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The Impact of Combined-Cycle Gas Turbine Short-Term Dynamics on Frequency Control

Gillian Lalor, Student Member, IEEE, Julia Ritchie, Damian Flynn, Member, IEEE, and Mark J. OMalley, Senior Member, IEEE

AbstractA model suitable for studying the short-term dynamic response of a combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT) to a system frequency deviation is developed. The model is used in conjunction with a larger system model to study the impact of increasing levels of CCGT generation on frequency control of a small island system. The study considers single contingencies and does not consider severe cascading-type events. A consequence of the results is that as the number and proportion of base-loaded CCGTs increases, frequency control may become more challenging. The results indicate that with additional CCGTs on the system large frequency excursions will be more likely, and the transmission system operators on the island of Ireland should review their frequency control strategies in the future to avoid the shedding of customers. Index TermsCombined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT), frequency control, power generation control, power system security.

II. INTRODUCTION

I. NOMENCLATURE Scaling factor for frequency sensitivity of gas turbine exhaust temperature calculation. Constant, such that . Inlet guide vane angle ( ). 1/Droop. Inlet guide vane controller constant (s). Inlet guide vane position (per unit). Speed (per unit). Ambient pressure (mbar). Gas turbine power output (per unit). Set point (per unit). Ambient temperature ( ). Compressor discharge time constant (s). Gas fuel time constant (s). Inlet guide vane controller integration rate (s). Inlet guide vane actuator time constant (s). Rated turbine exhaust temperature ( ). Speed controller time constant (s). Temperature controller integration rate (s). Valve positioner time constant (s). Exhaust gas temperature ( ). Fuel ow (per unit). Exhaust gas ow (per unit).
Manuscript received January 21, 2005; revised March 17, 2005. This work has been conducted in the Electricity Research Centre, University College Dublin, which is supported by the Electricity Supply Board (ESB), ESB National Grid, Commission for Energy Regulation (CER), Cylon Controls, and Enterprise Ireland. Paper no. TPWRS-00036-2005. G. Lalor and M. J. OMalley are with the Electricity Research Centre, Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, University College Dublin, Dublin 4, Ireland (e-mail: gill.lalor@ee.ucd.ie; mark.omalley@ucd.ie). J. Ritchie and D. Flynn are with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The Queens University of Belfast, BT9 5AH Belfast, U.K. (e-mail: j.a.ritchie@qub.ac.uk; d.ynn@qub.ac.uk.) Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPWRS.2005.852058

HE DYNAMIC characteristics of combined cycle gas turbines (CCGTs) have become an issue of considerable interest over the last ten years. This is due to the increasing proportions of CCGT plant that are being brought online in the majority of electricity systems worldwide. Higher efciency, greater exibility, and lower emissions than many conventional thermal generators, combined with progressively shorter installation times and reducing installation costs, are the basis for this move toward CCGT generation. Understanding the dynamic behavior of CCGT units is crucial to maintaining system reliability and security in electricity systems. This is particularly true as the move toward competitive markets means system operators now have little or no control over the type and location of new plant investment. Maintaining the standards of security and quality of supply of any electricity system are of utmost importance to the system operator. Recent system blackouts in countries such as the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Italy highlight the importance of system security and reliability [1][3]. When an incident occurs on the system, maintaining the system frequency within the stipulated limits is a major priority, and if these limits are breached, then the magnitude of the excursion needs to be restricted and the frequency returned to within the limits as quickly as possible. Of particular relevance to this study is the August 1996 blackout of Peninsular Malaysia that occurred as the result of a serious generation loss. The electricity system in the Peninsular and Sahab regions of Malaysia, operated by the Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) power utility, has a peak load approaching 14 000 MW, with approximately 29% of the generation consisting of CCGT and gas turbine units [4]. The behavior of gas turbines and CCGT units in response to the frequency disturbance contributed signicantly to the severity of the event [4]. As a consequence of the incident, several modications to improve the response of both gas turbine (GT) and CCGT controllers to large-frequency excursions were incorporated. In large, interconnected electricity systems, frequency deviations from nominal tend to be small. This is due to the relatively high inertia of the system and the fact that any sudden supply/demand imbalances are generally small in comparison with the total size of the system. The largest infeed in a small electricity system is likely to be a much higher proportion of the total generation while the system inertia is considerably less. Consequently, the effect of an incident, such as the loss of generation, on the system frequency is much more notable. An understanding of the response characteristics of CCGT generators

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to frequency events is, therefore, essential for small systems, as their response could potentially have a relatively large inuence on the severity of the event. While frequency deviations on larger systems are generally less sizeable, as the proportion of CCGTs on such systems increases, their inuence will become more signicant. The Ireland electricity system operates at 50 Hz, with a peak load of approximately 6065 MW. The system consists of two ac interconnected power systems, operated by Northern Ireland Electricity (NIE) and ESB National Grid (ESBNG). There is a single HVDC interconnection between Ireland and Scotland, with a capacity of 500 MW. At present, CCGT plants comprise almost 27% of the total installed generating capacity on the island, and this gure should continue to rise further, with over 32% penetration expected by the end of 2005 [5], [6]. At times of low demand, a single CCGT can comprise more than 15% of the total generation. Therefore, the impact of the dynamic behavior of CCGTs in response to frequency events on the system needs to be assessed carefully. Furthermore, CCGT ratings tend to be large, and therefore, with the addition of CCGTs to the system, the size of the largest infeed and, as a consequence, the size of the largest possible contingency has increased. Severe frequency events are rare on the Ireland system with only one event in the past ten years resulting in the unanticipated shedding of normal customers [7]. However, as large CCGTs replace a number of smaller conventional plants, major frequency events may become more likely, and the impact on the system needs to be studied. In particular, the impact on system integrity and the possibility of interruption to customers needs to be assessed. The objective of this paper is to study the impact of the dynamics of combined cycle gas turbines to frequency deviations on an island electricity system. The paper also aims to quantify the effect that these units will have on the overall system short-term response to events on the system. Preliminary results were reported in [8]. The study focuses on the response of the system to large single contingencies. Cascading events, such as those that have occurred elsewhere [1], [3], [4], are outside the scope of this paper. A more detailed explanation of the relevant characteristics of CCGTs is presented in Section III. The details of the CCGT dynamic model being used in this study are given in Section IV. Subsequently, in Section V, a model of the Ireland electricity system is described, followed by the results and discussion of the ndings of this study in Section VI. III. DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF CCGTs Combined cycle gas turbines integrate the technologies of both the gas turbine and the steam turbine. The exhaust gases from the gas turbine are fed into the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG), which produces a supply of steam to drive the steam turbine. The gas turbine component of the combined cycle plant is very similar to that of an open cycle gas turbine (OCGT). While both OCGT and CCGT technologies have a maximum allowable temperature imposed by the turbine blade materials, any variation in the temperature of the exhaust gases entering the HRSG will affect its efciency and, thus, the efciency of the steam turbine. Therefore, in order to achieve optimal efciency

in CCGTs, the exhaust gas temperature should be maintained at the maximum allowable level. The exhaust temperature is maintained at this optimal level by controlling the air and fuel ows. Variable inlet guide vanes (IGVs), which are tted at the entrance to the compressor, control the incoming airow. As the gas turbine runs up, the IGVs are positioned to ensure a smooth run up of the air compressor (avoiding stall zones) until full speed at no load. Thereafter, the IGVs move from their minimum on load position to their maximum opening in line with the admission of fuel to maintain the programmed target exhaust gas temperature. In order to maintain constant outlet temperature, it is necessary to adjust the airow as the fuel ow changes. However, as the gas turbine operating point approaches base load (100% of rated output), the IGVs are fully open, and airow cannot be increased further. Combined cycle gas turbines, in general, are fast-responding units. The speed controller responds within a very short time to falling system frequency and results in more fuel being injected into the combustor. However, if fuel ow increases too rapidly, the IGVs may be unable to maintain the correct air-fuel ratio. The temperature controller will, thus, reduce the fuel ow to a level in keeping with the rate at which the IGVs are opening. Some CCGTs are equipped with fast-acting actuators on the IGVs, signicantly improving the responsiveness to frequency events. On these units, system frequency is monitored, and in the event of a large deviation, an anticipated increase in outlet temperature, due to future changes in fuel ow, will be minimized through feed-forward action suitably increasing airow. In order to better understand the dynamic behavior of CCGT units to frequency disturbances, it is important to recognize the effects that changing system frequency will introduce. The CCGT will provide an inertial response, which is proportional to both the magnitude and rate of the frequency change. This response is vital in helping to maintain system security by alleviating the rate at which the frequency is falling. In addition, as the system frequency falls, the compressor slows down, since it is synchronized to the system. A reduction in compressor speed leads to a drop in the pressure ratio across the compressor, and thus, the airow into the combustion chamber is reduced. Consequently, the pressure ratio across the gas turbine is reduced, causing a decline in the power output. If the unit is operating at partial load, the IGVs are not fully open, and so, it is possible to open these further, offsetting the reduction in airow across the compressor. The speed at which the IGVs can respond determines how quickly this can take effect. However, when the CCGT is operating at base (100%) load, the IGVs are now in the fully open position and cannot be further adjusted to increase the airow through the compressor. The reduction in airow from the compressor, thus, causes an increase in the fuel-to-air ratio, which directly determines the turbine inlet temperature, and as a result, the exhaust temperature. Therefore, any rise in the fuel-to-air ratio results in an increase in the exhaust temperature. As the exhaust temperature rises, the temperature control system quickly overrides other inputs and reduces the fuel ow to restore the correct fuel-to-air ratio. As such, the power output is reduced due to the reduction in fuel

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ow. These phenomena can also be signicant when a CCGT is operating slightly below base load. The power output of the gas turbine also depends on the ambient atmospheric temperature and pressure. Variations in the atmospheric temperature from the ambient temperature for which the gas turbine is rated can result in signicant changes in the maximum power output achievable [9], [10]. As ambient temperature increases, the temperature differential across the compressor is reduced, requiring less work to attain the rated compressor exit temperature. Consequently, the pressure ratio across the compressor and, therefore, across the gas turbine is reduced, leading to a reduction in the maximum power output. CCGTs are primarily designed to operate at base load, i.e., the condition for maximum efciency [11]. As the operating point is reduced from base load, the efciency of the gas turbine is similarly reduced, leading to higher per-unit fuel costs. Both the compressor and turbine components are designed to operate at specic rated conditions, and any deviation from these optimal conditions will result in a decrease in their respective efciencies. Furthermore, operation of the compressor depends on several parameters such as ambient conditions, air mass ow, and shaft speed. As the operating point of the compressor moves away from its rated operating point, and air mass ow is reduced, the compressor surge margin is also reduced. Since the speed of rotation of the compressor also affects the surge margin, if the unit is operating at partial loads and a reduction in the system frequency occurs, the possibility of encountering problems such as compressor surge is increasing [12]. ) and oxides of Emission levels of both carbon dioxide ( nitrogen (NOx) are minimized at base load. However, as the operating point moves away from rated conditions, the level of NOx emissions per unit of power produced increases, while below approximately 60%70% of rated load, these emissions increase dramatically [12]. When operating in sliding pressure mode, the power output from the steam turbine depends directly on the exhaust gas ow from the gas turbine, and as a consequence, the steam turbine has minimal stored energy available. Unit response depends entirely on that of the gas turbine, with a typical delay of at least 20 s before changes in the gas turbine fuel ow result in a notable change in the power output of the steam turbine. It is, therefore, reasonable to neglect steam turbine dynamics when considering the response of CCGT units for a short time period (20 s). IV. CCGT MODEL The objective is to develop a CCGT model suitable for studying the dependency of CCGTs on system frequency, which can then be tuned to represent individual CCGT units on a power system, in order to evaluate their dynamic response to a system frequency event, and examine the subsequent impact on system frequency control. A. Previous Work A great deal of work has been carried out in developing accurate dynamic models of gas turbines, and it is this work that generally forms the foundation for most combined cycle gas turbine models. The basis of many gas turbine and combined cycle

gas turbine studies is the model of the gas turbine developed by Rowen [13], [14]. The initial model [13] was later expanded to include the effects of variable inlet guide vanes and of ambient temperature [14], along with the dependency of airow through the compressor on the system speed. This model was simpler than some that had previously been in use; however, the model nevertheless was considered capable of capturing the dynamic characteristics of the gas turbine in a reasonably accurate manner. Bagnasco et al. [15] incorporated the gas turbine model [13], [14] into a model for a combined cycle power plant, through the addition of a HRSG and a simplied steam turbine. Alternative combined cycle plant models have been developed using detailed physical relationships to represent each component individually, thus producing a more detailed model [16]. The dependency of the power output from a combined cycle gas turbine on system frequency and also the effects of ambient conditions are two very important features that require careful consideration. Kunitomi et al. [9], [17] present a model that incorporates the frequency dependency of the gas turbine while also recognizing the impact of ambient conditions on the performance of the unit. This detailed model is based on [13] and [14], but the turbine thermodynamics are replaced with new equations derived from physical principles, while frequency dependency is estimated from the ambient temperature dependency. The model developed is suitable for use in long-term dynamic simulations, although clearly one drawback with the more extensive models is the level of detail required. A comprehensive study has recently been published by CIGRE, based on work carried out by a large committee from various industrial and academic backgrounds [10]. An extensive examination of combined cycle gas turbines is presented, with analysis of the various characteristics that set these units apart from more traditional generating plant. A dynamic model for a CCGT is developed, based on the broad experiences of the committee, and previously published work in this area, for use in power system simulation studies. B. Assumptions Assumptions made in this study include the following: Fuel ow is negligible with respect to airow, so that the volume of exhaust gases may be assumed equal to the volume of air owing through the compressor, and the pressure ratios are the same across both the compressor and the gas turbine (i.e., no air is extracted for cooling). The timescale of interest in this study is up to 20 s following a system disturbance, so that the response of the steam turbine can be considered negligible. Acceleration control generally only comes into play during unit start up and shut down. As steady-state conditions are initially assumed, the acceleration control loop can be neglected. C. Model Structure The gas turbine model used in this study has been adapted from that developed by Rowen [13], [14], by making reference to more recent CCGT models [10], [15], [16]. An outline of the structure is shown in Fig. 1, with relevant equations given in the Appendix.

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Fig. 1. Gas turbine model.

The required inputs to the model are the steady-state set point of the unit and the ambient temperature and pressure. The effect of ambient temperature on the rating of the gas turbine is incorporated as a correction factor, developed from historical data, which is applied to the unit set-point input. This differs from previous models, where ambient temperature was either neglected or incorporated inside the model structure, for example, within the exhaust temperature calculations [13], [14]. The effect of ambient pressure on the gas turbine output, which is not addressed in some models, was also incorporated in a similar way. All parameters are given in per unit, with the exception of temand mbar, reperature and pressure, which are measured in spectively. There are two key control loops on a gas turbine: speed control and temperature control. Under normal operating conditions, speed control regulates the fuel supply and takes the form of a simple droop governor. The outputs from both the speed and temperature controllers are fed into a minimum block, such that the lesser of the two signals determines the fuel ow into the gas turbine, within allowable limits. There is a no-load fuel requirement in a gas turbine, generally about 23% of maximum, so the controllers regulate the fuel ow between this minimum point and the maximum. In previous models [13][15], fuel owing from the fuel pump into the gas turbine was obtained as a function of the system speed. For this study, the fuel supply is assumed independent of frequency and depends only on the control signal.

In the model illustrated in Fig. 1, the system speed input to the turbine calculation of exhaust temperature F1 incorporates a scaling mechanism to regulate the frequency sensitivity of the unit. This was developed to take into account the variations in frequency sensitivity conditional on technology and age of CCGT units, which were evident on examination of responses is multiplied by a of the different units. The system speed . scalar , and then, a constant is added, such that Since the actual exhaust temperature depends on the airow into the combustor, the exhaust temperature from the turbine calculation F1 is modulated using the calculated airow through the compressor. The temperature of the exhaust gases is then measured, with the appropriate time delays incorporated. The airow is regulated using an IGV controller. The calculated exhaust temperature is compared with the rated exhaust temperature such that if there is a difference, the IGVs control airow in order to bring the temperature back to the rated value. However, as airow also depends on the speed of the compressor, the expected airow, due to IGV position, is modulated using the actual speed, yielding the calculated ow. The model is also equipped with an over-ring capability, which allows the temperature limits to be increased for a short period of time during a frequency transient. V. SYSTEM MODEL The electricity system of Ireland, consisting of the NIE and ESBNG systems, is studied here. The generating capacity of

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the current Ireland electricity system consists of a combination of thermal generators, open cycle gas turbines, hydroelectric generators, combined cycle gas turbines, and a single pumped storage station. Several ac interconnectors between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland are in service. The main interconnection consists of a two 275-kV circuits, each with a capacity of 600 MW and of length 50 km. There are also two additional 110-kV lines, with a capacity of 120 MW, connecting the systems at two separate locations along the interface between the systems [18]. An HVDC interconnector now exists between Ireland and Scotland but is not currently congured to provide reserve in a short time frame. The electricity system of Ireland is tightly meshed and electrically short, with the relative impedances between nodes quite small. Therefore, during a major contingency involving the loss of signicant generation, the system will remain in synchronism, and the frequency deviation will be very similar at all points on the system. This is borne out by system studies carried out by the transmission system operators and by measurements during major events (e.g., sudden generation decit of over 450 MW of generation and system frequency dip to 49.2 Hz). The system is designed and operated so that in the event of the loss of the largest infeed, there will be no consequential events (i.e., the protection does not trip out any other devices, for example, lines). Historical data show that such a cascading event has never occurred. In particular, during a major loss of generation, there are noticeable power swings on the interconnections between the NIE and ESBNG systems, due to the sharing of reserve [19], [20]. These power swings have never caused any additional tripping of lines. Therefore, for frequency control studies, a single busbar model has traditionally been employed [21][23] and is appropriate for this study, i.e., the impact of combined cycle gas turbines short-term dynamics on frequency control. The dynamic model of the Ireland system is based on two previous models, one for the ESBNG system [22] and one for the NIE system [24], with considerable enhancements introduced. The two models have been combined and updated to correspond to a representation of the entire Ireland electricity system in 2004, with as much detail and accuracy as is achievable, given available knowledge and data. Since the development of the original models, a new generating plant has been introduced onto the system, and an older decommissioned plant has been removed. Combined cycle gas turbines were previously not modeled on the system but are now fully represented. Another major addition to the model is the replacement of a simple ramping response with dynamic models for the individual gas turbines. When a system event occurs, such as the loss of a large generator, a model simulates the frequency response for 20 s subsequent to the disturbance. At present, a frequency event is dened as a deviation of frequency below 49.7 Hz [25]. Demand customers who can withstand the unplanned and instantaneous interruption of some or all of their demand (triggered by an under-frequency relay below 49.3 Hz) supply interruptible load service. Customers providing this service should be able to withstand 1020 such interruptions per annum, with typical interruptions lasting for approximately 5 min. Historically interruptible load service is called on infrequently (less than ve times per annum) [26]. In extreme events, where the

frequency falls below 48.9 Hz, load shedding of customers begins. Fortunately, load shedding of customers is extremely rare, with only one such incident in the past ten years [7]. Dynamic models have been developed for each generating unit on the Ireland system in addition to a representative load model. Prior to a disturbance on the system, power generation and system demand are assumed to be in equilibrium. Subsequently, as a result of a power imbalance on the system, the model simulates the change in power output from each generating unit and also any variation in load consumption, including the effects of tripping interruptible load service, when available, if a frequency of 49.3 Hz is reached, and load shedding, if the frequency reaches the appropriate thresholds, which start at 48.9 Hz. The net power imbalance between generation and demand drives a feedback loop, where the system frequency is calculated by integrating the observed difference, which is dependent on the combined inertia of the load and individual generating units. The model was developed and is implemented using Matlab Simulink. Both ESBNG and NIE system operators perform scheduling and dispatch independently, taking into account the contracted ows on the ac interconnectors. However, the entire Ireland electricity system shares the provision of operating reserve. Of particular interest in this study is primary spinning reserve, i.e., reserve provided in the rst 15 s following a frequency event. The following assumptions are made about the system: The primary spinning reserve requirement on the Ireland system is 75% of the largest infeed. At present, the largest infeed on the system is 422 MW, and hence, the primary spinning reserve requirement is 317 MWthe dc interconnector has a capacity of 500 MW, but the maximum traded on the link is 400 MW. This primary spinning reserve requirement, mainly obtained from generators and interruptible load service, depending on time of day, is divided between ESBNG and NIE such that the former provides 67% (211 MW) while the latter provides 33% (105 MW). Since the model determines the response from each unit, it is possible to neglect units that provide no reserve, with the exception of their contribution to the overall system inertial response. All generating units on the Ireland system use droop governors and are expected to operate with a droop of 4% [25], [27]. VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Scope of This Study Three different operating scenarios have been examined in this study, comprising the maximum and minimum system loads, which, respectively, occur during winter daytime and summer night. A third scenario, reecting the minimum daytime load, has also been considered. While the rst two scenarios capture the extremes of system operation, it is also instructive to examine the minimum daytime load. For each of the three scenarios described above, two cases are examined. The system is dispatched based on a merit order to meet demand and reserve requirements, with all dispatched CCGTs operating at base load. In the rst case, the frequency dependency of all dispatched CCGTs is removed. Consequently, the power output from the base-loaded CCGTs is constant, with the exception of the inertial response. For

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the second case system dispatch is identical, with unchanged system inertia, the only difference being the frequency dependency in the CCGT models. In each case, the same generating units, and interruptible load service if appropriate, provide the primary reserve requirement. For each scenario, the most serious single disturbance to the system is examined, which involves tripping the largest infeed to the system. During the winter peak, this is likely to be 422 MW, while during the summer night valley and summer day valley scenarios, this gure is reduced to 400 MW, accounting for the reduction in power output of this largest infeed, a CCGT, due to a higher ambient temperature. System operators on the island of Ireland do not consider multiple independent events occurring concurrently. Following an event, system operators restore the system back to a secure operating state as quickly as possible. contingencies are not considered here, and the Therefore, tripping of the largest infeed is considered a likely and severe event that can occur on the system. These are not the most severe events that can occur [1][4]. The Ireland electricity system has never experienced the loss of transmission capacity during a low-frequency event; therefore, cascading events caused by tripping of transmission lines during the loss of the largest infeed are not considered. Consequently, this study uses an optimistic model of the transmission system, which is assumed to remain intact with no unfortunate or unexpected transmission system protection consequences considered. B. Tuning the Model and Model Response The CCGT model developed was tuned to represent each individual CCGT unit on the Ireland system, using available data from a number of system frequency events (approximately 50) that have occurred on the system over the last ve years. Post and pre-event system frequency and power output data from units were available, sampled at 1 Hz. Technical data for each individual generating station were available, and also the ambient conditions at the time of each event were also obtained. In order to complete each CCGT model, it was necessary to determine the effect of ambient conditions on unit output. This relationship was determined using historical hourly data, comprising ambient conditions, IGV position, and generated power. The sensitivity of a typical gas turbine to ambient conditions is illustrated in Fig. 2, with output increasing as ambient pressure rises but falling as ambient temperature increases. Although the relationship between maximum power output and ambient temperature is generally agreed to be highly complex and nonlinear [10], the temperature-power output curve obtained in this study was found to be approximately linear within the temperature range present for the available data. The pressure-power output relationship was found to be linear, as expected [10]. Having established the above relationships, CCGT model validation was performed by driving the model with the observed frequency trace for a particular event. The ambient temperature and pressure were also introduced as inputs to the model. The simulated response, incorporating both the ambient temperature and pressure corrections, was then compared to the actual response of the unit. Fig. 3 illustrates such a comparison between

Fig. 2. Change in maximum rated power output of a typical gas turbine for (a) temperature deviations from rated ambient temperature and (b) pressure deviations from rated ambient pressure.

Fig. 3. Change in power output (including the inertial response) of a typical near base-loaded CCGT in response to a frequency event on the system. (a) System frequency. (b) Response of the actual CCGT unit. (c) Simulated response of CCGT model. (d) Simulated response of CCGT model with frequency dependency of model removed.

the actual power output of a CCGT and the corresponding simulation model. It can be clearly seen that when frequency effects are included in the CCGT model that a much better representation of the actual power output is achieved, despite the limited resolution of the actual data. The frequency dependency of CCGTs on the system was found to vary both with age and technology. Improvements in CCGT technology are ongoing, and this is evident in the improved responsesofnewerunits.However,many CCGTshavealreadybeen installed in electricity systems worldwide, with varying degrees of technology, and, unless modied, their responsiveness will depend on the technology at the time of installation. A small number of CCGTs on the Ireland system incorporate fast-acting inlet guide vanes, and these have been represented in the model by considerably reducing the time constant on the IGV actuator. This approximation was seen to capture the characteristics of such fast-acting IGVs to a level of accuracy that the inclusion of an additional control loop to represent them was not considered necessary.

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Fig. 5. Winter peak with 422-MW trip. (a) Base-loaded CCGTs comprise 33.5% of generation. (b) All CCGTs have frequency dependency removed.

Fig. 4. Simulated power output of the GT component of a typical CCGT to a frequency drop of 0.5 Hz (inertial response neglected). (i) Frequency trace. (ii) CCGT operating at base load. (iii) CCGT operating at 95% capacity with (a) conventional IGVs and (b) fast-acting IGVs.

The signicant role of fast acting IGVs can be better understood by examining Fig. 4, which considers the response of a base-loaded CCGT to a 0.5-Hz frequency drop compared to the response of the same CCGT when operating at 95% of base load. When operating at base load, the power output from the CCGT declines with the system frequency and remains below rated output as long as the frequency is less than nominal. When operating at partial loads, however, the CCGT response to changing frequency is rapid, and the inuence of fast-acting IGVs is clearly illustrated. In both cases, the power output initially increases in response to falling frequency. With conventional IGVs, however, as the fuel ow increases, the exhaust temperature will increase, causing the temperature controller to reduce the fuel ow and, hence, the power output of the gas turbine. The temperature controller then only allows the fuel ow to increase as the airow increases, so the response of the unit is limited by the operational speed of the IGVs. With fast-acting IGVs, the airow increases much more quickly, and so the response of the CCGT is no longer constrained in the same way. The maximum response is instead curtailed by the reduction in airow due to reduced compressor speed. C. Impact of Tripping the Largest Infeed on System Frequency For each of the three considered scenarios, the effect on system frequency following the loss of the largest generating infeed to the system was modeled. For the winter peak scenario, illustrated in Fig. 5, the load is 6065 MW, and CCGT generation comprises 33.5% of the total. During the winter peak, typically between 17.0019.00 h, there is no interruptible load service on the system, and the primary reserve requirement must be entirely met by generator spinning reserves.

It can be seen that the frequency nadir falls a further 15% when all CCGT generations are operating at base load and the frequency dependency of their response is modeled, demonstrating that a small drop in the power output, due to frequency, of a single CCGT in isolation becomes more signicant as the number of base-loaded CCGTs increases. The load on the system for the summer night valley scenario is set at 2170 MW, with 49.6% of generation provided by CCGTs. There are no interruptible load service on the system, and three 73-MW pumped storage units are operating in pumping mode, thereby providing almost instantaneous reserve when triggered by falling frequency. The remaining primary reserve is met by spinning reserves from online (mainly thermal) generators. The loss of a 400-MW generator during the summer night valley is shown in Fig. 6. In this case, when system inertia is very low, it can be seen that the system frequency falls very fast, with an initial rate of change of frequency of 0.495 Hz/s and frequency drops below 49 Hz. The frequency nadir falls by an additional 5.4% when the CCGTs are base loaded and the frequency dependency of their response is modeled, if load tripping is not incorporated. This additional fall in frequency is critical when the system is already severely stressed. The frequency falls below the upper threshold for under-frequency load shedding of 48.9 Hz, leading to 8% of load being shed, as illustrated in Fig. 6. This summer night valley scenario with low system load and inertia indicates that with additional CCGTs on the system, events of this nature will be more likely, and the transmission system operators on the island of Ireland should review their frequency control strategies in the future to avoid the shedding of customers. However, the difference between the two frequency nadirs is not as large as for the winter peak load scenario. This illustrates that although the percentage generation provided by base-loaded CCGTs has grown from 33.5% to 49.6% penetration, the magnitude of generation provided by these units is less, and therefore, the effect on system frequency is smaller. Finally, of the 3150 MW of generation on the Ireland system for the summer day valley scenario, 34.2% consists of CCGT

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Fig. 6. Summer night valley with 400-MW trip. (a) Base-loaded CCGTs comprise 49.6% of generation, with no tripping of load. (b) Base-loaded CCGTs comprise 49.6% of generation, with load tripping of 8% of system demand at 48.9 Hz. (c) All CCGTs have frequency dependency removed.

Fig. 8. Sensitivity of system frequency nadir to increasing proportions of CCGTs. (a) Percentage increase in the frequency nadir as the proportion of base-loaded generation increases. (b) Percentage increase if the increase was linear.

The technical problems of operating a CCGT at maximum output may be overcome by a number of methods. Over-ring is one option but is currently not allowed for units on the Ireland system. Derating the CCGT is also possible, but the overall efciency of the unit will be reduced. Other options include increasing the primary operating reserve requirement, to offset the negative power response of base-loaded CCGTs, or reducing the size of the largest infeed to the system, thus limiting the largest possible single contingency. However, a signicant cost can be associated with each solution, and detailed cost/benet analysis will be required to quantify and compare these costs, which is not undertaken here. VII. CONCLUSION AvalidatedmodelofaCCGTisdevelopedthatincorporatesthe effects of fast-acting inlet guide vanes, ambient temperature and pressure, and a mechanism for varying the frequency dependency of the gas turbine. This CCGT model is combined with a validated system model to study the impact of CCGTs on frequency control following the loss of generation. As large base-loaded CCGTs replace existing conventional generation in the future, frequency control may become more challenging. As the events studied here are likely, are not the most severe, and are based on an optimistic model of the transmission system, the results indicate that with additional CCGTs on the system, large frequency excursions will bemorelikely,andthetransmissionsystemoperatorsontheisland of Ireland should review their frequency control strategies in the future to avoid the shedding of customers. APPENDIX Model equations: F1: Maxigv igv F2: F3:

Fig. 7. Summer day valley with 400-MW trip. (a) Base-loaded CCGTs comprise 34.2% of generation. (b) All CCGTs have frequency dependency removed.

generation. During this scenario, 60 MW of the primary reserve on the system is in the form of interruptible load service, which is activated if the frequency falls to 49.3 Hz. The results of the summer day valley scenario simulation are presented in Fig. 7. The frequency nadir falls 6.3% further when the CCGT generating units are base loaded and the frequency dependency of their response is modeled. In Fig. 8, the effect on the frequency nadir of increasing proportions of base-loaded CCGT generating units, with the frequency dependency of their response modeled, is illustrated for a typical winter day load, with 60 MW of interruptible load service and the remaining 256 MW of spinning reserve requirement met by thermal generators. It is shown to be nonlinear, with the effect becoming more pronounced as the percentage of base-loaded CCGTs increases. This exponential fall in frequency as more CCGTs are added is due to frequency falling further, which causes unit outputs to fall to a greater extent, in turn, causing the frequency to fall further.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge the useful discussions and interactions with colleagues in ESB National Grid, in particular, J. OSullivan, M. Power, D. Barry, and K. OConnor, colleagues in ESB Power Generation, in particular, A. Egan and N. Tarrant, T. Wilson of Viridian, colleagues in NIE, in particular, M. Preston, colleagues in Synergen, and also colleagues in the ERC, especially A. Mullane, S. Rourke, R. Doherty, E. Denny, and A. Keane.

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Gillian Lalor (S03) received the B.E. degree in mechanical engineering from University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland, in 2001. She is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree at University College Dublin. Her research interests are in in power system modeling and control.

Julia Ritchie received the B.Eng. degree in electrical and electronic engineering from The Queens University of Belfast, Belfast, U.K., in 2000. She is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in the area of intelligent control and modeling of power plants and power systems at The Queens University of Belfast.

Damian Flynn (M96) is a Lecturer in power engineering at The Queens University of Belfast, Belfast, U.K. His research interests involve an investigation of the effects of embedded generation sources, especially renewables, on the operation of power systems. He is also interested in advanced modeling and control techniques applied to power plants.

Mark J. OMalley (S86M87SM96) received the B.E. and Ph.D. degrees from University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland, in 1983 and 1987, respectively. He is currently a Professor in University College Dublin and the Director of the Electricity Research Centre, with research interests in power systems, control theory, and biomedical engineering.