1

PURE SUBSTANCES
Pure means of uniform and invariable
chemical composition (but more than one
molecular type is allowed). This allows
air to be a pure substance
All of the substances to be studied in this
class will be pure. We will drop the use of
the word
2
SIMPLE SYSTEMS
A simple system is one filled with a pure
substance
In this class, we will study only simple
compressible systems
3
SIMPLE COMPRESSIBLE
SUBSTANCES
In this class, we will study only simple
compressible substances, such as water
(steam) and various refrigerants
A simple compressible substance may exist
as a solid, a liquid, or a gas
4
SIMPLE COMPRESSIBLE
SUBSTANCES
A simple compressible substance boils at its
saturation pressure and temperature
Water boils at atmospheric pressure and 100C
Water boils at 0.56 atm and 35C
Refrigerant 12 (Freon-12) boils at atmospheric
pressure and 30 C
5
STATE POSTULATION
For a simply compressible system, two
properties are needed to fix the state of the
system
We may write P = P (v,T)
or v = v (P,T)
6
SIMPLE, PURE SUBSTANCES
P = P (v,T),
v = v (P,T), and
T = T (P,v)
Equations that are used to relate
properties are called equations of state
7
IDEAL GAS LAW
Ideal Gas Law is a simple equation of state
RT Pv =
M
R
R
u
=
mRT PV =
R
u
= universal gas constant
= 8.3144 (kPa m
3
)/(kmol K)
= 1.545 (ft lbf)/(lbmol R)
M = molar mass
8
IDEAL GAS LAW
Ideal Gas Law is applicable to gases at
low pressures (P 0.0, vacuum)
P must be the absolute pressure (not
gage pressure), and T must be the
temperature in K
RT Pv =
9
MOLAR MASS
One (gm, kg, lbm) mole of a substance is
the amount of the substance that contains
the same number of particles as there are
atoms in 12 (gm, kg, lbm) of pure Carbon
12
The number of particles in 1.0 gm mole is
6.02310
23
--- Avogadros number
10
MOLAR MASS
Take air as an example:
units SI in
kmol
kg
. M
air
97 28 =
units IP in
lbmol
lbm
. M
air
97 28 =
Note that the molecular weight of air is 28.97
11
SPECIFIC GAS CONSTANT
lbm
lbmol
R lbmol
Btu
=
M
R
= R
u
28.97
1.986

Values of the universal gas constant, R

u
, in
various units are given on the inside back cover
of the class textbook
Specific gas constant, R, is calculated by
dividing universal gas constant by molar mass
For air,
R lbm
Btu
. R

= 0686 0
12
IDEAL GAS LAW
Air and other gases at relatively low
pressures may be considered as ideal gases
At high pressures, if the pressure, specific
volume, and temperature of a gas are
measured, one would find that
RT Pv
RT Pv
13
COMPRESSIBILITY
COMPRESSIBILITY
FACTOR
FACTOR
14
IDEAL GAS EQUATION OF STATE
T R v P
T NR PV M / T mR PV
mRT PV RT Pv
u
u u
=
= =
= =
where R
u
is the universal gas constant, R is the specific
gas constant, M is the molar mass, N is the number of
moles, and v is the volume per mole.
15
PERCENT ERROR FOR APPLYING IDEAL
GAS EQUATION OF STATE TO STEAM
v (m
3
/kg)
T (C)
16
Steam (or water vapor)
and refrigerant-12 (or
any refrigerant) may not
be assumed to be ideal
gases in general !!!
17
REAL GASES
ZRT Pv =
where Z is the compressibility factor.
Note that, since v
ideal
= RT/P and Z = Pv/RT,
ideal
v
v
Z =
Actual
specific
volume
18
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR FOR
TEN SUBSTANCES
19
PRINCIPLE OF
CORRESPONDING STATES
The compressibility factor Z is the same for all
gases at the same values of the reduced
temperature and reduced pressure.
20
REDUCED PRESSURE AND
TEMPERATURE
cr
R
P
P
P
cr
R
T
T
T
and
where P
cr
and T
cr
are the critical pressure and
temperature, respectively.
21
REDUCED PRESSURE
AND TEMPERATURE
For a given gas, if the pressure and
temperature are known, use Pv = ZRT to find
v. Note that Z = Z(P
R
,T
R
), where P
R
= P/P
cr
and T
R
= T / T
cr
.
What if you are given P and v (instead of P
and T) and you need to find T (or if you are
given T and v and you need to find P)?
22
PSEUDO-REDUCED VOLUME
For a given gas, if the pressure (or temperature)
and volume are known, use Pv = ZRT to find T
(or P).
Define a pseudo-reduced volume, v
R
as
cr
cr
cr cr
R
RT
v P
/P RT
v
v = =
cr
R
v
v
v
Warning
23
24
OTHER MORE COMPLEX
EQUATIONS OF STATE
Equations of states by
Van der Waals (1873)
Beattie-Bridgeman (1928)
Benedict-Webb-Rubin (1940)
are given in the textbook.
25
TEAMPLAY
Discuss among yourselves the characteristics of
the PvT surfaces, and the Tv, Pv, and PT diagrams:
liquid to liquid/vapor to vapor transition (begin with
a constant pressure process)
single phase regions--liquid, vapor, solid
two-phase regions--liquid/vapor and solid/vapor
melting ---solid to liquid (freezing)
vaporization ---liquid to vapor (liquefaction)
sublimation ---solid to vapor
26
TEAMPLAY
Discuss what happens when water boils on a stove. Start
with a pot of water at 20C and 1.0 atm.
Q
What is the pressure at various times during the entire
process?
Does the temperature of the water change?
If the vapor (steam) were contained in an elastic container,
what would happen as heat continued to be added after all
the liquid disappeared.
Sketch the Pv and Tv diagrams.
27
INTRODUCTION
TO
THERMODYNAMIC
PROPERTIES
28
PROPERTIES
We have discussed
Extensive properties such as m, and V (for
volume) which depend on the size or extent
of a system, and
Intensive properties such as v, T, and P
which are independent of system extent.
29
A NEWPROPERTY --- INTERNAL ENERGY
The internal energy, U, of a system is the
sum of all the microscopic forms of energy
of the system (or the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies of the molecules in the
system).
Specific internal energy, u, is the internal
energy on a unit mass basis.
u = U/m
30
INTERNAL ENERGY
Internal energy, U, is an extensive property
U is in [kJ], [Btu], or [ft lbf]
Specific internal energy, u, is an intensive
property
u is in [kJ/kg], [Btu/lbm], or [ft lbf/lbm]
31
ENTHALPY --- A NEW PROPERTY
Enthalpy in [kJ or Btu] is defined as
H = U + PV
Specific enthalpy in [kJ/kg or Btu/lbm] is the
enthalpy per unit mass.
h = u + Pv
Note that, if P = constant, h = u + P v.
32
SPECIFIC INTERNAL ENERGY AND
SPECIFIC ENTHALPY OF A MIXTURE
Since U = m
liquid
u
liquid
+ m
vapor
u
vapor
u = [m
liquid
u
liquid
+ m
vapor
u
vapor
] / m
u = (1 x) u
liquid
+ x u
vapor
Similarly, H = m
liquid
h
liquid
+ m
vapor
h
vapor
h = [m
liquid
h
liquid
+ m
vapor
h
vapor
] / m
h = (1 x) h
liquid
+ x h
vapor
33
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Compare the value of the specific volume
of saturated liquid water, v
f
, at 100C
with the values of the specific volume, v ,
of water at 100C and at the following
pressures:
50, 200, and 300 bars
34
SOLUTION
From the saturated water (temperature) table
and the compressed liquid water table:
P (MPa) v (m
3
/kg)
0.10135 (sat) 0.001044
5.0 0.0010410
20.0 0.0010337
30.0 0.0010290
What conclusions can be drawn?
35
SPECIFIC VOLUME OF A
COMPRESSED LIQUID
The specific volume of a liquid is
approximately constant over a large range of
pressure if T = constant.
The specific volume of a liquid does not
change significantly when the temperature is
held constant and the pressure is changed.
Liquids are almost incompressible.
36
Superheated
vapor region
Two-Phase Region
Compressed
liquid region
Saturated vapor line
Saturated liquid line
P
v
v
1
v
2
v
f
1
2
States 1 3
T = constant
3
37
SPECIFIC VOLUME OF A
COMPRESSED LIQUID
When a compressed liquid table is
not available, estimate specific
volume values of a compressed
liquid using that of a saturated liquid
at the same temperature as the
compressed liquid.
IMPORTANT!!
38
SPECIFIC HEATS
SPECIFIC HEATS
39
SPECIFIC HEAT
The specific heat of a substance is the
amount of heat that is required to cause a
unit rise in temperature in a unit mass of the
substance [in kJ/(kg.K) or Btu/(lbm.R)].
dT c m Q =
or dT c q = where m / Q q =
40
SPECIFIC HEAT (CONT.)
Consider a simple compressible substance:
w du q + = (1
st
Law)
dv P du dT c + =
System
q
w
41
SPECIFIC HEAT
AT CONSTANT VOLUME
System
q
w
For a constant volume process, dv = 0.
dv P du dT c + =
dT du c / =
v
v
T
u
c

0
42
SPECIFIC HEAT (CONT.)
From the 1
st
Law,
( ) dv P Pv h d dT c + =
( ) dv P Pv d dh dT c + =
dP v dh dT c =
dP v
43
SPECIFIC HEAT
AT CONSTANT PRESSURE
For a constant pressure process, dP = 0.
P
p
T
h
c
dT / dh c
dP v dh dT c

=
=
0
44
SPECIFIC HEATS
The specific heat at constant volume and the
specific heat at constant pressure are defined as:
lbm.R
Btu
or
kg.K
kJ
in both
T
h
c ,
T
u
c
P
p
v
v
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

These names do not limit their applicability to

only constant volume or constant pressure
processes.
45
SPECIFIC HEATS
In general, the specific heats are
functions of two variables for simple
compressible systems.
However, we will show that for ideal
gases, solids and liquids, they are
functions of temperature alone.
46
COMPRESSED LIQUID
Compare the following data for liquid water at 20
MPa and 300C (P
sat
= 8.581 MPa):
Compressed Liquid Saturation (Temperature) Table
Table A-7 Table A-4 @ 300C
v = 0.0013596 m
3
/kg v
f
= 0.001404 m
3
/kg (+3.3%)
u = 1,306.1 kJ/kg u
f
= 1,332.0 kJ/kg (+2.0%)
h = 1,333.3 kJ/kg h
f
= 1,344.0 kJ/kg (+0.8%)
What can we learn?
47
INCOMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE
Liquids and solids may be considered
incompressible substances.
For incompressible substances.
v = constant
d v = 0
48
INTERNAL ENERGY OF
INCOMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE
Internal energy may be expressed as a function of
two properties, say, T and v.
u = u (T,v)
dv
v
u
dT
T
u
du
T v
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
.
|

\
|

=
0
For an incompressible substance, dv = 0
dT
T
u
du
v
|
.
|

\
|

=
49
INTERNAL ENERGY OF
INCOMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE
v
v
c
T
u
=
|
.
|

\
|

Recall that
dT c du
v
=
Thus,
The right hand side is only dependent on
temperature. Thus, u = u(T) only for an
incompressible substance.
50
ENTHALPY
OF INCOMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE
Since h = u + Pv,
( )
dP v dT c dh
dP v Pdv dT c dh
Pv d du dh
v
v
+ =
+ + =
+ =
0
0
If pressure is constant, dP = 0.
p
P
v
c
T
h
c =

=
p v
c c =
51
SPECIFIC HEATS OF
INCOMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE
For any incompressible substance,
c
p
= c
v
= c.
52
INTERNAL ENERGY AND ENTHALPY
OF INCOMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE

+ =
+ =
=
=
2
1
1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
2
1
2
1
1 2
) ( ) (
) (
) (
P P v dT T c
P P v u u h h
dT T c
du u u
53
INTERNAL ENERGY AND ENTHALPY
OF INCOMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE
Over a relatively small temperature range,
specific heat, c, may be considered
constant. Then,
) ( ) - (
) - (
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
P P v T T c h h
T T c u u
+ =
=
54
COMPRESSED OR
SUBCOOLED LIQUIDS
For water/steam, use the compressed liquid
tables, if available.
For R-12, compressed liquid tables are not
available in text, use
v (P,T) v
f
(T)
u (P,T) u
f
(T)
h (P,T) h
f
(T) + v
f @T
(P P
sat
)
55
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
A 50 kg iron block at 80C is dropped
into an insulated tank that contains
500 kg of liquid water at 25C.
Determine the temperature when a
thermal equilibrium is reached.
56
SOLUTION
Draw a diagram of the process:
500 kg water
at 25C
50 kg iron
block at 80C
500 kg water
at T
2
50 kg iron
block at T
2
Initial state Final state
57
LIST ASSUMPTIONS
Kinetic and potential energy changes are
zero ( KE and PE = 0).
No work done (W = 0).
System includes iron block and water.
No heat transfer (Q = 0).
Constant properties (specific heat values
do not change).
58
APPLY FIRST LAW
PE KE U + +
W Q =
Eliminate Terms:
W Q =
PE KE U + +
0 = U
59
EXPAND U
0 = + =
water
block
iron
U U U
Since both iron and water are incompressible:
) (
1, 2
block
iron
block
iron
block
iron
block
iron
T T c m U =
) (
w 1, 2 ater water water water
T T c m U =
60
SUBSTITUTION
) (
1 2
block
iron ,
block
iron
block
iron
T T c m
0 ) (
1 2
= +
water , water water
T T c m
Rearrange to solve for T
2
:
water water
block
iron
block
iron
water , water water
block
iron ,
block
iron
block
iron
c m c m
T c m T c m
T
+
+
=
1 1
2
61
SOLUTION (CONT.)
c
iron block
= 0.45 kJ/(kg.C)
c
water
= 4.184 kJ/(kg.C)
Substituting values of specific heats,
masses, and T
1
s into previous equation
yields
C T
o
2
25.6 =
62
INTERNAL ENERGY
OF IDEAL GAS
In 1843, Joule conducted experiments to
demonstrate that, for any ideal gas, the internal
energy, u, was a function of temperature only.
That is, u = u (T) only.
Internal energy was independent of P or v.
This implies that, for any ideal gas, c
v
is also a
function of temperature only.
63
ENTHALPY OF IDEAL GAS
For an ideal gas,
RT u Pv u h + = + =
Therefore, h = h (T) only.
64
INTERNAL ENERGY AND
ENTHALPY OF IDEAL GAS


= =
=
= =
=
2
1
2
1
1 2
2
1
2
1
1 2
) (
) (
dT T c dh h h
dT c dh
dT T c du u u
dT c du
p
p
v
v
65
SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GAS
For an ideal gas,
dT
dh
c and
dT
du
c
p v
= =
Since dh = du + d (Pv),
dh = du + R dT
R
dT
du
dT
dh
+ =
R c c
v p
=
66
SPECIFIC HEAT RATIO
OF IDEAL GAS
v
p
c
c
k =
For an ideal gas, the specific heat ratio, k,
is defined as
Since c
p
c
v
= R,
k 1 = R / c
v
( ) ( ) 1 1 = = k / Rk c and k / R c
p v
67
SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GAS
For monatomic gases, c
p
= (5/2) R.
For all other gases, c
p
is a function of
temperature, and it may be calculated from
data in Table A-14 (Moran & Shapiro, 1993, Fundamentals
of Engineering Thermodynamics, John Wiley & Sons).
c
v
may be calculated from c
v
= c
p
R
68
VARIATIONS OF SPECIFIC HEATS OF
GASES WITH TEMPERATURE
69
c
p
, c
v
, AND k FOR COMMON GASES
IN TABLES A-14
70
WORK AND HEAT
WORK AND HEAT
71
Components of a simple steam power plant
72
Combine gas turbine-steam power plant
73
Components of a refrigeration system
74
Components of an air-to-air heat pump
Q
&
Q
&
75
ENERGY CROSSES A SYSTEM
BOUNDARY AS WORK OR HEAT
Work (W) or heat (Q) in [J] or [Btu]
System
Q
in
Surroundings
System
Boundary
Q
out
W
in
W
out
76
WORK
When a force acts on a system and
moves the system a certain distance,
work is done on the system.
Work is done on the system.
System System Force
Distance
77
WORK
Work is done by a system if the sole
effect on the surroundings could be the
raising of a weight.
Work:
Units for work: 1 J = 1 N m,
1 Btu = 778.16 ft lbf

=
2
1
s
s
ds F W
78
Work is done by the system.
System
System
Force
Distance
Pulley
Weight
79
Work is done by the system
--- lift a weight.
System boundary
Motor
Work is done by the system
--- shaft work.
System boundary
Motor
Battery
Battery
Replace fan
with a pulley
+
+

80
No work is done by the system.
Motor
Work is done by the system
--- electrical work.
System
boundary
Motor
Battery
Battery
+
+

System
boundary
81
SIGN CONVENTION
Work done by a system is positive (+);
Work done on a system is negative ().
System
System boundary
Surroundings
(+) Work done by
system
() Work done on
system
82
POWER
Power is the (time) rate at which work is done.
Units for power: 1 W = 1 J/sec = 3,413 Btu/hr
1 hp = 550 ft lbf/sec = 746 W
83
WORK
Work is a path function. It depends on
the process. It does not depend solely on
the end states.
Work is not a thermodynamic property. It
is incorrect to say W = (W
2
W
1
).

= =
2
1
Fds W where W W
84
WORK IS NOT A
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY

=
2
1
W W
A thermodynamic property, such as temperature
and pressure, is a point function.
e.g. T = (T
2
T
1
)
P = (P
2
P
1
)
85
EXPANSION WORK AND
COMPRESSION WORK
s
2
s
1
F F = = P PA A
P P

=
=
=
2
1
2
1

, Since

PdV W
PA F
Fds W
86
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
OF WORK

=
2
1
PdV W
P
V V
1
V
2
P
1
P
2
1
2
Area = Work
87
If P = P(V) is known during a
quazistatic process between
two states, work due to
expansion or compression is
the area under the path in a
PV diagram.
88
WORK DONE DURING AN ISOBARIC
PROCESS AND AN ISOMETRIC PROCESS
If pressure is constant during a process,
) (
1
2
1
2
V V P PdV W = =

If volume is constant during a process,

= =
2
1
0 PdV W
89
TEAMPLAY
The state of a system is changed from 1 to 2 as
shown below. Compute the work done in kJ (a) if
path A is taken; (b) if path B is taken.
0.05 0.15 V [m
3
]
P [kPa]
300
150
1
2
Path A
Path B
90
WORK DONE BY AN IDEAL GAS
DURING AN ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
) (
1 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
V / V mRT W
V
dV
mRT dV
V
mRT
PdV W
ln =
= =
=

Work done by an ideal gas if the temperature is

constant,
91
TEAMPLAY
For an ideal gas undergoing an
expansion, which process produces
more work, (a) a constant pressure
process or (b) a constant temperature
process?
Why? Justify your answer.
92
P
V
V
1
V
2
P
1
= P
2p
P
2t
1
2t
1-2p --- isobaric process
1-2t --- isothermal process
2p
Area under blue line
Area under red line
Wp > Wt
93
TEAMPLAY
A frequently encountered process for gases is
the polytropic process:
constant c PV
n
= =
Beginning with
n
V P V P
W

=
1
1 1 2 2

=
2
1
PdV W
Show that,
94
HEAT
Heat is the form of energy that is
transferred across the boundary of a
system to another system as a result of
the temperature difference between the
two systems.
T = 0.0 Q = 0.0
95
HEAT
Heat transfer is not a property of a
system, just as work is not a property.
1 2
2
1
Q Q Q
Q Q

=

It is incorrect to say the heat transfer
at states 1 and 2 are Q
1
and Q
2
.
96
SIGN CONVENTION
Heat transfer to a system is positive (+);
Heat transfer from a system is negative ().
System
System boundary
Surroundings
(+) Heat transfer
to system
() Heat tranfser
from system
97
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat may be transferred by:
Conduction --- molecular diffusion,
collision of molecules
Convection --- bulk fluid motion
Radiation --- electromagnetic waves
98
ADIABATIC PROCESS
An adiabatic process is a process in
which the energy transfer between the
system and the surroundings is through
work interactions only.
That is, there is no heat transfer between
the system and the surroundings during
an adiabatic process.
99
ADIABATIC BOUNDARY
An adiabatic boundary is a thermally
insulated boundary.
Adiabatic Q = 0.0
Adiabatic Isothermal
100
The First Law of
The First Law of
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
Principle of
Conservation of Energy
101
FIRST, MORE ON WORK AND HEAT
Work (W) --- equivalent to raising a
weight.
Heat (Q) --- caused by a temperature
difference.
102
WORK
Moving boundary work --- work resulting
from expansion/compression, also called
boundary work or PdV work.

=
2
1
dV P W
Shaft work --- energy transfer with a rotating
shaft.
Others --- electrical work, spring work,
surface tension work, and ...
103
WORK
Do not use the terms gravitational work and
accelerational work, defined in some textbooks.
They should be referred to as change of potential
energy, and change of kinetic
energy, respectively.
( ), z z mg
1 2

( ), V V m
2
1
2
2
2
1
r r

104
FOURIERS LAW OF CONDUCTION
dx
dT
A k Q
t x , cond
=
&
Conduction:
where is the rate of heat transfer by
conduction along an x coordinate; k
t
is a
thermophysical property called the thermal
conductivity, A is the area that the heat
crosses, and dT/dx is the temperature
gradient.
x , cond
Q
&
105
FOURIERS LAW (CONT.)
The thermal conductivity, k
t
, of a medium, is a
thermophysical property. A good conductor of
heat has a large value of k
t
, and a poor
conductor of heat has a small value of k
t
.
Since heat must be transferred in a direction
of decreasing temperature, the rate of heat
transfer by conduction is positive (+) when the
temperature gradient, dT/dx, is negative ().
106
CONDUCTION --- EXAMPLE
Fouriers Law:
x
T
kA Q
dx
dT
kA Q
cond
cond

=
=
&
&
107
NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING
Convection:
f s conv
T T hA Q =
&
conv
Q
&
where is the rate of heat transfer by
convection between a surface and a fluid; h
is a convective heat transfer coefficient, A
is the heat transfer area, and T
s
and T
f
are
the surface and fluid temperatures,
respectively.
108
NEWTONS LAW (CONT.)
Heat may be transferred by convection from a
surface to a fluid or from a fluid to a surface.
The convective heat transfer coefficient, h, in
[W/(m
2
.K)], is dependent on the velocity and
thermophysical properties, such as density
and viscosity, of the fluid.
109
CONVECTION
Newtons Law of Cooling:
convection
natural
convection
forced
f s conv
h h
T T hA Q
>>
=
&
h depends on flow
conditions and fluid
properties.
110
CONVECTION --- EXAMPLES
Heat transfer from coolant to the inner surfaces of
the tubes of an automobile radiator, and from the
finned outer surfaces of the tubes to atmospheric air.
Heat transfer from atmospheric air to outside
surface of a can of coke in the example for
conduction.
Heat transfer from relatively warm water to
atmospheric air in cooling towers of a power plant.
111
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW OF
THERMAL RADIATION
Radiation:
4
s emission , rad
T A Q =
&
emission , rad
Q
&
where is the rate at which
radiation is emitted by a surface at T
s
.
112
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW (CONT.)
Radiation: ) (
4 4
2 1 surr s , rad
T T A Q =

&
2 1 , rad
Q
&
where is the net rate of radiative
heat transfer between a surface (surface
1) at T
s
and the large surroundings
(surface 2) at T
surr
.
113
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW (CONT.)
The Stefan-Boltzmann constant, , is equal to
5.67 10
-8
W/(m
2
.K
4
).
The emissivity, , is a surface property with
values between 0.0 and 1.0. Some surfaces, such
as a surface painted flat black, have values of
about 1.0, while other surfaces, such as a
polished metallic surface, have values of only
slightly larger than 0.0.
114
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW (CONT.)
In applying the Stefan-Boltzmann Law,
temperatures must be in
temperatures must be in
[
[
K
K
]
]
,
, since T
4
in [K]
4
is
not equal to T
4
in [C]
4
.
In the Fouriers Law and the Newtons Law of
Cooling, temperature differences in [C] and
in [K] are the same, and temperature
differences in [F] and in [R] are the same.
115
RADIATION
Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
4
s emission , rad
T A Q =
&
Emissivity, , is a surface
property. It depends on the
conditions of the surface.
0.0 < 1.0.
= 5.67 10
-8
W/(m
2
.K
4
),
is a constant.
116
RADIATION --- EXAMPLES
Heat transfer by radiation
from the flames in a boiler
(or steam generator) to
tubes carrying water/steam
in the boiler.
[Note that heat is
transferred by conduction
through the walls of the
tubes and by convection
from the tubes to the
water/steam.]
117
RADIATION --- EXAMPLES
Heat transfer from a fire (Bonfire, campfire,
fireplace).
Heat transfer from the Sun to Earth. The rate at
which radiation is emitted by the Sun:
W .
K , m
K m
W
. .
T A Q
sun sun , rad
26
4 2 9
4 2
8
4
10 9 3
) 800 5 ( ) 10 (1.39 10 67 5 ) 0 1 (
=

=
=

&
118
CLOSED SYSTEM
No mass crosses the boundary of a
closed system. There is no energy
transfer across the boundary of a
closed system as a result of mass (or
matters) crossing the boundary.
119
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
(Closed Systems)
The Principle of Conservation of Energy
The net amount of energy crossing the boundary
of a closed system (work and heat) is equal to the
change of the total energy in the system.
For a closed system undergoing a process, 1-2:
( )

=
2
1
2
1
dE W - Q
120
SIGN CONVENTION
Work done by a system is positive (+);
Work done on a system is negative ();
Heat transfer to a system is positive (+);
Heat transfer from a system is negative ().
System
System boundary
Surroundings
(+) Work done
by system
() Work done
on system
(+) Heat transfer
to system
() Heat transfer
from system
121
THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
(FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS)
Total energy in Total energy out
= Change of the total energy in system
(E
in
E
out
) = E
system
(E
in
E
out
) = (E
final state
E
initial state
)
122
THE FIRST LAW (CONT.)
Net heat transfer to system Net work done by
system = Change of the total energy in system
(Q W) = E
Heat in to system
Heat out from system Change of internal, potential,
and kinetic energy in system
Work done by system
Work done on system
123
OTHER FORMS OF THE FIRST LAW
dt
dE
W Q
E E W Q
V z g u e w q
KE PE U W Q
=
=
+ + = =
+ + =

& &
r
1
2
1
2
2
) (
2
1

Change of total
energy in system
= Change of
internal, potential,
and kinetic energy
in system
Change of
internal, potential,
and kinetic energy
per unit mass of
system
Net rate of energy in = Net rate
of change of energy in system
124
A CLOSED SYSTEM THAT
UNDGERGOES A CYCLIC PROCESS
For the cycle 1-2-3-4-1,
0
1 1
= =
=
E E
E E E
state
initial
state
final cycle
2 1
3 4
cycle cycle cycle cycle
W Q or W Q = = 0
125
CYCLIC PROCESS
2 1
3 4

=
=
W Q
W Q
cycle cycle

When a closed system undergoes a cyclic
process, the net heat transfer into the system
is equal to the net work done by the system.
126
TEAMPLAY
Study the various forms of the First
Law of Thermodynamics.
127
KINETIC ENERGY
When a mass of 10 kg accelerates from V
1
= 0 to
V
2
= 10 m/s, what is the change of kinetic energy?
kJ .
J
kJ
m N
J
m N
m N
m/s kg
N
s / m kg
V V m KE
5 0
1,000
500
500 ) (100 ) 10 (
2
1
) (
2
1
2
2 2
2
1
2
2
= =
= =
=
128
CONVERSION FROMm
2
/s
2
TO kJ/kg
kg / J k s / m , 1 000 1
2 2
=
Remember this conversion! You will
need it, since u is usually in kJ/kg and
KE per unit mass is usually in m
2
/s
2
.
129
TEAMPLAY
The power output of a storage battery,
in kW, is dependent on time, in minutes.
) 60 (
2 1
/ t
e . W

=
&
Ignoring heat transfer, plot the power
output, in kW, and the change of the
energy in the battery, in kJ, each as a
function of time.
130
SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO
SOLVING PROBLEMS
Sketch schematic diagram (system, boundary, etc)
and appropriate phase diagram.
State assumptions.
Apply governing equation (e.g., the First Law) and
simplify. Always check units.
Determine whether to solve the problem by hand, or
using EES (Electronic equation solver) or other
computer software.
If needed, look up properties from tables (S.I. or
English unit tables).
Perform and check calculations. Complete solution.