Brycen Waters Celia Norcross Internship April 7, 2012 2 Theories that are most related to sophomore retention 5-8

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Sophomore Retention

As college students make their way from freshmen year to sophomore year, they are met with many challenges. Challenges such as if returning to their college or university is the right decision, if what they are planning on studying as a major is really the best decision, if they really want to be away from their friends, family, and home that much longer, and many more challenges. Higher education has worked to combat these challenges by making the transition from new student to returning student that much easier and effective. Sophomore retention studies have been conducted on college campuses across the country, all proving to show different results. These results have been put into practice and programs have been conducted that arguably assist in the return rate of sophomore students. Psychologists and experts have also done work researching and studying students and arriving at theories that have shed light on the many challenges students face as they transition from freshmen year to sophomore year. This report will focus on two theories that are arguably the most related and relevant in terms of sophomore retention. The two theories are Arthur Chickerings Theory of the Identity Development and Nancy Schlossbergs Transition Theory. In this report, it will be discussed what these theories actually state and how their message relates to sophomore retention at college and universities across the country. The first expert that will be discussed is Arthur Chickering. Chickering is an educational researcher in the field of Student Affairs and is best known for his theory of the 7 Vectors of Development. His work on this topic was first outlined in his landmark book, Education and Identity in 1969 which was a collection of his research from observing and evaluating students while he was employed at Goddard College (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Chickering has stated that before he began work in this field, he was not entirely aware of student affairs as a profession. It was not until the 1960s and 1970s when he would receive invitations to speak to

professionals in student affairs about his theories of student development, would he become aware of the field that would have the most impact on him in his career (Evans, Forney & GuidoDiBrito, 1998). As mentioned, Chickering is best known for his theory of the Seven Vectors of Development. Chickering believes that each of the 7 vectors or stages of development are experienced by students; however not always at the same time, and contribute significantly to the formation of identity. The vectors can be re-examined, according to Chickering, and students often times find themselves working through issues that they had thought that they had previously worked through in order to arrive at a more desirable solution. Chickering uses the term vectors of development because each seems to have direction and magnitude- even though the direction may be expressed more appropriately by a spiral or by steps than by a straight line. (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). This is an accurate way to describe the journey of college students because more often than not, arriving at the best possible solution to a problem is not as easy as walking in straight line. There are challenges and obstacles that make the path to success more like a spiral or steps in a staircase and Chickering recognized that. Finally, Chickerings work takes into account emotional, interpersonal, ethical, and intellectual aspects of development (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). With this background of his theory, the Seven Vectors themselves will be explained and examined. The first vector is labeled as Developing Competence. This Vector is usually described in a manner similar to that of a pitchfork in which each tine and the individual handle represent a portion of development (Chickering & McCormick, 1973). The first tine represents intellectual competence and is associated with the acquisition of knowledge and skills related to a particular subject matter. Also the development of intellectual, cultural, and aesthetic

sophistication are acquired which show signs of an increase in critical thinking and reasoning ability (Chickering, 1967).The second tine represents physical and manual skills, which are associated with athletic and recreational activities along with involvement in artistic activities. Attention is also paid towards ones personal well being here (Chickering, 1967). The final tine represents interpersonal competence which is where signs of strong communication, leadership, and interpersonal skills are exhibited in the student. The handle of the pitchfork stands to represent a sense of competence. It comes from the confidence that one can cope with and deal with whatever comes their way and achieve their goals successfully (Evans, Forney & GuidoDiBrito, 1998). The second vector is labeled Managing Emotions. This vector is characterized by the ability to recognize and accept emotions along with appropriately expressing them and controlling them (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Something very unique about this Vector and Chickerings theory as a whole, is it addresses a much more inclusive range of emotions. Instead of stressing the basic, generic emotions such as happy, sad, and mad, Chickering addresses feelings such as anxiety, depression, anger, shame, and guilt along with positive ones including caring, optimism, and inspiration (Chickering & McCormick, 1973). How these emotions act on development is important to understanding the developmental process as a whole for students. The third vector is labeled as Moving through Autonomy toward Interdependence. In this vector, signs of increased emotional independence are shown. Chickering argues that in this vector, students are no longer looking for continual reassurance, affection, and approval of their actions from others (Chickering, 1967). The ability to make decisions and judgments based on your own determination and not swayed by the approval of others is the main theme of this

vector. Students experiencing this vector exhibit a sense of self-direction, problem-solving ability, and mobility and also recognize the importance of interdependence as an awareness of their interconnectedness with others (Chickering & McCormick, 1973). How their attitude, behavior, and actions influence the role they play with other people is a huge part of this vector and Chickering views it as one of the most important stages of development for college students (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). The fourth vector is labeled as Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships. Establishing relationships with other students and people along with the experiences that shape these relationships, according to Chickering, contribute significantly to the development of a sense of self. Realizing who you are, in relation to how you fit into society are related according to Chickering. Both accepting individuals for who they are and respecting differences are a major feature of this vector (Chickering & McCormick, 1973). The fifth vector is labeled Establishing Identity. Identity, according to Chickering, is referring to comfort with ones body and appearance. This also means developing comfort with gender and sexual orientation along with gaining a sense of ones social and cultural heritage (Chickering, 1967). This vector is characterized by the ability to have a clear self-concept or to be comfortable with ones roles and lifestyles. Having a clear sense of self in light of feedback from other people including significant others is also a very large part of this vector (Chickering & McCormick, 1973). Finally, becoming okay of who you are as a person in terms of selfacceptance and self esteem are vital steps that are met in this vector on the way to personal stability and integration with others.

The sixth vector is labeled as Developing Purpose. In this vector, students begin to set clear lifetime career goals. Thinking of the future in terms of what one would like to accomplish and do along with establishing meaningful commitments to specific personal interests and activities are accomplished with this vector (Chickering, 1967). Strong interpersonal commitments are also established here which allows for oneself to intentionally make and stay with decisions, even in the face of opposition. Sometimes; however, lifestyle and family influences affect the decision-making and goal-setting process involved in developing purpose however (Chickering & McCormick, 1973). Finally, the seventh vector is labeled as Developing Integrity. This vector is made up of 3 sequential but overlapping stages. They are Humanizing Values where ones own value set and interests and others values are balanced. Personalizing Values where individual values are established from the previous stage. Finally, Developing Congruence, which is where ones values are balanced with a sense of social responsibility and how it fits with ones life and their role in society (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Through these stages, the student is said to have come to terms with their own beliefs even in the face of opposition from others according to Chickering. The second expert that will be explored is Nancy Schlossberg. Schlossberg is an expert in the field of adult transition. Schlossberg is a past President of the National Career Development Association, Co-President of a consulting group named TransitionWorks, and she is also a Professor of Counseling and Personnel Services at the University of Marylands College of Education (Gelardin, 2007). She is best known for her Transition Theory for adults. Her theory on this topic provides insights into factors related to the transition, the individual, and the environment and how they determine the degree of impact the particular transition will have at a

particular point in time (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Schlossberg notes that a primary goal of her development theory is operationalizing the notion of variability. (Gelardin, 2007). Basically what this means is she felt there needed to be a guideline to help adults transition and lead them to the help they needed to cope with the ordinary and extraordinary process of living. (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). As mentioned, Schlossbergs theory of transition was initially created and developed around her research and studies with adults; however it is also extremely relevant to the transitions of traditionally aged college students (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). To start, Schlossberg defines a transition as any event, or non-event that results in changed relationships, routines, assumptions and roles. (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Schlossberg also stresses the importance of perception with her theory. If someone does not realize that they are going through a change or transition, then it is not actually a transition. A transition is an actual realization of change in an individual. Also, if an experience does not hold any significance in the life of the individual who is experiencing it, then it is not classified as a transition either (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). It is noted in this theory that in order to understand the meaning of the transition for the individual experiencing it, one must also understand and consider the type, context, and impact of the transition (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). The type of transition can be classified as either an anticipated transition (occur predictably), unanticipated transition (not predictable or scheduled), or nonevents (expected but do not occur). Nonevents can then be broken down further into personal (related to individual aspirations), ripple (felt due to a nonevent of someone close), resultant (caused by an event), and delayed (anticipating an event that might still happen) (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). The context of the transition refers to ones relationship

to the transition and the setting to which it takes place (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Finally, the impact of the transition is determined by the amount or degree to which it impacts or alters the persons daily life. (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). It is also stated in this theory that if a person is experiencing multiple transitions at once, it can compound the stress they are experiencing. Schlossberg recognized that every person deals with stress in different ways. Also, that each person has their own way of coping with transition, which lead to the development of her theory of the 4 Ss. The 4 Ss are four factors that influence a persons ability to cope with the transition process along with serve as a measure for the amount of resources a person has in each category that assists them in the transition process (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Ones assets or liabilities are the resources that can help a person through a transition and Schlossberg states that, why different individuals react differently to the same type of transition and why the same person reacts differently at different times. (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). The 4 Ss are Situation, Self, Support, and Strategies and they will be explored here. Situation is the first of the 4 Ss and there are many factors that are needed to be considered along with it. They are, the Trigger, the Timing, the Control, the Role Change, the Duration, the previous experience with a similar transition, the Concurrent stress, and the Assessment. The Trigger is what precipitated the transition? What brought this about? The Timing is ones way of determining if the transition is considered on time or off time or at a good time or a bad time in terms of ones own social clock. The Control is what the individual experiencing the transition perceives to be within their control. The Role Change is how the individual views the change in role; if there even is one. Is a gain or a loss? The Duration is does the person feel it to be a permanent, temporary, or uncertain transition. The

previous experience with a similar transition takes a look at how the person handled the transition previously and how it impacts the current transition. The Concurrent stress looks to see if there are other sources of stress present in the transitioners life. The Assessment looks to see who or what is responsible for the transition and how it affects the individuals behavior. (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Self is the second of the 4 Ss and it considers everything that is important in relation to the person going through the transition. They are then broken down into two categories: personal and demographic characteristics and psychological resources (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Persona and demographic characteristics are things that affect how a person views life. Psychological resources are everything that aids to coping (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Support is the third of the 4 Ss refers to social support for the person transitioning. There are four types of social support systems according to Schlossbergs Theory including intimate relationships, family units, networks of friends, and institutions and communities. It has been proven that affect, affirmation, aid, and honest feedback serve as the functions that support this system. (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Strategies is the fourth of the 4 S. Strategies, or coping mechanisms can fall into three different categories including modifying the situation, controlling the meaning of the problem, and aiding in managing the stress (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). In relation to the three coping mechanisms, there are also four coping modes including information seeking, direction action, inhibition of action, and intrapsychic behavior (Evans, Forney & Guido-

DiBrito, 1998). These strategies can allow for anyone to effectively make their way through any transition. As mentioned earlier, these two theories it can be argued, are the most relevant when it comes to the issues over sophomore retention. First, Chickering will be explored and how the Seven Vectors can be applied to students development and how it impacts retention rates at colleges and universities. Chickerings Seven Vectors discuss and explore the developmental process that students experience during their time in college. The Seven Vectors represent different obstacles that must be over come in order to reach full development. Chickering argues that people face different vectors at different times and sometimes find themselves returning to certain vectors that they did not necessarily complete. This can be a major challenge to freshmen and sophomore year students in terms of moving through the vectors. Some vectors may be more difficult for other students to obtain such as establishing identity, managing emotions, and developing mature interpersonal relationships. If there is anything preventing development in these areas, it can be very discouraging and even too difficult to overcome. Unsure of who you are as a person, unable to deal with emotions, and uncomfortable making new friends are leading reasons for why some students drop out of college (Elliot & Healy, 2001). Chickerings theory has been put into practice at different schools across the country and it has helped with issues around sophomore retention and transitioning. The Freshman Home reentry program at Valparaiso University was designed to help students with the transition of returning home for the summer vacation after finishing their first year away at college. Some vectors from Chickerings theory including establishing identity and freeing interpersonal

relationships were implemented and discussed during this program (Evans, Forney & GuidoDiBrito, 1998). Other programs geared towards dealing with the sophomore slump, were created using Chickerings theory. The sophomore slump, it can be argued, is a major cause for dropout rates for sophomore students (dealing with the stresses and challenges of more difficult work and not being able to live up to the potential they think they had their freshmen year (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). Problems with achieving competence, developing autonomy, establishing identity, and developing purpose; some of Chickerings vectors were addressed with these programs. Due to this program, mentoring and individual counseling interventions were introduced and it helped to curb the dropout rate for sophomore students. Schlossbergs Transition Theory is extremely relevant when it comes to sophomore retention. The entire college process can be viewed as a transition period; however, the transition from freshmen year to sophomore year is characteristic of the change that Schlossberg is referring to in her theory. If a student is unwilling or unable to cope with the transition from being a freshmen in college to being a sophomore, their development may be hindered and thus dropping out might seem like the most logical of solutions. Her theory states that a necessary part of transitioning is having the support from those around you in the process. If this is not prevalent, discouragement and lack of concern for transitioning may occur and students could also see dropping out as the best solution. Therefore support for this theory is needed in higher education. Application of Schlossbergs Transition Theory has taken many forms over the years and it can be argued can be beneficial in the sophomore retention problems that universities have faced. First off, this theory has been put into practice with student leaders on campus as serving as an example to be set for other students. Organization officers, resident assistants, and other

student leaders can use the transition theory as a way of supporting their peers in ways of responding and understanding their own college experiences (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). A good example is for Resident Assistants to develop programs based on helping students deal with environmental, social, and other changes that are faced by first year and second year students. The Transition Theory focuses on facing change in the best way possible for the individual and if other students set the example and help others through the transition, it would possibly not be as overwhelming and discouraging for other students. This theory can also be helpful for Resident Assistants because it can used as a guide on how to approach students of different backgrounds or ones that have faced a traumatic experience (Evans, Forney & GuidoDiBrito, 1998). Another way that this theory can be used is through the Orientation program. Helping students to transition to college from home could be beneficial in helping to keep them here to continue their education. A major aspect of this theory is the Transition process in which Schlossberg emphasizes the concept of moving in, moving through, and moving out, in attempt to help people deal with the ambivalence of facing a new transition (Evans, Forney & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). If this practice was enforced in Orientation programs, hesitant and reluctant students (the ones seen most likely to dropout) would be assisted with making college life a more enjoyable experience (Elliot & Healy, 2001). The transition from freshmen year to sophomore year of college can be a very challenging and difficult time for some students and often times these challenges contribute directly to the student not returning for another year of school. There are many theorist and theories out there that specialize and attempting to fix the sophomore retention problems at colleges and universities across the country. Even with all of the programs and methods out there on this particular topic, one can argue that Arthur Chickerings theory of the Seven Vectors of

Development and Nancy Schlossbergs Transition Theory in Adults are the most relevant to this topic.

Bibliography Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., & Guido-DiBrito, F. (1998).Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice. (First ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kuh, G.D., Kinzie, J., Schuh, E.J., & Whitt, E.J. (2010). Student Success in College: Creating Conditions that Matter. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass: A Wiley Company. Schuh, J.H., Jones, S.R., & Harper, S.R. (2011). Student Services: A Handbook for the Profession. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass: A Wiley Company. Chickering, A. W., & McCormick, J. (1973). Personality development and the college experience. Research in Higher Education, 1(1), 43-70. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40194964. Chickering, A. W. (1967). Talking with college students.Improving College and University Teaching,15(1), 30-32. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27562643. Gelardin, S. (2007, December 19). Nancy schlossberg's transition theory [Web log comment]. Retrieved from http://lifeworkps.com/gcdf/weblog/3095.html Elliot, K. M., & Healy, M. A. (2001). Key factors influencing sophomore retention related to recruitment and retention. Journal of Marketing for Higher Educaiton, 10(4), 1-82.