UNIT Alternative Heating (Stoves,

Fireplace Inserts, Solar)

ily available to make the use of wood-burning stoves practical. However, pellet stoves, which burn small compressed wood by-products, may be used in many locations where pellets are available.

Codes, regulations, and laws regarding wood-heating, gas appliances, and components change frequently. It is essential that you be familiar with the appropriate current National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) information and other codes, regulations, and laws.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to list reasons for the formation of creosote. describe methods to help prevent the formation of creosote. explain how stovepipe should be assembled and installed. list safety hazards that may be encountered with wood stoves. describe the three types of venting for gas stoves. explain how a fireplace insert can improve on the heating efficiency of a fireplace. describe the difference between passive and active solar systems. describe the declination angle and the effect it has on the suns radiation during winter and summer. list the typical components in a liquid-based solar system and describe the function of each. describe the operation of a solar domestic hot water system. describe a swimming pool solar-heating system.

A.2 ORGANIC MAKEUP AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD

Wood plants manufacture glucose. Some of this glucose, or sugar, turns into cellulose. Approximately 88% of wood is composed of cellulose and lignin in equal parts. Cellulose is an inert substance and forms the solid part of wood plants. It forms the main or supporting structure of each cell in a tree. Lignin is a fibrous material, a polymer, which binds to cellulose fibers and hardens and strengthens the cell walls of trees. The remaining 12% of the wood is composed of resins, gums, and a small quantity of other organic material. Water in green or freshly cut wood constitutes from one third to two thirds of its weight. Thoroughly air-dried wood may have as little as 15% moisture content by weight. Wood is classified as hardwood or softwood. Hickory, oak, maple, and ash are examples of hardwood. Pine and cedar are examples of softwood. Figure A1 lists some common types of wood and the heat value in each type in millions of Btu/cord. A cord of wood can be split, unsplit, or mixed. It is important to know whether the wood is split, because there is more wood in a stack that is split. Wood is sold

SAFETY CHECKLIST
Many safety practices must be adhered to when installing or using a wood-burning appliance. Many of these safety practices are stated within this unit, printed in red. Many other safety practices must be adhered to including those provided by manufacturers and local, regional, and state codes. It is also necessary to use good judgment and common sense at all times. If an antifreeze solution is used in a solar domestic hot water system, a double-walled heat exchanger must be used.

A.1 WOOD-BURNING STOVES

Stoves are used as an alternative heating appliance in many homes. Some homes use stoves as a primary heat source, and others use them to supplement primary heat sources. Both wood- and gas-burning stoves are used. Wood must be readFigure A1 The table indicates the weight per cord, the Btu per cord of air-dried wood, and the equivalent value of No. 2 fuel oil in gallons. Courtesy Yukon Energy Corporation 1

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4 ft

4 ft

alytic stoves manufactured between these dates may not emit more than 8.5 g/h. These limits are reduced further for those stoves manufactured after July 1, 1990, to 4.1 g/h for the catalytic models and 7.5 for the noncatalytics. As new stoves are purchased and installed, replacing older stoves, the air pollutants from wood-burning stoves will be reduced drastically, because the particulate emission of the catalytic stove is approximately 10% of the emissions of the older stoves.

A.4 CREOSOTE
8 ft 1 CORD OF WOOD

Figure A2 Wood should be stacked on runners so that air can circulate through it.

by the cord, which is a stack 4 ft 4 ft 8 ft or 128 ft3. Because wood is sold by volume and not by weight, wood that is split has less air space between the individual pieces. This will give the cord of wood a higher density, meaning more wood per cord. Wood should be dry before burning. Approximately 20% more heat is available in dry wood than in green wood. Wood should be stacked off the ground on runners and should be well ventilated, Figure A2. When possible, the wood should be covered, but air should be allowed to circulate through it. Wood splits more easily when it is green or freshly cut and dries better when it has been split. When green wood is burned, combustion will be incomplete, resulting in unburned carbon, oils, and resins, which leave the fire as smoke. During oxidation or burning, oxygen is added to the chemical process. This actually turns wood back into products that helped it grow as a plant: primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and other miscellaneous materials. Heat also is produced. Some woods produce more heat than others per cord, Figure A1. Generally, dry hardwoods are the most efficient.

Creosote is a mixture of unburned organic material. When it is hot, it is a thick dark-brown liquid. When it cools, it forms into a residue like tar. It then often turns into a black, flaky substance that adheres to the inside of the chimney or stovepipe. The formation of creosote is particularly a problem with the uncertified stoves manufactured before July 1, 1989. Some of the primary causes of excessive creosote are: smoldering low-heat fires. smoke in contact with cool surfaces in the stovepipe or chimney. burning green wood. burning softwood. SAFETY PRECAUTION: Creosote buildup in the stovepipe and chimney is dangerous. It can ignite and burn with enough force to cause a fire in the building. Stovepipes have been known to be blown apart, and chimney fires are common with this excessive buildup. To help prevent the formation of creosote, burn dry hardwood. Fires should burn with some intensity. When the stovepipe or chimney flue temperature drops below 250F, creosote will condense on the surfaces. Use as little run of stovepipe as possible. The minimum rise should be 1/4 in. per ft of horizontal run. A rise of 30 is recommended, Figure A3. Anything that slows the movement of the gases allows

CHIMNEY FLUE STOVEPIPE SHOULD RISE FROM STOVE TO CHIMNEY (1/4" RISE PER FOOT IS THE MINIMUM RECOMMENDED). KEEP RUN AS SHORT AS POSSIBLE.

A.3 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA) REGULATIONS

On July 1, 1988, the Environmental Protection Agencys first national woodstove emissions standards went into effect. Emissions from wood-burning appliances were adding to the pollutants in the air along with all the other sources of air pollutants. C Wood smoke contains both polycyclic organic matter (POM) and nonpolycyclic organic matter, which are considered to be health hazards and are of concern to many people. C All wood-burning stoves manufactured after July 1, 1989, must be EPA certified. Two EPA standards exist one for catalytic stoves and one for noncatalytic stoves. Catalytic stoves contain a catalytic combustor and may not emit more than 5.5 g/h of particulates for those stoves manufactured between July 1, 1989, and June 30, 1990. The noncat-

FLUSH WITH INSIDE OF FLUE LINER.

Figure A3 The stovepipe should rise from stove to chimney.

Unit A Alternative Heating (Stoves, Fireplace Inserts, Solar)

RIGHT WRONG

CRIMPED END DOWN CRIMPED END UP

CREOSOTE WILL RUN DOWN STOVEPIPE TO STOVE.

CREOSOTE WILL LEAK OUT AROUND JOINT.

Figure A4 The stovepipe should be assembled with the crimped end down so that creosote will not leak out of the joint.

them to cool, which will cause more creosote condensation. Stovepipes and chimneys should be cleaned regularly. Assemble the stovepipe with the crimped end down, Figure A4. This will keep the creosote inside the pipe.

Figure A5 A noncatalytic wood-burning stove. Courtesy HearthStone NHC, Inc.

CELL DENSITY (NUMBER OF CELL OPENINGS PER SQUARE INCH)

A.5 DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOD-BURNING STOVES

As mentioned earlier, all wood-burning stoves manufactured since July 1, 1989, must be EPA certified. These may be certified as noncatalytic or catalytic combustor stoves.
CATALYST WASHCOAT LENGTH

Noncatalytic Certified Stoves

These stoves force the unburned gases to pass through a secondary combustion chamber. Temperatures higher than 1000F are maintained in this chamber, burning the gases. This burns the pollutants, including most of the creosote, and produces more heat, providing a better stove operating efficiency. Figure A5 is an example of one design of this type of stove.
SUBSTRATE MAGNIFIED SECTION DIAMETER

Figure A6 A catalytic combustor element. Courtesy of Corning Inc.

Catalytic Combustor Certified Stoves

The catalytic combustor is a form of afterburner that increases the burning of wood by-products. These combustors use a catalyst to cause combustion by producing a chemical reaction, which burns the flue gases at about 500F rather than the 1000F otherwise required. Most combustors are a cell-like structure, Figure A6, and consist of a substrate, washcoat, and catalyst. The substrate is a ceramic material formed into a honeycomb shape. Ceramic material is used because of its stability in extremely cold and hot conditions. The washcoat, usually made of an aluminum-based substance called alumina, covers the ceramic material and helps disperse the catalyst across the combustor surface. The catalyst is made of a noble metal, usually

platinum, palladium, or rhodium, which is chemically stable in extreme temperatures. Figure A7 is an illustration of a woodstove with a catalytic combustor. A disadvantage of this combustor is that it must be replaced every few years.

Radiation and Convection Characteristics

Wood-burning stoves heat by both radiation and convection. Radiation is heat that comes from the stove in waves and heats objects in its path, such as the walls, floor, and furniture. The stove also heats the air around it. This is called convective heat. As the air is heated, it rises, and cooler air comes in to take its place, and it is heated. The cycle continues, and the currents are referred to as convection currents. Some stoves are designed to utilize the convective heating to a greater extent than others. These stoves may have a blower

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Technology

FLUE

THERMAL INSULATION

SECONDARY AIR DISTRIBUTOR

WOOD

ADJUSTABLE PRIMARY AIR SUPPLY

Figure A7 An illustration of a woodstove with a catalytic combustor. Courtesy of Corning Inc.

system to spread the heat out further and to make the convection process more efficient.

Pellet Stoves
Pellet stoves are a more recent design, are energy efficient, and use a renewable energy source, Figure A8. The fuel consists of small compressed pellets made from waste wood, primarily sawdust from lumber sawmills. However, the pellets may be made from waste cardboard or even agricultural wastes such as sunflower and cherry seed hulls. Stove owners should be sure that only the type of pellets recommended by the manufacturer are used. They are normally provided in 40- or 50-lb bags.

Most pellet stoves are designed with a hopper at the back or top. The pellets are fed to the combustion chamber with an auger powered by an electric motor, which is often controlled with a thermostat. The room air is generally circulated through the heat exchanger and into the conditioned space by a multispeed blower. Very little air pollution is produced with as little as 1% of the pellet material remaining as ash. Most stoves do not require a chimney because exhaust gases are forced outside through a vent pipe by a combustion fan. Combustion air may be drawn in from outdoors so that heated room air is not used for combustion. This provides additional efficiency by not creating a negative pressure in the room thus decreasing the cold air that will infiltrate through cracks in doors and windows. Venting of exhaust gases may be through a horizontally positioned vent pipe with an end cap to prevent wind from blowing air and the exhaust gases into the stove, Figure A9. This horizontal vent pipe must be constructed of PL vent pipe tested to UL 641 standards. It is a double-walled pipe with an air space between the walls. All joints must be sealed with an approved sealer. This is important because this venting system has an electrically operated exhaust combustion fan; if there should be a power failure, the combustion fumes could enter the conditioned space. A lined masonry chimney that meets all appropriate codes may be used. However, many masonry chimneys will be large enough to affect the operation of pellet stoves adversely. These chimneys may be relined with a stainless steel liner, Figure A10. Consult the stove manufacturers literature for the recommended diameter for these liners.

Figure A8 A pellet stove. Courtesy Vermont Castings

Figure A9 A horizontal vent pipe must have an end cap to prevent air or exhaust gases from being blown into the stove. A vent pipe may be extended vertically above the eaves. Courtesy Vermont Castings

Unit A Alternative Heating (Stoves, Fireplace Inserts, Solar)

Figure A11 A wood-burning stove made from cast iron. Courtesy Majestic Products Co., Huntington, IN Figure A10 Pellet stoves may operate more efficiently if masonry chimneys are relined with a stainless steel liner. Courtesy Vermont Castings

Stove Construction
Stoves may be constructed of steel, cast iron, soapstone, or a combination of these materials. Stoves made of steel are normally the least expensive. They are made of sheet steel welded together normally with a firebox of refractory bricks. These stoves give off heat almost immediately after the fire is started. With a large, hot fire, they will quickly give off a considerable amount of heat. However, when the fire dies, the heat from the stove will also quickly cool. Many stoves are manufactured of cast iron. These stoves can be much more decorative, because the casting process provides an opportunity for intricate detail particularly on the sides and legs, Figure A11. Cast iron is more durable than steel, and the heat is more even and less intense than that of a sheet-steel stove. These stoves also cool down more slowly after the fire dies down or goes out. Soapstone may be used, particularly in combination with cast iron, as a material in the manufacture of wood-burning stoves, Figure A12. Soapstone can withstand the changes in temperature such as from room temperature to very intense heat. It may be used not only on the exterior of stoves, but also may be used for the firebox, because it can withstand exposure to direct flames. This material provides a gentle heat and can hold and radiate heat for longer periods than the other materials.

Figure A12 A wood-burning stove made with soapstone. Courtesy HearthStone NHC, Inc

DAMPER

Makeup Air
Air used in combustion must be made up or resupplied from the outside, for example, with an inlet from outside directly to the stove, Figure A13. Often an older home has many air leaks. The hot air may leak out near the ceiling or through the
FRESH AIR INLET FROM OUTSIDE

Figure A13 A stove with a fresh air tube entering it from outside.

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attic. Cool air can leak in through cracks around windows, under doors, and elsewhere. Although this may disturb the normal heating cycle, it does help to make up air for that air leaving the chimney as a result of the combustion and venting. SAFETY PRECAUTION: In modern homes that are sealed and insulated well, some provision may have to be made to supply the makeup air. A door may have to be opened a crack to provide a proper draft. A stove could actually burn enough oxygen in a small home to make it difficult to get enough oxygen to breathe. Always make sure that there is enough makeup air.

Safety Hazards
SAFETY PRECAUTION: Live coals in the stove in the living area of a house, along with creosote in stovepipes and chimneys, make it absolutely necessary to install, maintain, and operate stoves safely. This cannot be emphasized enough. Following are some of the safety hazards that may be encountered: A hot fire can ignite a buildup of creosote, resulting in a stovepipe or chimney fire. Radiation from the stove or stovepipe may overheat walls, ceilings, or other combustible materials in the house and start a fire. Sparks may get out of the stove, land on combustible materials, and ignite them. This could happen through a defect in the stove, while the door is left ajar, while the firebox is being filled, or while ashes are removed. Flames could leak out through faulty chimneys, or heat could be conducted through cracks to a combustible material. Burning materials coming out of the top of the chimney can also start a fire at the outside of the house. These sparks or glowing materials can ignite roofing materials, leaves, brush, or other matter outside the house.

A stove collar adapter often supplied by the manufacturer should be used to install the stovepipe to the stove, Figure A14. The manufacturer may provide a special provision for this. Figure A15 shows three different types of installations. The stovepipe must not run through any combustible material, such as a ceiling or wall. Approved chimney sections with necessary fittings should be used. Figure A16 illustrates details for adapting the stovepipe to the through-thewall chimney fittings. Remember to keep horizontal stovepipe runs to a minimum. A rise of 1/4 in. per ft should be considered a minimum, Figure A3. Local codes or manufacturers may require a greater rise. Be sure that approved thimbles, joist shields, insulation shields, and other necessary fittings are used where required. Ensure that a recognized national testing laboratory approves all materials and that all codes are met. Only one stove can be connected to a chimney. For masonry chimneys with more than one flue, no more than one stove can be connected to each flue. A factory-built chimney used for woodstoves should be rated as a residential and building heating appliance chimney. Check all codes. SAFETY PRECAUTION: Many stoves are vented through masonry chimneys. If a new chimney is being used, it should have been constructed according to applicable building codes and carefully inspected. If an old chimney is being used, an experienced person should inspect it to ensure that it is safe to use. The mortar in the joints may be deteriorated and loose, or a serious chimney fire may have cracked the chimney. All necessary repairs should be made to the chimney by a competent mason before connecting the stove to it. Manufacturers or their suppliers may recommend that chimneys be lined, Figure A10. This may be recommended for a better draft and/or safety.

A.6 INSTALLATION PROCEDURES

A national testing laboratory should approve a wood-burning stove or appliance. Before installing a stove, stovepipe, or prefabricated chimney, be sure that all building and fire marshals codes are followed, as well as the instructions of the testing laboratory and manufacturer. If one code or set of instructions is more restrictive than another, follow the most restrictive instructions. These instructions should include the distance the stove should be located from any combustible material, such as a wall or the floor. They should indicate the minimum required protective material between the stove and the wall and between the stove and the floor. Excessive heat from the stove can heat the walls or floor to the point where a fire can be started. The stove must be connected to the chimney with an approved stovepipe, often called a connector pipe. Codes and instructions must be followed.
USE ALL THREE SPECIAL SCREWS.

Figure A14 A stove collar adapter for double-wall stovepipe.

Unit A Alternative Heating (Stoves, Fireplace Inserts, Solar)

STANDARD INSTALLATION USING CEILING SUPPORT ROUND CAP ROUND STORM COLLAR ROUND FLASHING PIPE ATTIC INSULATION SHIELD PIPE OPEN BEAM CEILING INSTALLATION USING ROOF SUPPORT EXTERIOR WALL INSTALLATION USING WALL SUPPORT, BRACKETS, AND THROUGH-THE-WALL TEE ROUND CAP ROUND STORM COLLAR ROUND FLASHING

ROUND CAP ROUND STORM COLLAR ROUND FLASHING

ROOF SUPPORT ASSEMBLY

SUPPORT BRACKET ASSEMBLY

FIRESTOP ASSEMBLY

STOVEPIPE

PIPE

CEILING SUPPORT ASSEMBLY STOVEPIPE

STOVEPIPE TEE ASSEMBLY WALL THIMBLE WALL SUPPORT WITH CLEAN OUT

CHIMNEY MUST BE ENCLOSED WHERE IT PASSES THROUGH OCCUPIED SPACES TO MAINTAIN REQUIRED CLEARANCES TO COMBUSTIBLES AND TO PROTECT AGAINST DAMAGE.

NOTE: OUTSIDE CHIMNEYS ARE NOT AS DESIRABLE, SINCE THEY ARE MORE SUBJECT TO DOWNDRAFTS AND CREOSOTE BUILDUP.

Figure A15 Three different types of stove installations.

CHIMNEY TEE BRANCH EXTENSION CHIMNEY TEE PIPE END PLATE CHIMNEY CONNECTOR RING 90 ELBOW 18-INCH DOUBLE-WALL BLACK STOVEPIPE ADJUSTABLE LENGTH 24-INCH DOUBLE-WALL BLACK STOVEPIPE PIPE SECTION STOVE COLLAR ADAPTER

CHIMNEY PIPE SECTION CHIMNEY TEE WALL THIMBLE CHIMNEY TEE WALL SUPPORT TYPICAL INSTALLATION USING 90 ELBOW WITH THROUGH-THE-WALL CHIMNEY TEE

A.7 SMOKE DETECTORS

SAFETY PRECAUTION: Smoke detectors should be used in all homes regardless of the type of heating appliance used. It is even more important to install smoke detectors when burning wood fuel. Many types of detectors are available. These may be AC-powered photoelectric type or an AC- or batterypowered ionization chamber type.

A.8 GAS STOVES

Gas stoves are becoming popular as a heating appliance. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) may certify these as a decorative appliance or as a room heater. Decorative appliances are attractive but not designed for larger space heating. Room heaters are, as the name implies, heating appliances and will have efficiency ratings. These stoves may be manufactured of materials similar to woodstoves and are available in many attractive colors, Figure A17.

Figure A16 Details of a through-the-wall installation.

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this writing in all states. They have an oxygen depletion sensor (ODS), which turns off the pilot light and gas supply when the oxygen level in the area of the stove is depleted to a certain level. Gas appliances should be installed by certified personnel or by those approved in that region to do so.

A.9 FIREPLACE INSERTS

Fireplace inserts can convert a fireplace from a very inefficient heat source to one that is more efficient. Very little heat can be obtained from a fireplace without some device to help contain the heat and to move heat from the fireplace into the room. The fireplace insert provides a way to retain the heat and blow it into the room. Figure A18 is a photo of a fireplace insert.

Wood-Burning Inserts
Awood-burning insert is basically a woodstove that is designed to be placed into an existing fireplace. Fireplace inserts can be either wood- or gas-burning. New wood-burning inserts must be certified by the EPA as woodstoves are. This makes them more clean burning and more efficient. For a wood-burning insert to be used, the fireplace and chimney must generally be of masonry construction. Local building codes and the manufacturers specifications for the particular insert should be consulted to ensure that the size and construction of the fireplace would accommodate the insert. All installations should meet the NFPA and other appropriate codes. Many factory-built or prefabricated fireplaces are not approved for inserts. Inserts are usually made from plate steel, cast iron, or a combination of these materials. They may fit into the fireplace opening so that they are basically flush with the front, or they may protrude to some degree onto the hearth. Those that protrude are usually more efficient as this part of the insert will provide more radiant heat. Inserts normally have blowers that may be controlled manually or with a thermostat and which improve the efficiency. Codes now in many areas for new insert installations require that the insert be installed with a positive connection to the chimney flue, which prevents creosote from running down

Figure A17 A gas stove. Courtesy of Majestic Products Co., Huntington, IN

These stoves may be designed to burn natural or propane gas. Many are designed so the orifice can be adjusted or changed to switch from burning one gas to the other. Most utilize a standing pilot for ignition and have controls to shut off the gas should the pilot be out. Many of these stoves operate without electricity and can be used for heating during a power outage. Some have variable-speed convection blowers to help circulate the heated air.

Venting
These gas stoves may be designed as B-vent, direct-vent, or vent-free stoves. B-VENT. Stoves requiring a B-vent must be vented through the roof or into an existing chimney. A flue liner may be suggested or required if venting into an existing chimney. The liner will reduce the size of the flue so that the stove will draft properly. DIRECT-VENT. Stoves utilizing a direct-vent system use a double-wall pipe to pull outside air in for combustion and to vent flue gases to the outside. Direct-vent options may include: venting straight back from the stove and through the wall. venting up from the stove and then through the wall. venting up through the roof. in some cases venting into a lined fireplace flue. VENT-FREE. Vent-free stoves, as the name implies, require no venting. Some people are concerned about gas combustion in the living area and not venting the flue gases. These stoves do have a good safety record but are not approved at

Figure A18 A wood-burning fireplace insert. Courtesy of Majestic Products Co., Huntington, IN

Unit A Alternative Heating (Stoves, Fireplace Inserts, Solar)

into the fireplace, causing a fire hazard. Smoke and gases then exit the fireplace more directly into and out of the chimney. Before an insert is installed, a professional should inspect the chimney. If there is creosote buildup, the chimney must be cleaned. The chimney and fireplace should be checked for cracks or flaws that could be a fire hazard. Inserts should never be used in a chimney flue used for another purpose. Many inserts make it more difficult to clean the chimney, as they must be removed from the fireplace. Some inserts have a special collar and direct flue liner to the top of the chimney, and these may be left in place for cleaning. Professional chimney sweeps should be employed to clean chimneys.

A.11 PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN

Many structures being built presently are using passive solar designs. These designs use nonmoving parts of a building or structure to help provide heat or cooling, or they eliminate certain parts of a building that help cause inefficient heating or cooling. Some examples follow: In areas where there are harsh winters, more windows can be placed on the east, south, or west sides of homes and fewer on the north side. This allows warming from the morning sun in the east and from the sun throughout the rest of the day from the south and west. By eliminating windows on the north side, this coldest side of the house can be better insulated. Place greenhouses, usually on the south side, to collect heat from the sun to help heat the house, Figure A19. Design roof overhangs to shade windows from the sun in the summer but to allow sun to shine through the windows in the winter, Figure A20.

Gas Fireplace Inserts

These inserts may be used to convert an existing woodburning fireplace to a gas appliance. Many of these may be installed in prefabricated fireplaces where wood-burning units may not. They may be designed to burn either natural gas or propane but usually need to be adjusted for one or the other. Before installing any insert, ensure that the existing fireplace and chimney are approved for the insert chosen to be installed. Many of these units and/or installations require that the chimney flue be lined with a metal liner and connected to the insert. This produces a better draft and more efficiency. These inserts are usually sealed with glass doors and have blowers that help to make them more efficient. The doors prevent excess indoor air from being used for combustion. Just the right amount of combustion air is usually introduced through adjustable air shutters. Blowers simply make the convective heat transfer more efficiently. NFPA and other codes should be consulted regarding these liners. Some newer gas inserts are designed so that they do not need a chimney liner. They are less efficient and allow more heat up the chimney, which heats the existing chimney flue liner and increases the draft. All gas appliances, stoves, or inserts must be connected to the gas source. Piping needs to be routed and installed. This usually means cutting, threading, and sealing pipe and should be done by a professional trained and approved to do this work.

Figure A19 A greenhouse will allow the sun to shine into the house. It may also have a masonry floor, or barrels of water may be located in the greenhouse to help store the heat until evening when the sun goes down. This heat then may be circulated throughout the house.
SUMMER SUN

A.10 SOLAR HEATING

The sun furnishes the earth with tremendous amounts of direct energy each day. It is estimated that 2 weeks of the suns energy reaching the earth is equal to all of the known deposits of coal, gas, and oil. The challenge facing scientists, engineers, and technicians is to better harness and use this energy. We know that the sun heats the earth, which heats the air immediately above the earth. One of the challenges is to learn how to collect, store, and distribute this heat to provide heat and hot water for homes and businesses. Many advances have been made, but the design and installation of solar systems has progressed very slowly. It is assumed, however, that as the resources are further depleted and as economics or political actions cause energy crises, it will be only a matter of time before direct energy of the sun is used extensively.
WINTER SUN

Figure A20 An overhang may be constructed to allow the sun to shine into the house in the winter when it is lower in the sky and yet shade the window in the summer.

10

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Technology

space or absorbed by moisture and pollutants before reaching the earth. The energy reaching the earth directly is direct radiation. The reflected or scattered energy is diffuse radiation, Figure A22.

A.13 SOLAR CONSTANT AND DECLINATION ANGLE

The rate of solar energy reaching the outer limits of the earths atmosphere is the same at all times. It has been determined that the radiation from the sun at these outer limits produces 429 Btu/ft2/h on a surface perpendicular (90) to the direction of the suns rays. This is known as the solar constant. The energy from the sun is often called insolation. The earth revolves once each day around an axis that passes through the north and south poles. This axis is tilted 23.5, so the intensity of the suns energy reaching the northern and southern atmospheres varies as the earth orbits around the sun. This tilt or angle is called the declination angle and is responsible for differences during the year in the distribution of the intensity of the solar radiation, Figure A23.

Figure A21 Latent-heat storage tubes may be placed in windows where heat is stored when the sun is shining. Courtesy of Calortherm Associates

Provide a large mass such as a concrete or brick wall to absorb heat from the sun and temper the inside environment naturally. Place latent-heat storage tubes containing phasechange materials where they can collect heat to be released at a later time, Figure A21. The remainder of this unit is limited to a discussion of active solar systems. These systems use electrical or mechanical devices to help collect, store, and distribute the suns energy. The distribution of this heat to the conditioned space is by means of the same type of equipment used in fossil-fuel furnaces.

DECLINATION ANGLE WINTER 23.5 SUN SUMMER

EARTH

SUMMER +23.5 WINTER DECLINATION ANGLE

A.12 DIRECT AND DIFFUSE RADIATION

The sun is a star often called the daystar. A very small amount of the suns energy reaches the earth. Much of the energy that does reach the earths atmosphere is reflected into

Figure A23 The angle of declination (23.5) tilts the earth so that the angle from the sun north of the equator is greater in the winter. The suns rays are not as direct, and the normal temperatures are colder than during the summer.

UPPER ATMOSPHERE ATMOSPHERE (ABSORPTION) DIRECT RADIATION

CLOUDS (SCATTERING AND ABSORPTION)

DUST (SCATTERING)

EARTH

Figure A22 Radiation striking the earth directly from the sun is considered direct radiation. If it reaches the earth after it has been deflected by clouds or dust particles, it is called diffuse radiation.

Unit A Alternative Heating (Stoves, Fireplace Inserts, Solar)

POINT 1 90 ATMOSPHERE

11

Liquid Solar Forced Air Space-Heating Systems

Figure A25 illustrates a basic water drain-down liquid space-heating system, which also includes a domestic hot water tank. Drain-down systems are one type of system used in areas where water to and from and in the collectors would freeze if left in the system. When collectors are producing heat at a higher temperature than the storage water, circulator pump A moves water from the storage to be heated and from the collectors back to storage. When the house thermostat calls for heat, circulator pump B moves water from storage to the heat exchanger in the furnace duct. The furnace fan blows air across the heat exchanger, warming the air, and distributes it to the house. Also shown is a domestic hot water tank heated through a heat exchanger in the water storage. When circulator pump A shuts down, the collector water will all drain to a heated area to keep the water from freezing in cold weather. Note that the pipe from the collector into the storage tank does not extend into the water. This provides venting and allows the collectors and piping to drain. If this space is not provided, other venting in the collector system is necessary. An alternative design that is often preferred, particularly in colder climates, requires a closed-collector piping system using an antifreeze solution instead of water, Figure A26. This figure illustrates a closed liquid collection to a water storage system with air distribution to the house. The liquid in the collector system is an antifreeze and water solution. It is heated at the collectors and pumped through the coil at the heat exchanger and back to the collectors. This continues as long as the collectors are absorbing heat at a predetermined temperature. When the room thermostat is calling for heat, threeway valve 1 allows the water to be circulated by pump B through the liquid-to-air heat exchanger and back to the
LIQUID-TO-AIR HEAT EXCHANGER ROOM THERMOSTAT

POINT 2

EARTH'S SURFACE POINT 3

Figure A24 Radiation from the sun will be warmer at point 1 as it travels the shortest distance through the atmosphere.

The amount of radiation reaching the earth also varies according to the distance it travels through the atmosphere. The shortest distance is when the sun is perpendicular (90) to a particular surface. This is when the greatest energy reaches that section of the earth, Figure A24. The angle of the suns rays with regard to a particular place on the earth plays an important part in the collection of the suns energy.

A.14 ACTIVE SOLAR DESIGN

The systems discussed and illustrated in this unit are basic systems with a minimum of controls, check valves, pressure relief valves, and other safety protection included. Manufacturers instructions and local and state codes must be followed when installing equipment. Active solar design utilizes collectors, storage systems, distribution devices such as pumps and fans, and control systems. These solar systems are used primarily for space heating, domestic hot water, and swimming pool heating.

COLLECTOR PANELS

CONTROLLER

HOT WATER TANK A PUMP CIRCULATOR PUMP

HEAT EXCHANGER STORAGE TANK

B PUMP AIR INTAKE

Figure A25 Collectors use water as the liquid. This is a drain-down system because the water in the collectors would freeze on cold nights.

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3-WAY VALVE 1 SENSOR RETURN PUMP C STORAGE ANTIFREEZE SENSOR PURGE COIL A 3-WAY VALVE 2 PUMP B PUMP CONTROLLER COIL LIQUID-TO-AIR HEAT EXCHANGER

LIQUID-TO-LIQUID HEAT EXCHANGER SENSOR COLLECTOR

ROOM THERMOSTAT ROOM SUPPLY

FURNACE

Figure A26 A closed liquid collection, water storage system with air distribution to the house.

liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger, where it absorbs more heat. If the room thermostat is not calling for heat, three-way valve 1 diverts the water to storage. If the storage temperature has reached a predetermined temperature, the collector solution is circulated through the purge coil. The solution is diverted to this purge coil through three-way valve 2. (The heat is dissipated into the air outside through this coil.) This is a necessary safety precaution because it is possible for the collector system to overheat and damage the equipment. Note that a liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger is used to heat the storage water. The collector antifreeze fluid must be kept separated from the storage water. This system is less efficient than the drain-down system, which does not require the extra heat exchanger. In most areas an auxiliary heating system is required to provide comfort heating at all times. A conventional hot air heating system can be used in the same duct used for the solar system. Room thermostats in each system may be used to provide steady comfortable heat.

boiler bypass. When auxiliary heat is called for, the 2 threeway diverting valves cause the water to bypass the storage. It would be very inefficient to pump heated water through the storage tank. A system can be designed as two separate systems in parallel as in Figure A27(B). These separate systems can both be operated at the same time. With this design, the solar system can help the auxiliary system when the temperature of the storage water is below that which would be satisfactory for it to operate alone. Sensors are used in either system to tell the controller when to start and stop the pumps and when to control the diverting valves.

A.15 SOLAR RADIANT HEAT

Figure A28 illustrates a water storage, radiant heating system with an auxiliary hot water boiler. Either water or an antifreeze solution is piped through a collector system and in the case of an antifreeze solution, through a heat exchanger in the water storage. The heating coils may be imbedded in concrete in the floor or in plaster in ceilings or walls. The normal surface temperature for floor heating is 85F, and for wall or ceiling panels, 120F. Floor installations are most common. The coils are imbedded in concrete approximately 1 in. below the surface. If this is a concrete slab on grade, it should be insulated underneath. In ceiling and wall applications there should be coils for each room to be heated. When installations are on outside walls, they should be insulated very well between the coils and outside surfaces to prevent extreme heat loss. Radiant heating installed in the floor is very comfortable with little temperature variation from room to room. Figure A29 illustrates a polybutylene pipe being installed in a floor. The pipe is tied to a wire mesh and propped on blocks to keep it near the top of the concrete slab, and the concrete is poured around it, covering it by approximately 1 in. There should be no joints in this pipe in the floor. Polybutylene pipe is popular for this installation. Any joints necessary should be manifolded outside the slab. Almost any type of flooring material may be used over the slab. Common materials are tile, wood,

Liquid Collection/Water Storage/Auxiliary Conventional Hot Water Boiler

A liquid-based solar collector system may be paired with a hot water finned-tube convector heating furnace. The collector system can be of the same design as an air distribution system. It can be a drain-down water design or one that uses antifreeze in the collectors with a heat exchanger in the storage unit. Solar collector and storage temperatures may be lower than those produced by a hot water boiler. This can be compensated forto some extentby using more fin tubing than would be used with a conventional hot water system. Figure A27(A) illustrates a design using a liquid-based solar collector with a hot water boiler system. This design uses the auxiliary boiler when the storage water is not hot enough. If the solar storage is hot enough, the boiler does not operate. Water is pumped from the storage tank and bypasses the boiler. It goes directly to the baseboard fin tubing. The three-way diverting valve automatically causes this

Unit A Alternative Heating (Stoves, Fireplace Inserts, Solar)

13

COLLECTOR ARRAY

CONVECTION HEAT DISTRIBUTION COIL

3-WAY AUTOMATIC DIVERTING VALVE

SUPPLY FROM STORAGE

AUXILIARY BOILER

RETURN TO STORAGE VENT GATE VALVE

RETURN TO BOILER PUMP 2-POSITION, 3-WAY AUTOMATIC DIVERTING VALVE GATE VALVE

STRAINER PUMP

STORAGE TANK

(A)
SOLAR FIN TUBES AUXILIARY FIN TUBES

RETURN TO STORAGE

RETURN TO BOILER

AUXILIARY BOILER

(B)
Figure A27 (A) A liquid-to-liquid solar space-heating system. (B) Both solar and auxiliary heat can be used at the same time.

3-WAY AUTOMATIC DIVERTING VALVE

AUXILIARY BOILER

SOLAR STORAGE GATE VALVE PUMP 3-WAY AUTOMATIC STRAINER DIVERTING VALVE GATE VALVE

Figure A28 A solar space-heating radiant system. The radiant heating coils are normally embedded in a concrete floor.

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POLYBUTYLENE PIPE

Figure A29 A polybutylene pipe being installed in a concrete slab to be used in a solar radiant heating system.

and carpeting. A controller is installed with sensors at the collectors, the water storage, and outdoors. It is also connected to the room thermostat. The controller modulates the temperature of the water being circulated in the floor according to the outside temperature and the room temperature.

Figure A30. The heated collector water or antifreeze is pumped through the heat exchanger where it provides heat to the water in the tank. This tank must have conventional heating components also because the solar heating probably will not meet the demand at all times. If an antifreeze solution is used, the heat exchanger must have a double wall to prevent the toxic solution from mixing with the water used in the home or business, Figure A31. SAFETY PRECAUTION: Ethylene glycol may be used as an antifreeze if allowed by local or state codes. It is toxic and must be used with a double-wall heat exchanger. Propylene glycol is a food grade antifreeze and is recommended for use in a domestic hot water system. Many systems are designed to use a solar preheat or storage tank in conjunction with a conventional hot water tank. This gives additional solar-heated water to the system. Conventional heating (electric, gas, oil) will not have to be used as much with this extra storage, Figure A32. When a space-heating system is installed, it may include domestic hot water heating as well. This can be designed in several ways, Figure A25. The cold makeup water is passed through the heat exchanger in the storage tank. It absorbs whatever heat is available before entering the hot water tank, thus reducing the amount of heat that must be supplied by the conventional means.

A.16 SOLAR-HEATED DOMESTIC HOT WATER

Many solar systems are designed and installed specifically to heat or to assist in heating domestic hot water. These may use similar components to those used in space-heating systems,

Liquid Collector Design

Liquid solar collectors designed for space heating and domestic hot water systems are usually flat-plate collectors. As indicated earlier a liquid (either water or an antifreeze solution) is passed through the collector in copper tubing, Figure A33. The liquid is heated as it passes through the collector.

COLLECTOR ARRAY COLLECTOR RETURN

CHECK VALVE

TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE EXPANSION TANK

CONTROLLER

TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE HOT WATER SUPPLY TEMPERATURE MODULATING VALVE

COLLECTOR SUPPLY GATE VALVE PUMP

CHECK VALVE STRAINER GATE VALVE STORAGE WITH INTERNAL HEAT EXCHANGER COLD WATER MAKEUP

Figure A30 A solar domestic hot water system.

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15

Figure A31 The heat exchanger piping has a double wall when an antifreeze solution is used in the collectors in a domestic hot water system.
HOT WATER RETURN FROM COLLECTOR HOT WATER TRANSFER LINE TO WATER HEATER TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE HOT WATER SUPPLY TEMPERATURE MODULATING VALVE COLD WATER SUPPLY TO COLLECTOR CIRCULATION PUMP SOLAR PREHEAT TANK CONVENTIONAL DOMESTIC HOT WATER TANK

COLD WATER MAKE-UP

COLD WATER SUPPLY FOR TEMPERING HOT WATER SUPPLY

Figure A32 A solar preheat tank provides additional storage for a domestic hot water system.

A.17 SOLAR POOL HEATING

Many solar pool heating systems simply use the pump that circulates the pool water through the filter for this system. The pool water is pumped through the filtering device(s) and then is diverted to the solar collectors where it is heated. The water then flows back to the pool, Figure A34. This continuous flow of water through the collectors and back to the pool gradually heats the water. When the pool has reached the desired temperature level, the water bypasses the collectors and is returned directly to the pool from the filters. Collectors for pool systems are often made of extruded plastic, Figure A35. A cross section of a collector produced by one manufacturer is shown in Figure A36. As shown by this illustration, the collector receives diffuse radiation and direct radiation for optimum heating of the water passing through.

Figure A33 A solar collector. Courtesy AET

These collectors may use one or two panels of glass. This glass may vary in quality and design, but a low-iron tempered glass is often used. The absorber plate is usually made of copper and formed tightly around the copper tubing and/or may consist of fins welded to the tubing. These assemblies are painted black, using a paint designed for this purpose, to absorb the maximum heat from the sun.

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VACUUM RELIEF VALVE SOLAR SENSOR VACUUM RELIEF VALVE (OPTIONAL LOCATION) INLET LINE TO SOLAR COLLECTOR FLOW METER ISOLATION BALL VALVE (OPTIONAL) SP SOLAR COLLECTORS END CAP OUTLET LINE THERMOMETER (OPTIONAL) ISOLATION CHECK VALVE (OPTIONAL) OUTLET TEE HEATER BY-PASS BALL VALVE (OPTIONAL) VALVE CONTROL LINE HEATER (OPTIONAL) HEATED WATER TO POOL

ELECTRONIC CONTROL

120/240 V LINE

PUMP

FILTER CHECK VALVE

COOL WATER TO SOLAR HEATER

POOL WATER SENSOR

THERMOMETER (OPTIONAL)

POOL

Figure A34 A swimming pool solar heating system. Courtesy Aquatherm Industries/Solar Industries

SUMMARY
Approximately 20% more heat is available in dry wood than in green wood. Wood smoke contains both polycyclic organic matter (POM) and nonpolycyclic organic matter, which are considered to be health hazards. EPA standards exist for both catalytic and noncatalytic stoves. Creosote, when hot, is a thick dark-brown liquid that forms into a residue like tar when it cools and often turns into a black, flaky substance inside the chimney or stovepipe. Stoves heat by both radiation and convection. Pellet stoves burn small, compressed pellets made from waste-wood products or agricultural waste products. Makeup air must be provided to replace air used in the combustion process. Gas stoves may be certified by ANSI as a decorative appliance or as a room heater. Gas stoves may be designed to use a B-vent or a direct-vent, or they may be vent-free. Fireplace inserts convert a fireplace into a more efficient heat source. Both wood-burning and gas-burning fireplace inserts are available. Liquid solar forced air space-heating systems may be the drain-down or closed-collector piping system type. Liquid solar space-heating systems may be combined with many types of conventional heating systems. Solar heating may be used to heat domestic hot water. Swimming pools may be heated with solar heating systems.

Figure A35 The solar collector for a swimming pool solar heating system. Courtesy Aquatherm Industries/Solar Industries

Figure A36 A cross-sectional view of a swimming pool solar collector. Courtesy Aquatherm Industries/Solar Industries