) of resistor--r (ohms) of mass=io.n (ohms) z of spring=-i/o, (ohms) Impedances series in
1

e.m.f. across--- (volts) E Currentthrough--/(amperes) Charge through=Q (coulombs)

Voltage impulse=fEAt sec.) (volt

Impedance=Z(ohms) Resistance R (ohms) = Reactsnee X (ohms) = Inductance--- (henries) L Capacity=C (farads)
Power= E1 (watts) Z of resistor--- (ohms) R Z of inductance=ioL(ohms) Z of condenser=-i/oC (ohms) Impedance series in
Z = Z + Z, + Z, +

11zt+ 11z,+ 11z8 + Impedances parallel in

Impedances parallel in
1 Z-

1/& + i/z, + i/z, +

Kirchhoff's laws Forceand velocity laws Sum of velocity differences around closed Sum oI currentsto a unction is zero circuit is zero'

Sumof forces a junctionis zero to

Sum of e.m.f.'s around a mesh is zero

* Mechanical ohm=dyne/kine.

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1933]

F.A. Fmv.sov.

257

Thus in the familiar problemof the forcedvibration of an elastically boundmasswith friction, and its analogous circuit, shownin Fig. 8, the differential equationsare

mdas c = feio'dta + RdQ C Eei' rds t LdQ dt +--= Q at' +-+ s "
The steady state solutionsof thesein vector forms are
f
r + i corn

f
R + i

E
col

Therefore the velocity acrossthe mass due to the impressed force is the same as the current through the inductance due to the e.m.f.E.

_/
Mechanicalsystem
FIG. 8.

Conventional analogue

However, while the mechanicalelementsare connectedin parallel, the analogous electricalelements mustbe connected series. in This must

alwaysbe the casewith this analogysincemechanical elements in parallelhave a common velocitydifference across them and electrical
elementsin serieshave a commoncurrent through them. In general, mechanical elements series represented electricalelements in are by in parallel, and viceversa,so that in a complicated mechanical system the analogous electricalelementsmust be placed in a manner quite contraryto intuition. A mass,which always has one terminal on the earth, will usually be represented an inductancein the high side of by the line, and a springwhichis in series with the mechanicalcircuit and must transmit all the force from one part of the mechanicalsystemto
another will be shown as a condenser across the line with one side

grounded, while a springwhichconnects part of the mechanical system to the earth will be represented a condenser serieswith the high by in wire. This is shownin Fig. 12.

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258

JOU,NAI. HE ACOUSC^. O SOCiEtY

[January,

The difficulty alsoindicated the useof the words is in "thr.ough" and "across" the tableof analogous in quantities above.Forcehasa "through" character current; force like the through each a series of of mechanical elements thesame, asthe current is just through each a of series electrical of elements thesame. is Also,velocity difference an has

"across" character potential like difference; velocity the difference

across eachof a number mechanical of elements parallelis equal, in just as the potential differences across electrical elements parallel in
are equal. It is in ignoring these fundamental characteristics the of

analogous quantities placing and "force through" analogous "e.m.f. to

across" the conventional that analogy becomes unnecessarily difficult

of application. Furthermore it is noted in the table that the laws for the addition

of impedances not analogous, alsothat thereis a lack of accuare and

rate correspondencebetween Kirchhoff's laws and their mechanical analogues.
THE NEW ANALOGY

The analogy hereproposed be derived may fromthe similarity of

the equations
v=f E= IZ

where is the bar impedance, reciprocal the mechanical the of im-

pedance. realpart of is the bar resistance andits imaginary The , part, the bar reactance Since bar impedance a spring com. the of of pliance is icoc the impedance an inductance is icoL, imc and of L the pedance an inductance =c is at all frequencies of L equalto the bar impedance the spring.Similarlythe far impedance a mass of of m is -i/cornand the impedance a condenser -i/coc sothat the of is impedance a capacity =m will at all frequencies equalto the of C be bar impedance the mass. of The bar impedance a mechanical of resistance ohms 1/r andis therefore r is equalto the impedance an of electrical resistance= 1/r ohms. thiswaythe following R In analogy is
established.
THE NEW ANALOGY

Mechanical

Electrical

Forcethrough=f (dynes) Velocityacross=v(cm/sec.) Displacement across-- (cm) s Impulse through-p (dynesec.) Bar impedance (ohms)* --

Current through--I (amperes) e.m.f. across-E (volts)

Voltage impulse across=fEdt (voltsec.)

Chargethrough--Q (coulombs) Impedance= Z (ohms)

Bar impedance--velocity across/force through.

ohms barohms--kines/dyne.

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F. A. FIRESTONE Tax N.w ANALOGY (Coni'd)

Mechanical

259

Electrical

bBarresistance=(o-h--ms)
Barreactance= (ohms) Mass=m (grams) Compliance (cm/dyne) =

Power =fv (ergs/sec.)

of resistor= oh)
of mass=-i/om (ohms) of spring=ioc(ohms) Bar impedances series in

Resistance R (ohms) = Reactance X (ohms) = Capacity= C (farads) Inductance L (henries) = Power= IE (watts) Z of resistor=R (ohms) Z of condenser=-i/oC (ohms) Z of inductance=io (ohms) Impedancesin series
Z = Zx + Z + Z3 +

Bar impedances parallel in

1

Impedances parallel in
1
Z-

1/ + 1/, + 1/3 +
Force and velocity laws Sum of forces to a junction is zero Sum of velocity differences around closed
circuit is zero

1/Z .-I-l/Z, .-I-1/Z, .-IKirchhoff's laws

Sum of currents to a junction is zero

Sum of e.m.f.'s around a mesh is zero

Bar resistance= real part of bar impedance. Bar reactance imaginarypart of bar impedance. =

It has seemedadvisableto introduce a new term, bar impedance, whichis equalto velocity across/force through. is natural that the old It
analogists,having arrived on the ground first, should have chosento define impedanceas force/velocity since that fitted in with the other assumptions they had made. But in the author's opinion, all of their assumptions were unwise and led to the left-handed result that while electricalimpedances seriesare additive, mechanicalimpedances in in series must be added as the reciprocalof the sum of the reciprocals as was shownabove. It would have been better if this new analogy had beenthought of first, for in that casethe quantity which we have been forced call "bar impedance" to wouldhavebeencalled"impedance" and wouldhave beensubjectto the samelaws of addition as are found in the electricalcircuit. It is now too late to changesuddenlythe unfortunate definitionof impedance which has beenso much usedin the past, soit is recommended that the term "bar impedance"be used. Then if the

new analogyshouldprovepopular,the time may comewhen the old

definitionof impedancewill have fallen into disuse,at which time the "bar impedance" may be shortened "impedance" to with the new deftnition.

Of course, bar impedance the same as mechanicaladmittance as usually defined, is but to use the latter term would spoil the analogyand causeconfusion.

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260

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This nomenclaturetherefore prepares the way for an evolutionary change definition.In the meantime will indicatethat this quantity of is z below the line, that is, the reciprocalof z as ordinarily defined.It should noted,however, be that s is the real part of andis equalto r/z , being the reciprocalof r only when z--r, a pure resistance; similarly
for .

The unit in which bar impedanceis measured the bar ohm (ohm) is which is one kine per dyne. In time the bar might be droppedthereby constitutinga changeof definition. In a series mechanical system,the bar impedance the combination of is the sumof the bar impedances the elements. of
v + v. + v + = ... =+.+a+'''

Similarly for a parallel mechanicalsystem

v 1

f + f. + fa + '''

1/ + 1/. + 1/a + ...

Thus the bar impedancefollowsthe samelawsof addition as electrical impedance. The new electricalanalogue displacement the voltageimpulse, for is

(fEdt) thisbeingthe electrical quantitywhichis measured a ballistic by

galvanometer.It was given this name by the old analogists because to them it was analogous mechanicalimpulse.The lack of correspondto enceat this point in the new analogyis again a mere matter of definition. In any problemwherea simpleharmonicdisplacement amplitude is specified, is convenient the new analogyto convertit to velocity it in by multiplying by ico. In both analogies, mechanical powerand electricalpower are analogous.

It will be notedthat in this analogythe words"through"and "across" are analogously used.In the old analogyit was appealingto have force and electromotive force be analoguesbecauseof the similar sound of the words which, when looselyused, appear to have a similarity of meaning; but when one analyzes the casemore closelyand finds that force throughis analogousto electromotive force across,some of the attractivenessis lost. One may also favor the old analogyif he thinks of e.m.f. as causeand current as effect, of forceas causeand velocity as
Bennet and Crothers,Introductory Electrodynamics Engineers, 470. for p.

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1933]

F.A. Fm.so.

261

effect.However,in series electricM circuitit is moreconvenient to consider currentthroughn elements the cusend the e.m.f. the crossthe elements the effect,nd in series mechnicMsystem,of forcethrough element cusend velocity n s cross element the s effect, thereby that csefvoringthenewnMogy. in With this nMogyMso,the differentiM equations motionin the of

nMogous systems be of the smeformif writtenin pproprite will vribles.For instance, consider problem Fig. 9 where velocity the in

'/

I
FIG. 9.

ve is impressed series in with a resistance, spring, mass we and and wish to find the resulting forcethroughthe system.Applyingthe velocitylaw around mechanical the circuitand usingthe impulse p--ffdt as dependent variable get the following we differential equations'

d'p ' 4-m = ve ; LdQ dt + Q= Ee ' - dp ----p + RdQ dt ' dt ' C

form are

Since f=dp/dt andE =dQ/dt the steady statesolutions these of equations in vectorial

-- 1loom) f= 4-i(coc - ; I =R +

i(ooL-- 1/ooc) Z

The velocity across element be found multiplying any can by the

above valueoff by the bar impedance the element. of

In the above differential equations theirsolutions analogy and the as

set forth in the above table is obvious.In the series mechanicalcircuit

shown, impulse the through each element the same is whilethe displacements them different, across are consequently more it is convenient to writethe differential equation with impulse dependent as variable, thandisplacement. maytherefore thatif thefounders vibraWe say of tiontheory happened consider forced had to the vibration problem of the series mechanical system with impressed velocity, instead the of parallel system impressed theanalogy presented with force, here isthe

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262

Joussaz or Tar. ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY

[January,

one which they would have noted as being the most obviousand appealing.
EXAMPLES

The abovedifferentialequations have beenpresented the benefit for of thosewho feel that an analogyshouldcome from a similarity of differentialequations.However, when one wishesto find the steady state e.m.f.'s and currentsin a given electricalcircuit he doesnot write down any differential equations.He finds the impedances the eleof ments at the given frequencyby well-knownformulae,appliesKirchhoff's first law to the currentsenteringthe junction points, applies Kirchhoff'ssecond law to the voltagesaroundeachmesh,and solves the simultaneousequations thus derived for the unknown currents and voltages. It is, therefore, desirablethat one should not have to write the differentialequations either the mechanical the electrical for or system in findingthe electricalanalogue a givenmechanical of system. In the new analogy, the equivalent electrical circuit is drawn to resemblethe originalmechanical system,remembering that one terminal of eachmassis connected earth. Each springis represented an to by inductanceL=c; each massis represented a capacity C=m one by sideof which is connected ground;eachmechanical to resistance bar of resistance is replacedby an electricalresistance =. Mechanical R elements in series are representedby electrical elements in series; parallel mechanicalelementsby parallel electricalelements.If there is any questionas to the validity of the equivalent circuit, Kirchhoff's laws may be applied to the junctions and meshesof the circuit and theseshouldyield equations whichare equivalentto thosewhichwill be obtained on applying the force law and the velocity law to the mechanicalsystem.Kirchhoff'sfirst law for the currentsflowingto any junctionis quite analogous the forcelaw for the forces to actingon any junction; Kirchhoff's secondlaw for the e.m.f.'s around a mesh is analogous the velocity law for the velocitiesaround a closedmeto
chanical circuit.

Having arrived at this much of an understanding the mechanical of problemwe might considerabandoning the analogy and working the mechanical problemdirectly by an application the forceand velocity of laws.In case is necessary write downKirchhoff'sequations the it to for electrical circuit and to solve them, little is gained by drawing the equivalent circuit; the analogousequationscan be written down at oncefor the mechanicalsystem.Many well-knownelectricallaws as, for instance,the reciprocaltheoremand Thevenin'stheorem,can be

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1933]

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convertedby the analogyinto equivalentmechanicallaws and used directly. In this manner, the electrical techniquefor the solutionof problemscan be usedwithout convertingthe problemto an electrical circuit. In casethe propertiesof the analogous electricalcircuit have alreadybeenworkedout sothat no equations needbe written or solved, then there is a decidedadvantagein working with the electricalanalogue.

o00-c'

?,

Fro. 10. Mchanical system.

FIo. 11. N

anogu,.

Lama

FIo. 12. Conv,ntional andogu,.

As an exampleconsider linear mechanical the systemshownin Fig. 10 in which an impressed velocity is operatingand we might wish to know the velocity across of) mo.The new analogue, (or derivedas explainedabove,is shown Fig. 11, and the electricalcircuitlooksmuch in like the mechanicalsystem. The e.m.f. acrosscowill be the desired velocity across The conventional mo. analogue shownin Fig. 12 and is the circuit is just the opposite what onewould at first glanceexpect. of C and R mustbe connected parallelbecause and havethe same in c forcethroughthem. Lamustbe in series with the highwire eventhough mahas one terminal to earth because forcethrough mais the differthe

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264

JoJ o a. Acovsc^ Soc.

[January,

encebetween forces the throughc4and c. The currentthroughLo is

the desiredvelocity across mo.

Or suppose wishto solve well-known we the problem the forced of vibration a mass, of spring, resistance parallel, shown Fig. and in as in 13,wishing findthevelocity to across mass. newanalogue a the The is

Mechanical system
FIG. 13.

New analogue

constant currentgenerator paralleled a resistance, by inductance and capacity,and our analogous problem to find the e.m.f. across is the
condenser C.
1 I

E =IZ

=I

+ i(ooC-

Now putting in the mechanical valuesof the analogous electrical quantities we have

1/ q- i(o.,m- 1/c)

which is recognized being the correct result when we remember as that i is the reciprocalof the mechanicalresistance usually defined. as
THE NEW ANXLOGUE OF ELECTOECHANICXL DEWCES

In treating electromechanical devices, suchas microphones loudand speakers, convertingtheir mechanical by parts to analogous electrical

structures whichare to be suitablycoupled the electrical to system, it

must be rememberedthat in the analogiesset forth above, the c.g.s. unitswereusedon the mechanical whilepracticalunitswereused side on the electricalside. This resultsin power in ergsper second being analogous power in watts, thus differingby a factor of 10. As long to as we deal in analogies only, thereis no harm in having the powers in the analogous electrical circuitbe 10 timesthe powers the mechaniin cal system;but when an electricalcircuit is coupledto an analogue circuit, the energyleavingthe electrical circuit must equalthe energy

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265

entering the analogue circuit. One way to resolve this difficulty is to

useasour unit of force(10')/ dynes,analogous oneampere;and as to our unit of velocity (10')/ kines, analogous one volt. The use of to theselarge units will not changethe magnitudesof our mechanicalimpedances,which involve the ratio of force and velocity, but will cause the power,whichis the productof forceand velocity,to be expressed in
watts.

Considerfor example a generator connectedto a telephonereceiver whose diaphragm may be idealized as a mass connected through a spring to the receivercasewhich, for simplicity, is considered staas tionary. There is a two-way interaction between the electrical circuit and this mechanicalsystem:a current through the magnet producesa forceon the diaphragm,whoseamount in dynesper ampereis assumed known; also any motion of the diaphragm generatesan e.rn.f. in the magnet circuit, whoseamount in volts per kine need not be known. This couplingbetween the electrical circuit and the analoguecircuit can be represented an ideal transformerwhoseprimary is in series by with the electricalcircuit and whosesecondary in parallel with the is condenser inductance and which represent effectivemassand comthe plianceof the diaphragm.The ratio of primary to secondary turns is the

forcefactor of the magnetsystemas expressed large dynes((107) in /' dynes)per ampere.The resultingcircuit may be solvedin the usual
manner to find the voltage acrossthe condenser;this will be the velocity of the diaphragmexpressed largekines ((10') / kines). in If the electromechanical couplingis electrostatic instead of electromagnetic,then voltage in the electricalcircuit resultsin a force on the mechanical system, that is, it results a currentin the analogue in circuit. Also the velocityof the mechanical systemgenerates currentin the a electrical circuit. This calls for an inverse transformer to couple the electricalcircuit and the analogue circuit of sucha nature that the current throughthe secondary a constanttimes the voltage across is the primarywhilethe currentthroughthe primaryis a constant timesthe voltageacross secondary. the This is not a familiar devicebut it can be replaced by an ideal transformer if either the circuit connectedto its primaryor to its secondary replaced an inverse be by networkwith respect oneohm. Changing newanalogue its inverse to * a to networkwith respectto one ohm is equivalentto a changeto the old analogue.In this problem electrostatic of coupling, old analogy advantageous the is
?SeeShea,Transmission Networks WaveFilters,p. 311, or Johnson, and Transmission Circuits Telephonic for Communication, p. 230.

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266

JOURNAL TIlE ACOUSTICAL Or SOCIETY

[January,

to the extent that it permits an ideal transformerto be usedin coupling the electricalcircuit to the analoguecircuit.
TIE ACOVSICA.-E.ECICA. ANALOGY

Acoustical transmission systemsare not analogousto mechanical systemsin quite such a simple manner as one might at first thought suppose. such an acousticaltransmission In systemas an acoustical filter, eachmain conductingtube has as its electricalanalogue,an electrical line (two wire) havingtwo input and two output terminals. If a s tube is used as a side branch with either a dosed or an open end, it is as if the input terminalsof the equivalent line were connectedto the main conductingline while the output terminalswere open circuited
or short circuited.

The two variables usually 'usedin the discussion an acoustical of

transmission systemare the soundpressurep at a surfaceand the volume velocity V through the surface.The acousticimpedance,Za, on a givensurface,is definedas the complexquotientof p and V. Thus from the similarityof the following equations conventional the acoustical-electrical analogymay be derived.
v=/z t=/z.

However, by definingthe acoustical bar impedance V divided by p as

we could also write

V=pa

E=IZ

therebyobtaininga new analogy. Between the two mechanical-electrical analogiespreviously mentioned, it was possible make a choiceas to the one which was most to complete.This was possible because is easy to tell when mechanical it elementsare in seriesand when in parallel; also a strict analogueto the Kirchhoff relationswas found with the one analogyonly. But if a number of acousticaltransmission tubes terminate or originate in a commonjunction point, there is no a priori criterion as to whether they are connected series in parallel within the junction. The case in or is similar to a number of electric lines entering a commonjunction box; they may be connected either in series in parallelwithin the box. or If onefirst assumes conventional the analogy,then he will say that the tubesare in parallel within the junction because they are subjectto a commonsoundpressure; but if he assumes new analogy, he will the
s W. P. Mason, B.S.T.J. 6, 258 (1927).

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F.A. FIRESTONE

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say that they are in series, the samereason.There is somejustificafor tion for a preferenceof the conventionalacoustical-electrical analogy in that the sum of the volume displacements any junction is zero to analogous Kirchhoff'ssecond to law for the e.m.f.'s arounda mesh.On the other hand, the new analogyseems more rational in that with it, a tube having an openend is represented an opencircuitedline, while by a tube with a closed end is represented a short circuitedline; in the by old analogy theserelationsare reversed. Thus for acousticalsystems,the two analogiesseemabout equally good.
CONCLUSION

The conventional mechanical-electrical analogyis incompletein the followingrespects' I. There is'a lack of analogyin the useof the words"through"and
"across" which indicates a fundamental difference in the nature of the

analogous quantities, for instance,force through and e.m.f. across. II. Mechanical elementsin series must be representedby electrical elementsin parallelrnd viceversa. III. Mechanical impedancesin seriesmust be combinedas the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocalswhile electrical impedances
in series are additive.

IV. There is an incompleteness the mechanical analoguesof in

Kirchhoff's laws.

The new analogyis free from the above difficulties,which makesit much easierto apply and understand.By considering each mass as having one terminal fixed to the frame of reference, every mechanical system reduced a multiplicity of closed is to mechanical circuitsthereby preparingthe way for the applicationof the electricalanalogy.In the new analogy, the equivalentelectricalcircuit can be drawn with ease. Even thosewho have never usedany analogy and never intend to do so,will be adversely affected the fact that the old analogyhasbeen by usedin making the definitionof mechanicalimpedance.This unfortunate choice definitionwill retard the development vibration theory of of and make it all the more necessary reply on electricalcircuit theory to by analogy.
The author nominates for oblivion the conventional left-handed me-

chanical-electrical analogy. I wish to thank Mr. L. D. Montgomeryand Mr. Earl Burnsfor their valuable suggestions. September12, 1932

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