ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

THE DIESEL ENGINE THE DIESEL ENGINE

This short course deals with the actual prime mover of propulsion systems, generators and other driven equipment. The prime mover is the DIESEL ENGINE What does a Diesel Engine do? The diesel engine converts the energy in fuel oil to a useful form of energy by combining the fuel oil with oxygen and heat, from the heat of compression, resulting in a reciprocating motion that is then converted into a rotary motion. The rotary motion is used to provide power to the ships propulsion system or to an Alternator or Generator to provide electrical power to a ship. The reason that the prime mover is called a Diesel engine is that Doctor Rudolph Diesel was the first person to patent the principal of compression ignition to be used in an engine. Prior to the time that the Diesel Engine was patented, there were several variations of the same theme in production and operation. Dr. Diesel saw the financial gain to be made with the production of the engine and hence applied for and received a patent for his system. To better understand what a prime mover accomplishes, we first must know the component parts of such a machine. As noted above, the main purpose of the Diesel engine is to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion. To accomplish this end, pistons, which are enclosed in a cylinder liner, are subject to explosive forces on the upper part of the piston, known as the crown and the piston then travels down the cylinder liner due to the explosive force created. The piston is connected to what is known as a crankshaft by a connecting rod. The forces produced on the piston crown are transmitted to the crankshaft by the connecting rod and the crankshaft then turns. To be useful the power produced has to be controlled. This is accomplished by regulating the amount of fuel provided to the cylinders. We have accomplished the required result and have converted reciprocating motion into rotary motion. The component parts used to accomplish the required result are many and complex. The pistons, liners and crankshaft are the main components but there are many more. To hold the pistons, liners and crankshaft in place while in the stationary and dynamic (running) mode, we must have an enclosure of sufficient strength to contain all the necessary components that make the engine run. This is known as the crankcase or in some circles as the entablature or the block. This part of the engine must be able to endure the forces produced by the combustion process and also to contain the reciprocating and dynamic forces produced by the pistons and rods turning the crankshaft and to support the crankshaft itself. CRANKCASE - There are two types of crankcase, one is the fully cast usually made from cast Nodular Iron, the other is the built up type made from plate and forgings welded together. Figure 1 is an example of a cast and machined crankcase and Figure 2 is a picture of a Pielstick Built up crankcase. Both these examples produce high Horsepower per cylinder. 16 Cylinder Pielstick PC2.5 Crankcase - As can be seen from the pictures the actual structure is absolutely solid and looks as though a massive amount of power can be contained. The crankcase or block, although very sturdy needs to be somewhat flexible to allow for correct
1

-1-

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

alignment of the component parts. At the high Horsepower per cylinder produced in both examples, the forces are considerable when rotating at 520 RPM.

-2-

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

-3-

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 1 MACHINED CAST CRANKCASE / BLOCK OF A 9 CYLINDER IN LINE MAN ENGINE

FIGURE 2 16CYLINDER PIELSTICK PC2.5 CRANKCASE

-4-

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

The following is a compilation of the stationary components of the engine whether the engine be a two stroke or a four stroke model. These components are in addition to the crankcase CYLINDER LINERS AND JACKETS Cylinder Liners are usually constructed of special alloy Cast Iron, and are machined to fit into the cylinder block or crankcase. In many instances, especially with the larger power output engines, the cylinder liners are spun cast. This procedure necessitates the mold being set up in such a manner that as the molten metal is being poured into the mold, the mold itself is spinning and continues to spin until the material has solidified. This allows the liner structure to have an even grain and have greater strength than a straight poured unit. The liner is machined inside and out to accommodate the piston and so that the liner will fit correctly into the machined apertures in the block. The Liner is, on the larger medium speed engines, surrounded by a water jacket which is fitted to the top of the liner and rests on the crankcase or block. Cooling water passages are also machined (drilled) into the liner so that the temperature of the running surface of the Liner will be correctly maintained. Temperature of the cooling water is extremely important since this will affect the temperature of the operating surface of the Liner. Temperature of the cooling water should be in the region of 185 F at the outlet from the liner. Note that the size of the engine and its power output does not really enter into the equation regarding cooling water temperature. The thermostat on your car will be probably 180-190 F. The larger slow speed cathedral engines, which operate at some 4000 HP per cylinder, run at the same temperature.

-5-

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 3 CYLINDER LINER AND JACKET BEING ASSEMBLED

FIGURE 4 - CYLINDER LINER AND JACKET CROSS SECTION ASSEMBLY FROM PIELSTICK PC2

-6-

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

-7-

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

CYLINDER HEADS Cylinder heads are usually constructed of Nodular Iron or in some instances Cast Steel. The main function of the head is to contain the explosion of the fuel which in turn drives the piston down the liner. The other functions are to keep the liner and jacket in place, to form a seal between the liner and the head and to hold the inlet and exhaust valves in the case of a 4 stroke engine, and also to house the starting air valve, the relief valve and the fuel injection nozzle(s) In the case of the 38D81/8 opposed piston 2 stroke engine, the forces promulgated by the explosion of the fuel in the cylinder is used to drive the upper piston and produce power from the upper crankshaft, hence a cylinder head is not used.

FIGURE 5 - CYLINDER HEAD FROM MAN ENGINE

-8-

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 6 - CYLINDER HEAD FROM MAN ENGINE, RUSTY TOP SHOWING

FIGURE 7 - CYLINDER HEAD FROM AN EMD ENGINE On engines equipped with cylinder heads the actual head is held in place by heavy duty studs which should have their nuts torqued to the manufacturers specification. Cylinder head studs must be treated with great respect and must be free of all types of nicks, gouges and other blemishes as these types of damages can cause stress risers which in turn can cause breakage of the component when under load. Always remember that the forces acting on the underside of the cylinder head during the firing part of the cycle are horrendous and that these forces are taken up by the cylinder head studs. In modern day medium speed engines the cylinder head studs are hydraulically tightened. The procedure for this action is far superior to that of flogging up the respective nuts with a 28 lb. hammer. Smaller and larger engine head studs have the same criteria. Cylinder heads are water cooled with flow of coolant from the liner to the head and then out to the jacket water discharge line.
9

-9-

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FUEL INJECTORS -

FIGURE 8 FUEL INJECTOR IN THE TEST STAND

FIGURE 9 - COMPONENT PARTS OF A FUEL INJECTOR

10

- 10 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

Top picture is of Injector in the test stand. Bottom picture is of a fuel pump. Center picture shows the component parts fuel injector. Fuel valves or injectors and fuel pumps - Manufactured from high quality hardened steel. Although a stationary component, these pieces of equipment are said to be the heart of a diesel engine. The machining tolerances specified for both the injector and pump are extremely fine, and the least bit of dirt or drop of water can cause irreparable harm to the running surfaces of the plunger and barrel of the fuel pump and the surfaces of the nozzle and needle of the injector. Component parts are not interchangeable. i.e. the nozzle and needle for an injector must always stay together as must the barrel and plunger of a fuel pump. Metal to metal joints are used instead of gasketed surfaces since the gaskets would tend to blow out under the high pressures being generated. The topic noted above is applicable to engines with jerk pumps for each individual cylinder. Many of the lower output smaller engines are equipped with en bloc fuel pumps of different types and styles. The principal of operation and the detriments are the same for all fuel pumps. The fuel used for the engine must be absolutely clean, free of water be of the correct viscosity and have sufficient lubricity to allow the components in the fuel pump and injector to operate as designed.

11

- 11 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 10 - INSPECTION OF COMPONENT PARTS OF A FUEL PUMP BY A QUALITY CONTROL INSPECTOR BEARINGS - The Figure 12 shows a set of bearings from a GM locomotive engine which is basically the same type of engine used in the Marine Industry.
12

- 12 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

Journal Bearings; Are stationary. The actual bearing is usually of a tri metal formation. The three layers being a steel backing, a copper or bronze flash and a layer of white or Babbitt metal on top of that. A run in flash or overlay is added to aid in the run in of the bearings. The steel back gives the bearing strength and allows it to be fitted correctly to the cap and saddle on a main bearing. The copper flash is to allow the white metal to be boded to the steel and also to act as a tell tale for bearing wear. Some engines use aluminum bearings, the Fairbanks Morse 38D81/8 being a prime example.

FIGURE 11 - SADDLE AND BEARING CAP OF AN MAN ENGINE. THIS IS WHERE THE JOURNAL BEARING FOR THE CRANKSHAFT FITS.

Journal Bearings in diesel engines, whether tri metal or aluminum, are held in place by the bearing saddle and cap in the case of a crankshaft bearing or by the rod and cap in the case of a con rod. This situation is applicable to all engines no matter what the output. In days past, journal bearings for the larger engines were poured into the actual bearing cap and saddle and hand fitted by scraping to the shaft which they were supporting. This procedure applied to both the main bearings and the con rod bearings. In the present day engines what is known as bearing crush is used to hold the thin walled bearings in place. Bearing crush is achieved by making the circumference of the Tri Metal bearing slightly grater than the circumference of the
13

- 13 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

split housing into which the bearing will fit and then tightening the holding bolts to a specified torque.

FIGURE 12 TYPICAL VISUAL APPEARANCE OF BEARINGS AFTER 100 HOURS SAFETY FEATURES - The diagram or drawing shown below is the most prominent safety features of a Diesel Engine after the over speed trip. The function of this stationary inspection cover is to relieve pressure build up inside the crankcase should a component of the engine
14

- 14 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

become too hot and cause an ignitable vapor to be generated. Classification Societies specify the actual opening size that the cover fits and also the pressure at which the explosion door lifts. Most engines are fitted with explosion doors manufactured by BICERA (British Internal Combustion Engine Research Association). The number of explosion doors depends upon the internal volume of the crankcase.

15

- 15 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

16

- 16 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 13 - CRANKCASE DOOR (LEFT) AND EXPLOSION DOOR FROM A PIELSTICK PC2 ENGINE.

FIGURE 13 - CYLINDER RELIEF VALVE LOCATED IN THE CYLINDER HEAD Relief Valve - The main function of this valve which is located in the cylinder.

17

- 17 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

Cylinder head is to relieve any excess pressure within the cylinder. Excess pressure can be caused by water in the cylinder which, when the barring gear is engaged and the crankshaft turned, will tend to hydraulically lock the cylinder.

FIGURE 14 - PIELSTICK STARTING AIR VALVE; AIR IS ADMITTED THROUGH THE LOWER LARGE OPENING AND CONTROLLED BY CONTROL AIR THROUGH THE UPPER SMALLER OPENING Starting Air Valve; Located in the Cylinder Head and on One bank of a V engine and in all cylinders of an in line engine. Starting air is admitted through the side port of the valve. Opening of the valve is determined by the Pilot air actuating the top piston through the small bore hole located near the top of the valve. Pilot air is provided by the starting air distributor
18

- 18 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

usually located on the end of a camshaft. On smaller lower powered engines, starting is accomplished either with an electrically operated or air operated Bendix drive. STAIONARY COMPONENTS - One major stationary component is the sump or oil pan. This item is bolted to the bottom of the crankcase or block and catches the oil from crankshaft and piston lubrication. On the larger engines the oil pan main rail or flange, is used in a support function in that this rail sits on the foundation with the crankcase above it with its flange bolted through the sump flange and foundation. This assembly of the crankcase and the oil pan is supported on chocks between the bottom of the oil pan flange and the top of the foundation. Chocks are another stationary component that form part of the complete engine installation. On smaller Horsepower prime movers for generators the complete engine and generator assembly are mounted on what is termed a skid. The whole unit is mounted in a vessel and the skid mounted to the deck. On some engines resilient mounts are fitted which in one type consist of springs and plates and in another consist of steel plates and rubber The generator shown below is a skid mounted unit. Notice item 13 which are denoted as Flexible Mountings

19

- 19 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 15 DIESEL GENERATOR Other stationary components are all the pipes for all the systems. These include Fuel Oil (both high and low pressure) and Lube Oil, Fresh Water (Jacket Water and Fuel valve cooling), Air and Exhaust piping, Starting Air piping, Drain piping and Control air piping

The cutaway picture of the generator set shown above shows most of the dynamic components inside the engine. These are the reciprocating and revolving parts that make the production of power to spin the generator / alternator to produce amperage and voltage.

FIGURE 16 - CRANKSHAFT FROM AN MAN MEDIUM SPEED ENGINE, NOTE THE TIMING GEAR AND THE BOLTED ON COUNTERWEIGHTS. CRANKSHAFT - The major component is the Crankshaft. Manufactured from 4140 forged steel or from a Nodular Iron Casting. Forged Crankshafts can either be straight forged or Built Up. Built up means that the shaft is made up of pre machined webs and journals and then fitted together with extremely tight tolerances. In the case of straight forged crankshafts the forge bends, twists and hammers a piece of steel into the base shape of the crankshaft required and then it is machined on the throws and journals to the necessary sizes. The same basic idea applies to a cast crank. A casting is produced in the shape required and then machined to the required sizes. Note that some engines require 2 crankshafts, Fairbanks Morse 38D81/8 engine being a case in point. The Napier Deltic Engine required 3 crankshafts.

20

- 20 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

The item that drives the crankshaft is the piston and rod assembly. Pistons shown are for a Trunk Piston Engine. Pistons can be manufactured from Aluminum, Cast Iron or a mixture of Steel/Cast Iron and Aluminum. The Steel and Aluminum style pistons are known as TWO PIECE pistons, the crown or top is manufactured from cast steel and the skirt is manufactured from Aluminum. 3500 series Caterpillar Engines and GE 250 engines have a two piece piston with basically a floating skirt. The picture below is of an MAN two piece piston, note that the rod (which connects the piston to the crank) is not suspended from the piston although this assembly has just been drawn from the engine.

FIGURE 17 - TWO PIECE PISTON FROM AN MAN ENGINE CONNECTING ROD - As previously mentioned the con rod is attached to the piston and the crankshaft. The connection to the piston is known as the TOP END. The connection to the Crankshaft is known as the BOTTOM END. The basic nomenclature is correct for all engines no matter how large or small or what the power output is.

21

- 21 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 18 - CONNECTING ROD FROM MAN ENGINE, TOP END APPEARS TO BE MISSING SOMETHING? The top connection is missing in the previous picture. MAN has a design which permits the piston to be drawn from the engine without removal of the bottom end bearings and consequently with out the removal of the bottom end half of the rod bearing bottom end cap.

FIGURE 19 - TWO TOP ENDS FROM AN MAN ENGINE. Top end pin goes through the part that is capped off with the red plastic discs. The bolts fit up into the piston and are torqued to a very high specified value.
22

- 22 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

The piston pin can be seen in the picture of the piston for this type engine.

FIGURE 20 - PIELSTICK CONNECTING ROD FOR A PC2 ENGINE OIL FLOW IS FROM THE LARGE END TO THE SMALL END.

FIGURE 21 - THIS IS A PICTURE OF S CON ROD FROM A CATHEDRAL ENGINE THAT WENT TERRIBLY WRONG
23

- 23 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

CAMSHAFT - Camshafts are manufactured from forged 4140 steel. Each shaft (One per side on a V engine) is driven by gears from the Crankshaft. The cams are shrunk onto the shaft in the example shown and consist of an inlet cam, an exhaust camshaft and a fuel pump cam. Camshafts for smaller output engines can be forged, cast or built up in sections, but the principle of operation is the same in each case. The camshaft rotates and the cams operate inlet and exhaust valves and fuel pumps on a 4 stroke engine. On a 2 stroke engine the camshaft operates fuel pumps and exhaust valves if fitted. Inlet air is admitted by ports in the cylinder liner. Exhaust Ports can be used to expel the exhaust gases to the exhaust manifold.

FIGURE 22 - CAMSHAFT TO MATCH THE CRANKSHAFT SHOWN PREVIOUSLY

24

- 24 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 23 - CYLINDER HEAD SHOWING INLET AND EXHAUST VALVES Exhaust valves are at the bottom of the picture. In this design the Inlet valves are fitted with rotational devices.

FIGURE 24 - EXHAUST VALVE AND

25

FIGURE 25 - CAGED INLET VALVE;

- 25 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

CAGE FROM MAN ENGINE

NOTE THE ACTUATOR ABOVE THE SPRING, THIS IS THE MEANS USED TO TURN THIS VALVE IN ITS CAGE AS OPPOSED TO THE SPINNER TYPE TURNER IN THE EXHAUST VALVE ASSEMBLY.

Note the Spinner at the bottom of the exhaust aperture. Instead of a Physical actuator with balls and springs the valve is turned by the exhaust gases from the cylinder acting upon the spinner forged into the valve stem. This action ensures that hot spots are not developed on the seat of the cage or the valve which could cause burning of the valve seat. Burning of the valve and seat usually ends up with a hole cut into the assembly which allows hot gases to pass through and is denoted by exceedingly high exhaust temperatures for that particular cylinder. In the examples shown both the Inlet and Exhaust valves are caged so that the valves can be removed from the cylinder head, should the need arise, without actually removing the head from the engine.

FIGURE 26 - DISASSEMBLED ROTATOR FROM THE INLET VALVE. Various types of rotators have been and are still used by various and sundry manufacturers. Your Chevrolet has Rotators on the Exhaust valves.
26

- 26 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

The drawings below show an Inlet Valve and an Exhaust Valve from a Pielstick Engine Vintage 1971. Note that the Inlet valve fits directly into the cylinder head without a cage. This means that should an Inlet Valve fail for whatever reason, the cylinder head must be removed to change the valve out. The second drawing is of a water cooled Exhaust Valve from the same type of engine and as can be seen this valve has its own cage. This particular type of valve was used on engines burning what is known as Heavy or High Viscosity Fuel. Exhaust valves have over the years evolved so that the mating surfaces are kept cool. One of the best designs is a water cooled valve cage and a rotating spindle. Modifications have also been made to the inlet valves such that the valves are now caged and also rotate.

27

- 27 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 28 - INLET VALVE AND AN EXHAUST VALVE

FIGURE 29 WATER COOLED EXHAUST VALVE

28

- 28 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

29

- 29 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 27 The gear train shown above gives the sequence of gearing to enable the Camshaft(s) to be turned and so operate the valves shown below through the actuation of the actual cams in this case.
30

- 30 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 30 - ROCKER BOX MOUNTED TO CYLINDER HEAD, MAN ENGINE NOTE THE ROCKER ARM SHAFTS GOING THROUGH THE ROCKER BOX, MAN ENGINE

31

- 31 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 31 - VIEW SHOWING ROCKER ARMS AND ACTUATORS FOR INLET AND EXHAUST VALVES, MAN ENGINE The drawings below are of a Rocker Assembly from a Pielstick PC2 engine together with the associated Tappet Assemblies. Previously it had been noted that the Camshaft was equipped with cams which operated push rods for the actuation of the inlet and exhaust valves. The Tappet assembly is the base component that carries out this function. The Tappet Assembly consists of a roller and spring plus a carrier. The Tappet Assembly roller rides on the back of the camshaft and lifts the assembly up as the camshaft rotates.

32

- 32 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 32 ROCKER ARM ASSEMBLY

33

- 33 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 33 ROCKER ARM

34

- 34 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

35

- 35 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

36

- 36 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 54 ROCKER ARM

37

- 37 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

The Tappet Assembly forces the pushrod upwards and in turn actuates the rocker gear to open the requisite valve. The Rocker arm is basically a bar with a pivot point somewhere near the center so that when force is applied to one end that force is transmitted to the other end in the opposite direction. As one end goes up, the other end goes down. Another style of Tappet Assembly is used for the fuel pump, this is shown directly above. Note that the basic assembly is the same as the one for the push rod Tappet Assembly but with this unit the height of the assembly can be adjusted to give a running clearance on the back side of the actual cam. Since the actual camshaft is very highly loaded it is supported between two camshaft support bearings. Load on the camshaft is produced by the action of the camshaft through the Tappet Assembly to the plunger and barrel in the fuel pump. Pressures up to 3500 PSI are generated, which equate to a load of approximately 1 3/4 tons. At 520 engine rpm this occurs 260 times a minute therefore the camshaft and tappet assembly must be adequately supported. TURBOCHARGERS - The following Figure show different types of Turbochargers. The one shown in Figure 55 is an example of an MAN style center bearing type. Exhaust gas enters the unit from the right and spins the Gas Turbine end of the shaft. This causes the compressor on the left, to turn, since it is mounted on the same shaft. Air is drawn into the compressor and fed to the Inlet Manifold of the engine. The use of a Turbocharger allows a greater amount of fuel to be burned for the same sized engine therefore increasing the Horsepower output of the engine. Oil is fed to the bearings of this Turbo from the engine lubricating system.

38

- 38 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 55 TURBOCHARGER CUTAWAY, MAN STYLE CENTER BEARING TYPE

39

- 39 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 56 -TURBOCHARGER

40

- 40 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

An example of a turbo charger with independent oil reservoirs is shown above. Principle of operation is the same. This picture is on its side. The axis should be horizontal. Benefits are that the oil system is separate from that of the engine and hence cleaner. Disadvantage is that when stopped for a long time period the bearings must be hand lubricated prior to start up.

41

- 41 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 57 - CENTER BEARING TURBOCHARGER BY ABB

42

- 42 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

ENGINES

43

- 43 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 58 - CUTAWAY SECTION OF MAN 48 / 60 INLINE ENGINE

44

- 44 -

ERAT

DIESEL ENGINES

FIGURE 59 - CUTAWAY SECTION OF PIELSTICK PC2.5 ENGINE

45

- 45 -