Math Book

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M. Affouf
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Kean University
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Selected Chapters
September 6, 2011 Version
Contents
Preface 1 Rational Expressions 1.1 Basic Denitions and Principles of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Equivalent Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Basic Principle of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.3 Signs of a fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.4 Simplifying Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.5 The opposite of a quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.6 Homework: Simplifying Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Multiplication of Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Division of Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Homework: Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions 1.3 Addition of Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Addition and subtraction with like denominators . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Addition and subtraction with unlike denominators . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 The least common denominator (LCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.4 Homework: Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions . . . . 1.4 Complex Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 Complex Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Homework: Complex Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Rational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.1 Ratio and Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.2 Homework: Rational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Review Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Radicals and Exponents 2.1 Integer Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Product Rule for Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Division Rule for Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 Power Rule for Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.4 Power Rule for Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.5 Power Rule for Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.6 Zero Exponent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.7 Negative exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.8 Homework: Integer Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Roots and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Square Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Cube Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 nth Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Properties of radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5 Radical Simplications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.6 Homework: Roots and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Addition and Subtraction of Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Homework: Addition and Subtraction of Radicals 2.4 Multiplication of Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Homework: Multiplication of Radicals . . . . . . . 2.5 Division of Radicals and Rationalization . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 7 7 8 9 11 12 13 15 16 16 18 20 21 21 22 23 26 27 27 31 32 36 39 40 42 44 44 46 47 48 49 50 51 51 56 57 57 59 59 60 63 66 67 69 70 72 73
3 2.5.1 Rationalizing Denominators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Homework: Division of Radicals and Rationalization 2.6 Equations involving radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.1 Method of solving equations with radicals . . . . . . 2.6.2 Homework: Equations in Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Rational Exponents and Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.1 Homework: Rational Exponents and Radicals . . . . 2.8 Scientic Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8.1 Homework: Scientic Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 Review Radicals and Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Quadratic Equations and Inequalities 3.1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Fundamental Operations with Complex Numbers 3.1.2 Homework: Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Solving equations by factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 The square root property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Homework: Factoring and Square Root Method . 3.3 Completing the square method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Homework: Completing the Square Method . . . 3.4 The Quadratic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Homework: Quadratic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Equations in Quadratic Form and the Discriminant . . 3.5.1 The Discriminant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Homework: Equations in Quadratic Form . . . . 3.6 Quadratic and Rational Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Quadratic Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Rational Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.3 Homework: Quadratic and Rational Inequalities 3.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Review Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Distance Formula and Circles 4.1 The Distance Formula and Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 The Distance Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 The Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.4 Homework: The Distance Formula and Circles 5 Functions 5.1 Introduction to Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Basic denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Representations of a Function . . . . . . 5.1.3 Evaluation and equality of Functions . 5.1.4 Domain of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.5 Graphical Representation of Functions 5.1.6 Homework: Introduction to Functions 5.2 Quadratic Functions: Parabolas . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Graphs of f (x) = ax 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Graphs of f (x) = ax 2 + k . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Graphs of f (x) = a(x h)2 . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Graphs of f (x) = a(x h)2 + k . . . . . . . 5.2.5 Homework: Quadratic Functions . . . . 5.3 Quadratic Functions: General form . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Finding the x- and y- intercepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 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4 5.3.2 Homework: Quadratic Functions: General Form . . Function Transformations and their Graphs . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Graphs of basic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Transformations of Functions and their Graphs . . 5.4.3 Homework: Function Transformations . . . . . . . . 5.5 The Algebra of Functions and Composition . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.1 The Algebra of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.2 Difference Quotients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.3 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.4 Homework: Algebra of Functions and Compositions 5.6 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.1 One-to-one Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.2 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.3 Homework: Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . System of Linear Equations 6.1 The Graphing method . . 6.2 The Substitution Method 6.3 The Addition Method . . . 6.3.1 Homework: System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 166 166 167 173 174 174 175 176 181 182 182 183 187 188 190 190 194 195 198
5.4
A Answers and Hints 199 Answers and Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Preface
This text is a one semester course in college algebra. These were my lecture notes for teaching Math 1000 at Kean University since 2008. The prerequisite to this course is a basic algebra course which covers properties of real numbers, linear equations and inequalities and their graphs, and polynomials. I would like to acknowledge T. Fung for teaching the notes and nding many typos and errors. I would also like to thank my students for spotting typos. Finally, I would appreciate any comments, suggestions, and corrections which can be addressed to the email below. M. Affouf maffouf@kean.edu
Rational Expressions
Fractions occur frequently in algebra as a ratio of two algebraic expressions. In this chapter, we introduce the fundamental operations on fractional expressions, the rules of simplifying fractions and methods of solving equations with fractional terms. The rst section is devoted to reviewing the basic rules of operations on fractions.

1.1
Fractions and their manipulations are the most challenging hurdle for algebra learners. Get ready!
Basic Denitions and Principles of Fractions
OBJECTIVES Denitions of Fractions and Rational Expressions Basic Principles of Fractions Simplifying Rational Expressions The sign of Fractions Fractions are introduced early in school. The following problems from elementary school curriculum illustrate the challenging aspect of understanding fractions. 1.1 Example Answer the following three problems from California public school standards [2006]: 1. Which of the numbers 0,1 or 2 is closest to the sum 2. Mark was on a hiking trail and after walking
8 14 + ? and why? 9 15
to the end of the trail. How long is the trail? Explain.
3 5 of a mile, he found that he was only of the way 4 8
3. Draw a picture that illustrates each of the following problems and its solution. Explain how your drawings illustrate the problems and the solutions.
3 1 4 2 3 1 (b) + 4 2 3 (c) 2 4
(a)
Solution: 1. 2 is closest to the sum

8 14 8 14 + since + 1+1 9 15 9 15 2. Assume the length of trail is L , we translate the information to an algebraic equation: 5 3 L= 8 4
solve this equation for L =
8 3 6 = = 1.2. 5 4 5
3. Draw a picture that illustrates each of the following problems and its solution. 6
Chapter 1 (a)
1 3 1 : Take a rectangle with base one and height . Divide vertically the rectangle into 4 2 2 1 1 four equal rectangles each with base and height . Shade the rst three rectangles. 4 2 3 3 1 Its area is given by which is equal to . 4 2 8 3 1 (b) + Divide a unit square into four equal squares and shade three of them, divide 4 2
second square into four equal squares and shade two of them add the shaded areas in the following way:
3 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 + = + + + + = 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4
(c) 2 : Draw two unit square and shade three quarters of each of them, that is we have two copies of 1 Denition The symbol
6 3 which is 4 4
3 4
a , where b = 0, is called a fraction with numerator a and denominator b . It b represents the quotient of a and b ; thus a a b = b = a b b
This means that the product of a fraction by its denominator is equal to the numerator. The fraction
1 1 is called a unit fraction. Note that b = 1, also we have the trivial case b b a a a = 1 = 1 = a 1 1 1
1.2 Example Identify the unit fraction and how many of them are in each fraction? 1. 2. 3.
7 9 5 x 3a 2b
Solution: 1.
1 7 : The unit fraction is , there are 7 of them. 9 9 1 5 2. : The unit fraction is , there are 5 of them. x x 3a 1 3. : The unit fraction is , there are 3a of them. 2b 2b
1.1.1
Equivalent Fractions
a c and are equal or (equivalent) b d a c = if and only if ad = bc b d 3
2 Denition We say two fractions
For example, the fractions and are equivalent (equal), since 26 = 43 = 12. The following two fractions 4 6 are equivalent
a ka = , b kb k =0
That is, if the numerator and denominator of a fraction are multiplied ( or divided) by the same non-zero expression, the result is a fraction equal to the original. 7
Basic Denitions and Principles of Fractions 1.3 Example Check that the following fractions are equivalent.
3 6 3x 0.3 3(x 2 + 1) = = = = 4 8 4x 0.4 4(x 2 + 1)
1.1.2
Basic Principle of Fractions

a a k a k = = , b b k b k a k a = , b k b (ak) k a = , (bk) k b
1. Building fractions: This process allows us to multiply both numerator and denominator by the same factor:
k =0
2. Reducing fractions (Divide out common factors): Often, this rule is called cancellation law
k =0
This cancellation law can be expressed in terms of division:

k =0 ? 3 = 2ab 2 c 6a 2 b 2 c 4
1.4 Example Build up the fraction so both sides are equal Solution:
9ac 3 3 = 2c 2ab 6a 2 b 2 c 4
Observe that the denominator is multiplied by 3ac 3 , perform the same with
numerator to get
1.5 Example Build up the fraction so both sides are equal Solution:
3x 1 ? = x 2 1 (x + 1)(x 1)2
(x + 1)(x 1)2 so the multiplier is (x 1). Thus we have
Compare the denominators: the rst is x 2 1 = (x + 1)(x 1) and the second is

3x 1 (3x 1)(x 1) = x 2 1 (x + 1)(x 1)2
1.6 Example Build up the fractions. 1. 2. 3.

? 3 = y 1 1 y s ? = t t2 ? a +2 = 2 a 2 a 4
Solution:
3 3 = y 1 1 y s st 2. = 2 t t a + 2 (a + 2)2 = 2 3. a 2 a 4
1.
1.7 Example Use cancellation law to reduce the following fractions. 1. 2.

5x 5t s2t 4 st 5
Chapter 1 3. 4. 5.
18a 20a 3a + 6ab 3a x2 1 x 1
Solution: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
5x x = 5t t s 2 t 4 s 2 t 4 st 4 s = = t st 5 st 5 st 4 18a 18a 2a 9 = = 20a 20a 2a 10 3a + 6ab 3a(1 + 2b) = = 1 + 2b 3a 3a x 2 1 (x + 1)(x 1) = = x +1 x 1 x 1
3 Denition A fraction is said to be simple, reduced form or in the lowest terms if its numerator and denominator have no common factor except 1.
Simplify a fraction, reduce a fraction, and cancel out common factors in a fraction have the same meaning.

12 21 27x 2 36x 3
1.8 Example Reduce the fractions to the lowest terms. 1. 2. 3. 4.
28x 3 y 2 z 14x 4 y z 2 4x 2 4x 16(x 1)
Solution:
12 3 4 4 = = 21 3 7 7 333x x 9x 2 3 3 27x 2 3 27x 2 = = 2 = , or = 2. 3 3 36x 2 2 3 3 x x x 4x 36x 9x 4x 4x 28x 3 y 2 z 28x 3 y 2 z (14x 3 y z) 2y 3. = = 14x 4 y z 2 14x 4 y z 2 (14x 3 y z) xz
1.
4.
4x(x 1) x 4x 2 4x = = 16(x 1) 16(x 1) 4
1.9 Example Simplify the fractions. 1. 2.

5(x 1)2 10(x 1)(x + 1) x2 9 (x 3)2
Basic Denitions and Principles of Fractions Solution: 1.

5(x 1)2 x 1 = 10(x 1)(x + 1) 2(x + 1) x2 9 (x + 3)(x 3) x + 3 2. = = (x 3)2 (x 3)(x 3) x 3 3x + 5 3x = 2y + 5 2y
Common Error
Note that only same factors can be divided out. To see the mistake compare the two fractions:
7+5 7 = =7 1+5 1 75 7 = =7 15 1
the correct answer is 2, but
1.1.3
Signs of a fraction
a a = b b a a a = = b b b a a a = ( ) = b b b
The following fractions are equivalent:
If the signs of the numerator and denominator in a fraction are changed, then the sign before the fraction does not change. If, however, the sign of only the numerator or denominator is changed, then the sign before the fraction must be changed.
1.10 Example Change the sign of only numerator or denominator, so the fraction stays the same. 1.
3 10 x +3 2. 2x
Solution: 1.
3 3 3 = = 10 10 10 x +3 x +3 (x + 3) x 3 x +3 = = = = 2. 2x (2 x) x 2 2x 2x
1.11 Example Change both signs of the numerator and denominator, so the fraction stays the same.
3 10 x +3 2. 2x
1.
3.
Solution:
3 3 = 10 10 x +3 x + 3 x 3 x 3 = = = 2. 2 x 2 + x x 2 x 2 b 4 b + 4 4 b 3. = = b 5 b + 5 5 b
b 4 b 5
1.
10
Chapter 1
1.1.4
Simplifying Rational Expressions
4 Denition Rational expressions are the quotient (or ratio) of two polynomials, provided the divisor is not identical to zero. For example,
8y 3 z 5 , 6y 4 z 3 3x , x 6 3x 3 5 x2 + 1
are rational expressions. However, the fractions

x +7 , x x
x2 + x x2 + 1
are not rational expressions, why?.
Rational expressions are meaningful, if denominator is not zero. Thus the rational expressions
makes sense for all real numbers except x = 7.
3x x 7
In many algebra problems, there is a question about simplifying the rational expressions. Although, what one considers simple is a matter of personal preference. In general, this means to cancel common factors. That is to apply the famous cancellation law:
a k a = , b k b k =0
Simplifying rational expressions involves two technical steps: 1. Completely factor the numerator and the denominator. 2. Divide out common factors from both the numerator and the denominator. 1.12 Example Simplify the rational expressions. 1. 2. 3. 4.
9x 3 + 18x 2 + 3x 3x 6x 2 6z 2 6 28ab 3 7a 3 b 3 x 2 7x + 12 x 4
Solution: 1.
Factor numerator and denominator if possible, then cancel common factors
9x 3 + 18x 2 + 3x 3x(3x 2 + 6x + 1) = = 3x 2 + 6x + 1 3x 3x 6x 2 6z 2 6(x 2 z 2 ) 2. = = x2 z 2 6 6 4 28ab 3 = 2 3. 3b3 7a a x 2 7x + 12 (x 3)(x 4) 4. = = x 3 x 4 x 4
1.13 Example Simplify the rational expressions. 1. 2.

20x y 15x y 2 27u 3 9u 4 15u 2
11
Basic Denitions and Principles of Fractions 3. 4. 5. 6.

x 2y x 2 4y 2 18a 2 b 5 12a 4 b 3 (x 2)2 x2 4
2x 3 2x 3 10x 2
Solution: 1. 2.
Factor and cancel the common factors
20x y 4 5x y(4) = = 15x y 2 5x y(3y) 3y
4.
18a 2 b 5 3b 2 = 12a 4 b 3 2a 2 (x 2)2 (x 2)2 x 2 = 5. = 2 4 (x 2)(x + 2) x + 2 x 2x 3 2x 3 10x 2 = 2x 3 2x 2 (x 5) =
27u 3 9u 27u 3 = = 4 15u 2 2 (3u 2 5) 9u 3u 3u 2 5 x 2y x 2y 1 = 3. 2 = x 4y 2 (x 2y)(x + 2y) x + 2y
6.
x x 5
1.1.5
The opposite of a quantity
5 Denition The negative of a quantity is called the opposite of a quantity. For example, 1. The opposite of 6 is 6 2. The opposite of 25 is (25) = 25 3. The opposite of 3x is 3x 4. The opposite of x + 2 is (x + 2) = x 2 5. The opposite of x 5 is (x 5) = x + 5 = 5 x (Positive rst!) The division of any nonzero quantity by its opposite equals to 1, that is
a a = = 1 a a
For example,
7 x +8 x 5 x 4y = 1, = 1, = 1, and = 1 7 (x + 8) 5x 4y x
1.14 Example Simplify the rational expressions. 1. 2. 3. 4.

2+x x +2
2x x 2
(x 2 + 2x)(x 2 + 2x 3) (x 2 + x 2)(x 2 + 3x)
2x x 2 x 2 5x + 6
12
Chapter 1
9x 2 16
5. 6.
9x 2 + 24x + 16 6x 3y + 9z 12x + 6y 18z
Solution: 1.
Factor and identify the opposite quantities and cancel the common factors
2+x =1 x +2 2x 2x 2. = = 1 x 2 (2 x)
3. 4. 5.
(3x + 4)(3x 4) 3x 4 9x 2 16 = = 2 + 24x + 16 9x (3x + 4)(3x + 4) 3x + 4 3(2x y + 3z) 1 6x 3y + 9z = = 6. 12x + 6y 18z 6(2x y + 3z) 2
(x 2 + 2x)(x 2 + 2x 3) x(x + 2)(x + 3)(x 1) = =1 (x 2 + x 2)(x 2 + 3x) (x + 2)(x 1)x(x + 3)
x x(2 x) 2x x 2 = = 2 5x + 6 (x 2)(x 3) x 3 x
1.15 Example Simplify the rational expressions. 1. 2. 3.

a3 b3 a2 b2 (2x y)(2x 2 x y y 2 ) (4x 2 y 2 )(3y 2 2x y x 2 ) x3 + x2 + x + 1 x3 + x
Solution: 1. 2. 3.
a 3 b 3 (a b)(a 2 + ab + b 2 ) a 2 + ab + b 2 = = a2 b2 (a b)(a + b) a +b
1 (2x y)(2x 2 x y y 2 ) (2x y)(x y)(2x + y) = = (4x 2 y 2 )(3y 2 2x y x 2 ) (2x y)(2x + y)(y x)(3y + x) 3y + x x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 (x + 1)(x 2 + 1) x + 1 = = x x3 + x x(x 2 + 1)
13
Basic Denitions and Principles of Fractions
1.1.6 Homework: Simplifying Rational Expressions

Reduce the rational numbers. 1.1.1
35 42
1.1.10
20x 4 10x 2 5x 3 + 5x 2
1.1.11
5n 2 3n 2 3n 2 n 2
36 1.1.2 60
1.1.12
n 2 5n 24 18 + 3n n 2
Supply the missing term so the two fractions are equal. 1.1.13 1.1.3
4 ? = 3a 18a 3 a b a 2 b2 = a +b ?
3a 4 4 3a
Reduce the following fractions to lowest terms.

x4 1
1.1.4
1.1.14
(x 2 1)(x 2 + 1) 4x 2 3x 1 8x + 2 x3 y 3
Simplify the rational expressions.

52x 2 y 3 39x y 5
1.1.15
1.1.5
1.1.16
1.1.6
64s 2 t 5 8s 2 t x2 9
x2 y 2 x2 9
1.1.17
x 3 27 (x 4)x 5 (x 5) x 3 (3x 8)x 3 5x 5 1
1.1.7
x 2 + 3x x2 + x y
1.1.18
1.1.8
x2 y 2
1.1.19
1.1.9
12x 8 8x 4
1.1.20
2 10x 5
14
Chapter 1
1.2
Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions
OBJECTIVES Multiplying and dividing rational expressions Mixed Operations
1.2.1 Multiplication of Rational Expressions

6 Denition The product of two fractions
a c and is dened by b d ac a c = b d bd
That is, the product of their numerators divided by the product of their denominators, provided denominators are not 0.

1. 2. 3. 4.
3 5 4 7
It is advisable to apply cancellation law of all common factors before multiplying fractions.
1.16 Example Perform the multiplications.
x x 4 2(x + 1) 7 6 6 7 x2 y2 y2 x2
Solution:
3 5 3 5 15 = = 4 7 4 7 28 x x x2 2. = 4 2(x + 1) 8(x + 1) 7 6 76 =1 3. = 6 7 67 x2 y2 4. 2 2 = 1 y x
1.
1.17 Example Perform the multiplications. 1. 2. 3. 4.

3 4 8 5 3 5 5 6 6x 2 y 2z 2 4z 3 9x 2 y 2 2x 2 y x y 3 3 z 4z
Solution: 15

3 3 4 3 4 12 = = = 8 5 8 5 40 10 3 5 35 1 2. = = 5 6 56 2 12x 2 y z 2 1 6x 2 y 2z 2 2 2= = 3. 3 3x2 y2 4z 9x y 36z 3y z
1.
4.
2x 2 y x y 3 x 3 y 4 3 = z 4z 2z 4
Steps in reducing product of fractions 1. Factor numerators and denominators. 2. Divide out common factors. 3. Multiply remaining fractions into one fraction using the product rule. 1.18 Example Find the product of
x2 x 2 + 6x + 9 and . x x +3 (x 2 + 6x + 9)(x 2 ) x 2 + 6x + 9 x 2 = x x +3 x(x + 3) = 3a 4a 2 1 9a 2 2ab b (x + 3)(x + 3)xx = x(x + 3) x(x + 3)
1.19 Example Multiply Solution:
4a 2 1 (2a 1)(2a + 1) (3a) 2a + 1 3a = = 2ab b 3ab 9a 2 9a 2 b(2a 1)
1.20 Example Multiply and simplify.

x2 x 6 x2 + x 6 x2 4 x2 9 x 2. (2x x 2 ) 2 x 5x + 6
1.
3.
x(x 2) 3 x(x 1) 2 x 2 x(x + 2) + 1 x 2 x 6 x 2 + x 6 (x 3)(x + 2) (x + 3)(x 2) =1 = (x 2)(x + 2) (x + 3)(x 3) x2 4 x2 9
Solution: 1.
2. (2x x 2 ) 3.
(x 3)(x + 1) (x 2)(x + 1) x(x 2) 3 x(x 1) 2 x 2 2x 3 x 2 x 2 = x 3 = 2 = x 2 x(x + 2) + 1 x 2 x + 2x + 1 x 2 (x + 1)2 a b 1 and the reciprocal of is because x b a
x(2 x) x x x2 = = 1 (x 3)(x 2) x 3 x 2 5x + 6
7 Denition Reciprocal: The reciprocal of a number x = 0 is

a b =1 b a
1.21 Example Find the reciprocals of the following terms 3,
x 2 + 3,
3 x
16
Chapter 1 The reciprocals are

1 , 3 1 x2 + 3 x 3 =
2 3
Solution:
1.22 Example Solve the linear equation for x : Solution: Multiply both sides by
b a
a bx
b 2 b a x= a b a 3 2b x= 3a
1.2.2
Division of Rational Expressions

a c by is to multiply the rst fraction by the reciprocal of the b d a d ad a c = = b d b c bc
8 Denition The division of two fractions second fraction (divisor) that is
For any real numbers a,b,c,d , where b,c,d = 0. 1.23 Example Perform the divisions. 1. 2. 3.
2 5 3 7 4p 2 6p 2 3 q2 q x y x2 y2 3z 6z 2
Solution: 1.
2 5 2 7 14 = = 3 7 3 5 15 4p 2 6p 2 4p 2 q 3 2q 2. 3 = 2 = q2 q q 6p 2 3 2z x y x 2 y 2 x y 6z 2 = = 2 3z 3z x 2 y 2 x y 6z
3.
1.24 Example Perform the operations. 1. 2. 3. 4.

2x 1 5 5 x y3 x y2 15z 3z 1 a +b 3 (a b) (a b)4 2a (2b) b
Solution:
2x 1 2x 5 2x 5 = = = 2x 5 5 5 1 5 x y 3 3z y x y 3 x y 2 x y 3 3z = = 2. = 2 15z 3z 15z x y 15z x y 2 5
1.
17

1 a +b 1 (a b)4 a b = = 3 4 3 a +b a +b (a b) (a b) (a b) 2a 1 a 2a (2b) = = 4. b b (2b) b 2
3.
1.25 Example Perform the divisions. 1. 2. 3.

3 2 5 7 x + 2 x 2 + 4x + 4 x +1 2x 2 2 b 2 2b (b 2) b 1
Solution: 1.
3 2 3 7 21 = = 5 7 5 2 10 x + 2 x 2 + 4x + 4 x + 2 2(x + 1)(x 1) 2(x 1) = 2. = x +1 x + 1 (x + 2)(x + 2) x +2 2x 2 2 b(b 2) 1 b b 2 2b (b 2) = = b 1 b 1 (b 2) b 1
3.
Mixed Operations 1.26 Example Simplify. 1. (4x 2 9) 2. 3. 4.

(2x 2 + 5x + 3) (2x 3) x +2
8t 4 + 10t 3 4t 2 + t 5 t3 t2 16t 2 + 40t + 25 m 2 3m 10 (m 5) m +2 a 2 + 5a + 6 a2 4 a 2 + 6a + 9 a + 3 a 1 a2 + a 2
Solution:
Follow the order of operations:

(2x 3)(2x + 3) x +2 1 x +2 (2x 2 + 5x + 3) (2x 3) = = x +2 1 (2x + 3)(x + 1) (2x 3) x + 1
1. (4x 2 9) 2. 3.
m 2 3m 10 (m 5)(m + 2) 1 (m 5) = =1 m +2 m +2 m 5 a2 4 a 2 + 6a + 9 a + 3 (a + 2)(a 2) (a + 3)(a + 3) a 1 a 1 4. 2 = = 2 a 1 (a + 3)(a + 2) (a 2)(a + 1) a + 3 a + 1 a + 5a + 6 a + a 2
4t 2 + t 5 8t 4 + 10t 3 (4t + 5)(t 1) 2t 3 (4t + 5) = 2t = 3 t2 2 + 40t + 25 2 (t 1) (4t + 5)(4t + 5) t 16t t
18
Chapter 1
1.2.3 Homework: Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions

Perform the operations and reduce to lowest terms. 1.2.1
4 50 25 16
1.2.11
3a(a + 2b)2 5b 2
b(a 2b) 12a 2
20ab 2 a 4b 2
1.2.12 1.2.2
4 25 10 6 15a 3 16 8 30a 4 12 21 14
x +4 x2 4 2 x + 2 x + 8x + 16 b 2 + 3b b +3 b +6
1.2.13
1.2.3
b 2 36
1.2.14
1.2.4
x2 4 (3x 6) x +3 6a 5 18a 4 a 5 4a 20 6n 2 + 7n 3 3n 2 2n 1
5x 7x 1.2.5 7 5
1.2.15
1.2.6
2a 3a 4a 3 4 5 7x y 12x 3 y 21 6y 2 3x 3 y 8x y 3 4x y 2 3x 3 y 2ab 4 4ac 2 5c 15bc 3 x 2 + 4x + 4 x + 4 x +2 x 2 16
1.2.16
6n 2 + 11n + 3 6y 2 x 2 + 6x + 9
3n 2 4n + 1
1.2.7
1.2.17
9y 2 x + 3x
1.2.8
1.2.18
2t 2 + 5t + 3 2t 2 + 9t + 9 2 9t 54 3t 15t 18 x 2 + 3x + 2 x2 1 (x + 3)2 x +3 2 x + 3x + 2 x + 1 u 5 + 3u 4 u2 4 u(u + 3) 2 (u 2)
1.2.9
1.2.19
1.2.10
1.2.20
u2 + u 2 u2
19
Addition of Rational Expressions
1.3
Addition of Rational Expressions
OBJECTIVES Adding and subtracting rational expressions with like denominators Finding the least common denominator Adding and subtracting rational expressions with unlike denominators
1.3.1 Addition and subtraction with like denominators

Expressions with like denominator can be added and subtracted using distributive property:
a c 1 1 1 a +c + = a( ) + c( ) = (a + c)( ) = b b b b b b a c a c = b b b
9 Denition The sum and the difference of two fractions with the same denominator are dened as follows a c a +c a c a c + = and =
b b b b b b
To add (or subtract) fractions with like denominators, we simply add or subtract numerators and divide the result by their common denominator. 1.27 Example Perform the operations. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
3 9 + 4 4 2 6 13 + 5 5 5 5 3 8 8 7 4 3x 3x a2 a 2 2 1 a a 1
Solution: 1.
3 9 3 + 9 12 + = = =3 4 4 4 4 2 6 13 2 6 + 13 9 = = 2. + 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 53 2 1 = = 3. = 8 8 8 8 4 4 7 4 7 3 1 4. = = = 3x 3x 3x 3x x
5.
a a2 a a(a 1) a a2 2 = 2 = = 2 1 a a 1 a 1 (a 1)(a + 1) a + 1
20
Chapter 1
1.3.2 Addition and subtraction with unlike denominators

We have the basic rule of building fractions: For any real numbers a,b,k and b = 0 and k = 0 we have the following identity
a a k = b b k
This rule is essential to add fractions with different denominators. 10 Denition Two fractions with different denominators can be added (or subtracted) by rebuilding both fractions to equivalent fractions with same denominators as follows
a c a d c b ad bc ad + bc + = + = + = b d b d d b bd bd bd
1.28 Example Combine into a single fraction and simplify. 1. 2. 3.

3 7 + 4 10 7 5 8 6 2 3 5 + 3 2 6
Solution:
7 3 5 7 2 15 14 29 3 + = + = + = 4 10 4 5 10 2 20 20 20 1 7 5 7 3 5 4 21 20 21 20 = = 2. = = 8 6 8 3 6 4 24 24 24 24 2 3 5 22 33 5 3. + = + =0 3 2 6 32 23 6
1.

1. 2. 3.
As a general rule, The product of all denominators is always a common denominator, but it may not be the best expressions to work with.
1.29 Example Combine each expressions.

2x 1 + 5 2 1 3 z 3z + 1 a 3 + 3 a 2 x
4. 5x
Solution: 1.
2x 1 2x 2 1 5 4x + 5 + = + = 5 2 5 2 2 5 10 1 3 3z + 1 1 z 9z + 3 z 8z + 3 3 = = = 2 2. z 3z + 1 z 3z + 1 3z + 1 z z(3z + 1) 3z + z a 3 a a 3 3 a2 + 9 + = + = 3 a 3 a a 3 3a 2 x 2 5x 2 2 4. 5x = 5x = x x x x
3.
21
Addition of Rational Expressions 1.30 Example Combine

y x + x y y x
Solution: Note that the denominators are opposite of each other so we factor 1 from the second ( change of sign) and obtain:
x y x y xy + = = =1 x y y x x y x y x y
1.31 Example Combine into a single fraction and simplify. 1. 2. 3.

5 3 + x 2x 1 2x 2x 1 1 2x x2 2x 2 + 2x 2 4 3 7 x 2
4. 3 5.
2x 2x x +2 x 2
Solution: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
3 5 32 5 6 + 5 11 + = + = = x 2x x 2 2x 2x 2x 1 2x 1 2x + 1 2x = + = 2x 1 1 2x 2x 1 2x 1 2x 1 x2 2x 2 x 2 3 2x 2 12 2x 2 4 (3 + 24 8)x 2 19x 2 + 2x 2 = + = = 4 3 43 12 34 12 12 3(x 2) 7 3x 13 7 = = 3 x 2 (x 2) x 2 x 2 2x 2x 2x(x 2) 2x(x + 2) 8x = = x + 2 x 2 (x + 2)(x 2) (x 2)(x + 2) (x + 2)(x 2) 2 3 1 + 2x 3x 2 4x 3
1.32 Example Combine the rational expressions: Solution:
1. Method 1: Find a common denominator such as the product of all denominators: 2x

3x 2 4x 3 = 24x 6 and build up all fractions to this denominator: 12x 5 16x 4 + 18x 3 2x 3 (6x 2 8x + 9) 6x 2 8x + 9 = = 24x 6 24x 6 12x 3 1 12x 5 2 8x 4 3 6x 3 2 4+ 3 3= 2x 12x 5 3x 8x 4x 6x
2. Method 2: Find the least common denominator that is 12x 3 and build up all fractions to this denominator:
1 6x 2 2 4x 3 3 6x 2 8x + 9 2 + 3 = 2 2x 6x 3x 4x 4x 3 12x 3
Both approaches lead to the same fraction, but the second method is simpler to implement.
1.3.3 The least common denominator (LCD)

The simplest common denominator is called the least common denominator (LCD). Here are the denite steps to construct it. 1. Factor each denominator completely. 2. List all different factors of each denominator with their highest exponent. 22
Chapter 1 3. the LCD is the product of different factors with their highest exponent. 1.33 Example Find the LCD of the rational expressions. 1. 2.
11a 5a + 24b 5 18b 4 1 3x + x 2 12x + 36 x 2 6x
Solution:
11a 5a + . Factor the denominators: 24b 5 = 23 3 b 5 and 18b 4 = 2 32 b 4 so the LCD is 5 24b 18b 4 23 32 b 5 = 72b 5 1 3x 2. 2 + . Factor the denominators: x 2 12x + 36 = (x 6)2 and x 2 6x = x(x 6) x 12x + 36 x 2 6x so the LCD is x(x 6)2
1.
1.34 Example Find the LCD and combine. 1. 2. 3.

5a 11a + 5 24b 18b 4 3 x3 y2 z + 2 x y3z2
2 1 x2 y2 x y
Solution:
5a 3 11a 4b 15a + 44ab + = 24b 5 3 18b 4 4b 72b 5 2 3 yz 3y z + 2x 2 2 x 2. The LCD is x 3 y 3 z 2 . Thus 3 2 = + 3 z 2 x2 x y z yz xy x3 y3z 2 2 1 x+y 2x y 3. The LCD is (x y)(x + y). Thus = (x y)(x + y) x y x + y (x y)(x + y)
1. The LCD is 72b 5 . Thus
1.35 Example Find the LCD and subtract
x x 2 2x + 1
4 x2 1
Solution: Factor both denominators: x 2 2x + 1 = (x 1)2 and x 2 1 = (x 1)(x + 1). The LCD is the product of all different factors with highest power, that is LC D = (x 1)2 (x + 1). Build up the fractions to have the LCD:
x x 2 2x + 1 4 x2 1 = x(x + 1) 4(x 1) x 2 + x 4x + 4 x 2 3x + 4 = = 2 (x + 1) 2 (x + 1) (x 1) (x 1)(x + 1)(x 1) (x 1) (x 1)2 (x + 1)
1.36 Example Simplify into a single rational expression. 1. 2.

3 2 x +3 + x + 1 x 1 x2 1
7 4 5 + 9x y 3 3x 2y 2 5y 2 4 y +3
3. 5y 3 4. 4 + 5.
2 3 2 x x
5 5y + x2 y2 x + y
23
Addition of Rational Expressions Solution: 1.

2 x +3 2(x + 1) x +3 2(x 1) 3(x 1) 3x 3 2x 2 + x + 3 3 + + = = = = x + 1 x 1 x 2 1 (x + 1)(x 1) (x 1)(x + 1) x 2 1 (x + 1)(x 1) (x + 1)(x 1) 2 x +1 4 72 5 9x y 5 4 6y 3 24y 3 + 45x y + 14 7 + 2 + 2= = 2. 9x y 3 3x 2y 9x y 3 2 3x 6y 3 2y 9x y 18x y 3 5y 2 4 (5y 3)(y + 3) 5y 2 4 5y 2 + 15y 3y 9 5y 2 + 4 12y 5 = = = y +3 y +3 y +3 y +3 y +3
3. 5y 3 4. 4 +
4x 2 + 3x 2 2 3 2= x x x2 5y 5 5y 5(x y) 5x 5. 2 + = + = 2 x y x + y (x + y)(x y) (x + y)(x y) (x + y)(x y)
1.37 Example Combine the following fractions into a single fraction. 1. 2. 3.

3 2 12y 2 + 2x y + x x 2y x(x 2y)(x + 2y) 1 1 a 2 4a + 3 a 2 5a + 4
m + 4 m 5 2m 2 7m + 5 + m 4 m +5 m 2 + m 20
Solution: 1. The LCD is x(x 2y)(x + 2y)

3 (x 2y)(x + 2y) 2 x(x + 2y) 12y 2 + 2x y 3x 2 12y 2 2x 2 4x y + 12y 2 + 2x y + = x (x 2y)(x + 2y) x 2y x(x + 2y) x(x 2y)(x + 2y) x(x 2y)(x + 2y) x(x 2y) = x(x 2y)(x + 2y) 1 = x + 2y
2. The LCD is (a 1)(a 3)(a 4)

1 a 2 4a + 3 1 a 2 5a + 4 1 1 (a 1)(a 3) (a 1)(a 4) (a 4) (a 3) = (a 1)(a 3)(a 4) 1 = (a 1)(a 3)(a 4) =
3.
m + 4 m 5 2m 2 7m + 5 m + 4 m 5 2m 2 7m + 5 + = + m 4 m +5 m 2 + m 20 m 4 m + 5 (m 4)(m + 5) (m + 4)(m + 5) (m 5)(m 4) 2m 2 7m + 5 = + (m 4)(m + 5) (m + 5)(m 4) (m 4)(m + 5) m 2 + 7m + 10 + m 2 9m + 20 2m 2 + 7m 5 = (m 4)(m + 5) 5(m + 5) 5m + 25 = = (m 4)(m + 5) (m 4)(m + 5) 5 = m 4
24
Chapter 1
1.3.4 Homework: Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

Combine and simplify. 1.3.1
1 3 8 8 x 2x + 4 4 5s 2s + 7t 7t a2 + 6 5 2 a +1 1x 2 x 4
1.3.16
2 3 3x x 7x 1 1 + 7x b 3b 2 b 4 b2 x x 2 2x y + y 2 x y2 xy x xy
1.3.17
1.3.2
1.3.18
1.3.3
1.3.19
1.3.4
a2 + 1 3 x2 4
1.3.20
y + 2 x xy
1.3.5
1.3.21
1.3.6
4z 1 + 4z 1 1 4z u2 + 1 + 2u 1 u2
1 5 3 + x 2x 3 x(2x 3) 3 2x 2 + 5x 2n n 2 16 5 x2 + 1 1 x2 1 1 x
1.3.22
1.3.7
u2 1
1.3.23
1.3.8
4 3 5 10
3 5n 20 5
1.3.24 1.3.9
3 1 + 6 10 4 5 1 + 3 6 4 x 3 x +4 + 4 3
(x 2 + 1)(x + 1)
1.3.25
1.3.10
1 + 2 x + 2x + 1
1.3.26
1.3.11
x 1 x 2 3 + x 2 x 3 x 2 5x + 6 5x 2 5 3x + 1 +3 5x 1
2x 3 3x 2 1.3.12 2 5 7 9 1.3.13 10x 8x
1.3.27
5x 2 + 4x 1 3x x2 1
1.3.28
x 1 2x 2 + 1 + x(x + 1) x3 x x2 + x 2 2 x x 2
1.3.14
3 10x 2 1 2n 2
4 15x
1.3.29
x2 + x 2
x2 x 2
1.3.15
2 5 + 9n 6
1.3.30
b c a + + bc ca ab
25
Complex Fractions
1.4
1.4.1
Complex Fractions
Complex Fractions
11 Denition A complex fraction is a fraction in which a fraction occurs in the numerator or denominator or both. For example
1 2, 3 7 2 3, 6 3x 2 x +2 , x x 3 1 +x 2 , 1 3 x 1 1 + x y x+y
1.38 Example Simplify the complex fractions.

2 3 1. 4 5 12 2. 11 24 55
Solution:
Use the denition of fractional division
2 2 4 2 5 5 1. 3 = = = 4 3 5 3 4 6 5 12 12 24 12 55 5 2. 11 = = = 24 11 55 11 24 2 55 3x 2 1.39 Example Simplify x + 2 x x 3
Solution:
3x 2 2 2 x + 2 = 3x x = 3x x 3 = 3x(x 3) x x +2 x 3 x +2 x x +2 x 3
Strategies to simplify complex fractions There are two methods to reduce complex fractions to single fractions: First Method 1. Simplify the numerator and the denominator separately to simple fractions. 2. Apply the division of two simple fractions. 1.40 Example Simplify the complex fractions.
2a 2 1. b 4a b
26
Chapter 1
1 x 2. 1 1 x 1+
Solution:
2a 2 b 2a 4a 2a b = 2 = 1. b = 2 4a b b b 4a 2 b 1 x +1 1+ x = x = x +1 x = x +1 2. x 1 1 x x 1 x 1 1 x x
1.41 Example Simplify the complex fractions.

3x 2y 2 5x 2 4y
1.
1 3 + 2. x 2x 2 1+ x 4 x 3 3. 8 x 1 x 3 x
Solution:
3x 2y 2 5x 4y
2
1.
6 3x 4y = 2 5x 2 2y 5x y
3 1 1 32 7 + + 7 x 2x = x 2 2x = 2x = 7 x = 2. x 2 x + 2 2x x + 2 2(x + 2) 2 1+ + x x x x x(x 3) 4 4 x x 2 3x 4 (x 4)(x + 1) x 4 x 3 x 3 = = 3. = 2 = 8 (x 1)(x 3) 8 x 4x 5 (x 5)(x + 1) x 5 x 1 x 3 x 3
Second Method 1. Find the LCD of every denominator in the complex fraction. 2. Multiply both the numerator and denominator by this LCD. 3. Distribute to each term. All denominators should be cancelled. 4. Simplify nal fraction if possible. 1.42 Example Simplify using the LCD method. 27
Complex Fractions
1 3 + 1. x 2x 2 1+ x 1 x 2. 1 1 2 x 1+
Solution:
2x 3 1 + 7 6+1 x 2x = = 2 2x + 4 2x + 4 2x 1 + x 1 x(x + 1) x x2 + x x = = = 2 1 x 1 (x + 1)(x 1) x 1 1 2 x
1.
2.
x2 1 + x2
1 1 + 1.43 Example Simplify 3 2x using the LCD method. 2 1+ x
Solution: The denominators are: 3,1,2x, x . Thus the LCD is 6x . Multiply the numerator and denominator by 6x :
1 1 ) 6x( + 3 2x = 2x + 3 2 6x + 12 6x(1 + ) x 1 1 + x y 1.44 Example Simplify x + y using the LCD method. xy
Solution:
Multiply the numerator and denominator by the LCD x y :
1 1 x y( + ) y +x x y x+y = x+y =1 ) x y( xy 1 x 1.45 Example Simplify 1 1 2 x x
Solution:
Multiply the numerator and denominator by x 2 :
1 x 2 (x ) 3 2 x = x x = x(x 1) = x 2 1 2 1 1 x x x 2 (1 2 ) x
1.46 Example Simplify
3a 1 1 2 a
28
Chapter 1 Solution: Simplify the rst part and then subtract 1:
3a 3a 2 3a 2 2a + 1 1 1 = 1 = 2a 1 2a 1 2a 1 a 2 1 a a2 1.47 Example Simplify 3 2 1+ + 2 a a 1+
Solution:
Multiply the numerator and denominator by a 2 :
2 1 a 2 (1 + 2 ) (a + 2)(a 1) a 1 a2 + a 2 a a = = = 2 3 2 a + 3a + 2 (a + 2)(a + 1) a + 1 a 2 (1 + + 2 ) a a 2 1 x 1 x 1.48 Example Simplify 2 1 x 1 x(x 1)
Solution:
Multiply and divide by x(x 1): 1 2 x(x 1)( ) x 2(x 1) x + 2 x 1 x = = = 1 2 1 x 2 x 2 ) x(x 1)( x 1 x(x 1)
1 1 x h 1.49 Example Simplify x h
Solution:
Change the numerator to a simple fraction:
1 1 hx x h = hx = h x 1 = 1 x h x h hx x h hx 1
29
Complex Fractions
1.4.2 Homework: Complex Fractions

Simplify the complex fractions.
x4 1.4.1 4 x3 8 28ab 3 5 1 x +2 y 1.4.12 3 5 y y (x + 2) 1 1 x y 1.4.13 1 1 + x y 1 1 x x +1 1.4.14 2 1 2 x +x 1 x +2
1.4.2
5c 3 7a 2 b 2 10c 2 m2
2 1.4.3 m m 1
m2 1 10x 2
1.4.15
1.4.4
x 2 25 25x x 2 + 10x + 25
x2 4 1 1 1.4.16 t h t h 1
2 2 x 4
1 1 1.4.5 4 2 5 3 8 4 2 5 1.4.6 1 3 7 4 2 2 a y 3 1 2 3y 4 1 a
x2 y 2 1.4.17 1 xy 5 3 x 2x + 1 1.4.18 2 3 x 2x + 1 3 2 x x2 1.4.19 2 3 1+ 2 x x 1 x 1 x +1 2 x x +1
1.4.7
1.4.8
1.4.9
1 2 x 2 1 x
1.4.20
x 1+
2 3 ab a 2 1.4.10 1 2 a b 1 n 2 1.4.11 3 5 n 2 3
6 a 1.4.21 6 6 a 6+ 2 a 1.4.22 1 a + 8 4 4+
30
Chapter 1
1.5
Rational Equations
OBJECTIVES Solving rational equations. Extraneous solutions. 12 Denition Equations containing rational expressions are called rational equations, such as
1 2 1 = 2, x 5 5x 3 5 + = 1, 4 x +2 x +3 2 = 2 x 3 x 4
Compare these equations with linear equations in fractional form

2x 5 x + 1 = 5 3 2 6
Method of solving rational equations Solving fractional equations is based on the process of clearing the equation of fractions. 1. Factor all denominators and nd the LCD. Exclude numbers that make denominators zero. 2. Multiply both sides (every term) by the LCD provided the LCD = 0. 3. Clear out all denominators by dividing common factors. 4. The resulting equation does not have any fraction, solve and check the obtained solutions.
The approach in solving fractional equations is to clear out fractions. Do not combine fractions into a single fraction. Again, we are not adding fractions, but we are removing denominators.
1.50 Example Solve the fractional equation Solution:
2x 5 x + 1 = 5 3 2 6
This is a linear equation in fractional form. The LCD is 6.

x +1 2x 5 ) = 6( 5) 3 2 6 2x 5 x +1 6 6 = 6 65 3 2 6 4x 15 = x + 1 30 6( 4x x = 29 + 15 x= 14 3
1.51 Example Solve the fractional equation
3 9 1 2 = x 5x 20 4x
Solution: Multiplying every member of the equation by the LCD = 20x , where x = 0 because denominators can not be zero:
20x 2 3 9 1 20x = 20x 20x x 5x 20 4x 40 12 = 9x 5 x= 33 11 = 9 3
Extraneous solution. This happens when multiplying both sides by expression that can be zero. Extraneous solutions must be discarded. 31
Rational Equations 1.52 Example Solve Solution:

2 2x = 5+ x 1 x 1
Multiplying by the LCD (x 1) provided x = 1, yields

(x 1) 2x 2 = (x 1) 5 + (x 1) x 1 x 1 2x = 5(x 1) + 2 3x = 3 x =1 2x = 5x 5 + 2
This solution is excluded since denominator can not be zero. We refer to such solution as extraneous (false) solution. 1.53 Example Solve Solution:
x 2x + 3 + =3 x x 1
Multiplying by the LCD = x(x 1), where x = 0,1, yields

x(x 1) x 2x + 3 + x(x 1) = x(x 1) 3 x x 1 (2x + 3)(x 1) + x 2 = 3x(x 1) 2x 2 + x 3 + x 2 = 3x 2 3x 4x 3 = 0 x= 3 4
1.54 Example Solve
Solution: Since x 2 5x +6 = (x 2)(x 3), the LCD = (x 2)(x 3),where x = 2,3, we multiply both sides by the LCD and we factor 1 from the second denominator as follows:
7 40 4 = 2 x 2 3 x x 5x + 6 7 4 40 + (x 2)(x 3) = (x 2)(x 3) x 2 x 3 (x 2)(x 3) 4 7 (x 2)(x 3) + (x 2)(x 3) = 40 x 2 x 3 4(x 3) + 7(x 2) = 40 4x 12 + 7x 14 = 40 11x 26 = 40 x =6
7 40 4 = x 2 3 x x 2 5x + 6
11x = 66
1.55 Example Solve Solution:
Multiplying by the LCD 5(x + 2) provided x = 2, yields

5(x + 2) 3 7 + 5(x + 2) = 5(x + 2) 2 5 x +2 3(x + 2) + 35 = 10(x + 2) 3x + 6 + 35 = 10x + 20 x =3 7x = 20 41 = 21
7 3 + =2 5 x +2
32
Chapter 1
x 2 + 10 2x 3x = . + x 1 x +1 x2 1
The LCD is (x 1)(x + 1). Multiply every member by the LCD provided x = 1,1.
(x 1)(x + 1) 3x 2x x 2 + 10 + (x 1)(x + 1) = (x 1)(x + 1) (x 1)(x + 1) x 1 x +1 x 2 + 10 + (x + 1) 3x = (x 1) 2x x 2 + 10 + 3x 2 + 3x = 2x 2 2x 5x = 10 x = 2,
true solution.
x +1 4 2 = 5 x
Multiplying by the LCD 5x provided x = 0, yields

5x 4 x +1 5x 2 = 5x 5 x x(x + 1) 10x = 20 x 2 9x + 20 = 0 x = 4,5
x 2 + x 10x + 20 = 0
(x 5)(x 4) = 0
1.58 Example Solve the fractional equation and check the solutions Solution: Multiplying by the LCD x(2x 1) provided x = 0,
x(2x 1) [
3 6 12x + = 2x 1 x 2x 1 1 2
x=
12x 3 6 + ] = x(2x 1) 2x 1 x 2x 1 12x 2 + 3(2x 1) = 6x 12x 2 3 = 0 4x 2 1 = 0 x=
(2x 1)(2x + 1) = 0
1 2
or
x =
1 2
The solution x =
1 is an extraneous since this number is excluded initially, so there is only one 2 1 true solution x = . 2 4 6 3 = x 2 25 x 2 + 4x 5 x 2 6x + 5
1.59 Example Solve the fractional equation and check the solutions Solution: Factor the denominators
3. x 2 6x + 5 = (x 5)(x 1)
2. x 2 + 4x 5 = (x + 5)(x 1) 33
1. x 2 25 = (x 5)(x + 5)
Rational Equations Multiply by the LCD (x 5)(x + 5)(x 1) provided x = 5,5,1

(x 5)(x + 5)(x 1) [ 4 6 3 ] = (x 5)(x + 5)(x 1) (x 5)(x + 5) (x + 5)(x 1) (x 5)(x 1) 3(x 1) 4(x 5) = 6(x + 5) 3x 3 4x + 20 = 6x + 30 x = 13 7
is a true solution
Multiply by the LCD = (x 3) provided x = 3

(x 3) x 2 x 4 + (x 3) = (x 3) (x 3) x 3 x 3 x 4 + x 3 = x 2 6x + 9 x 2 8x + 15 = 0 x =5 2x 7 = x 2 6x + 9
x 4 x 2 + = x 3 x 3 x 3
(x 3)(x 5) = 0 x =3
is a true solution is a false solution
10 7 + +1 = 0 x2 x
Multiply by the LCD = x 2 provided x = 0

x2 10 7 + x2 + x2 1 = x2 0 2 x x 10 + 7x + x 2 = 0 (x + 2)(x + 5) = 0 x = 2,5
are true solutions
2(x + 1) x + 7 = x 5 x 5
Multiply by the LCD = x 5 provided x = 5

2(x + 1) x +7 = (x 5) x 5 x 5 2(x + 1) = x + 7 2x + 2 = x + 7 x =5 2x = x + 5
(x 5)
A false solution, so this equation does not have any solution.
Multiply by the LCD = 3(x + 2) provided x = 2

3(x + 2) 3x 2 5 + 3(x + 2) = 0 x +2 3 3(3x 2) + 5(x + 2) = 0 14x + 4 = 0
3x 2 5 + =0 x +2 3
9x 6 + 5x + 10 = 0 x = 2/7
34
Chapter 1 1.64 Example Solve Solution:

7 1 3 = + x +1 x 1 x +1 (x + 1)(x 1)
Multiply by the LCD = (x + 1)(x 1) provided x = +1,1

3 7 1 = (x + 1)(x 1) + (x + 1)(x 1) x +1 x 1 x +1 3(x 1) = 7(x + 1) + (x 1) 3x 3 = 8x + 6 5x = 9 x = 9/5 3x 3 = 7x + 7 + x 1
Multiply by the LCD = x(3x + 1) provided x = 0,1/3

x(3x + 1) 1 3 9x x(3x + 1) = x(3x + 1) 3x + 1 x 3x + 1 9x 2 (3x + 1) = 3x 9x 2 3x 1 = 3x 9x 2 1 = 0
9x 1 3 = 3x + 1 x 3x + 1
(3x 1)(3x + 1) = 0
x = 1/3
x = 1/3
A false solution.
1.5.1
Ratio and Proportion

12 3 = . 8 2 a . For example, in a classroom with 8 b
13 Denition The Ratio of two numbers a and b is dened as males and 12 females, the ratio of females to males is
14 Denition The Proportion of two ratios is dened as the equality between them:
a c = b d
The proportion has the cross-multiplication property:

ad = bc
1.66 Example Use the cross-multiplication to solve. 1. 2. 3.

8 4 = 13 x 5 2 = x + 3 2x 1
Solution: 1.
2x + 5 2x 4 = 5x + 2 5x 2
4 8 = 13 x 4x = 8 13 x = 26
35
Rational Equations 2.
2 5 = x + 3 2x 1 2(2x 1) = 5(x + 3) 4x 2 = 5x + 15 x = 17
3.
2x + 5 2x 4 = 5x + 2 5x 2 (2x + 5)(5x 2) = (2x 4)(5x + 2) 21x 10 = 16x 8 x= 2 37
10x 2 4x + 25x 10 = 10x 2 + 4x 20x 8
1.67 Example Solve the equation 1
Solution: Note that we can not use the cross-multiplication to this equation. However, after combining left side into one fraction, we can use it:
3 x +2x = x +2 x +4 2 3 = x +2 x +4 2(x + 4) = 3(x + 2) 2x + 8 = 3x + 6 x =2
3 x = x +2 x +4
1.68 Example How to divide 63 dollars between two students in the ratio Solution:
2 5
If one student gets x dollars, then the second gets 63 x . The division must be 2 x 2 in ratio . That is = . Use the cross multiplication property to get 5x = 2(63 x), 5x = 5 63 x 5 126 2x , the solution is x = 18 and 63 x = 45. 1.69 Example A sum of $ 1750 is to be divided between two people in the ratio of 3 to 4. How much does each person receive? Solution:
x 3 = ; x = 750 1750 x 4 53 . Find the number. 14
1.70 Example The sum of a number and its reciprocal is
Separation of fractions In many problems, it is advantages to break a fraction into several fractions using the property
a +b a b = + c c c
1.71 Example Solve the equation
x +2 x +3 x +4 x +5 = x +1 x +2 x +3 x +4
36
Chapter 1 Solution: First we use the separation property to simplify the fractions then we add both sides separately then we cross multiply the ratios:
x +1+1 x +2+1 x +1 x +2 1 1 1 1+ x +1 x +2 (x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)(x + 1) 1 (x + 2)(x + 1) x +3+1 x +4+1 x +3 x +4 1 1 = 1+ 1 x +3 x +4 (x + 4) (x + 3) = (x + 4)(x + 3) 1 = (x + 4)(x + 3) =
x 2 + 7x + 12 = x 2 + 3x + 2 4x = 10 x = 5 2

x +4 x +5 x +6 x +7 = x +3 x +4 x +5 x +6
37
Rational Equations
1.5.2 Homework: Rational Equations

Solve the rational equations and check your answers. 1.5.1
x 3 x 4 =1 2 5 5 3x + 2 x 3 =x 6 4 3 7 2 5 + = n 3 n 3 5 3 = 7x 4 2x 5 2 = 3x 1 2x + 1 3 2 6 + = x + 1 x + 5 x 2 + 6x + 5 2x 5x 9 +2 = x 3 x 3 1 1 3 + = x 2 x + 2 x2 4 4 x = 3 x 8 2 x 1 = x +4 x 3 n 1 6 = n 1 2 n +3
1.5.13
3 3 =4 x +2 x 2 3 2 =0 3 5x 2 3x x +1 x2 3 2 = x 1 x 1 x +1 x + 30 =x x 2x 3 =0 x x 3 1 x 2 + 3x + 2 2 1 =0 x +2 2
1.5.14
1.5.2
1.5.15
1.5.3
1.5.16
1.5.4
1.5.17
1.5.5
1.5.18
1.5.6
1.5.19
1 x 1 = x 1 (x + 4)(x 1) x 4 + =1 x +2 x +6 1 3 = 1 + 3x 4
1.5.7
1.5.20
1.5.8
1.5.21
1.5.9
1.5.22 A sum of $350 is to be divided between two students in the ratio of 3 to 4. Set up an equation and solve it to nd their share. 1.5.23 The sum of a number and its reciprocal is Find the number.
34 . 15
1.5.10
1.5.11
2 5 + +2 = 0 1.5.12 x x2
1.5.24 The sum of two numbers is 60. If the larger is divided by the smaller, the quotient is 3 and the remainder is 8. Find the numbers.
38
Chapter 1
1.6
Exercises
19.
6a 4b 6b 9a 2x 5y 10y 4x 3x 2 12x 5 18a 2 b 4 12a 5 b 2 2a 2 + 4ab xy
Reduce the following fractions to lowest terms.
1.
70 98 81 108 4 28
20.
2.
21.
3. 4.
22.
6cd 4c 7 15 5 4 2x y 14 7 6y 2b 3 5a 3 2x x 3y 2y z 2 4 3 3 5 7 a 2x 3b b y dx 30 6 5a 3a 4 2 3 2 3
23.
2a 2 6ab x2 y 2 9x 2 16
5.
24.
6.
25.
9x 2 24x + 16 am an 2bm + 2bn 2cm 2cn d m + d n 6x + 3y + 9z 12x 6y + 9z
7.
26.
8.
27.
9.
Change the following fractions into equivalent fraction in which the letters occur in alphabetical order. 28.
(x 2y )(y x) (h 2g )(m + 2n) (u v )(v 2u) (x + 5y )(x 2y ) (b 2a)(c 2d ) (r + s)(u + 3v ) 2 18 3 7 3 8 4x 7y 2 14y 2 20x 3 2p q 4p 4q
10.
11.
29.
12. 5a
2 3
30.
13. ( ) ( ) ( )
12 7 14 3h 5 15h 6 3a 3b 6a 6b 4a + 5b 20a + 25b ax a y 5x 5y
Perform the indicated operations and simplify. 31.
14.
32.
15.
33.
34. (p 2 q 2 ) 35.
16.
17.
3y + 6 (2x 2 + 8x + 8) 4x + 8 m + n u2 v 2 u v m3 + n3
36.
18.
39
Exercises
3x 5 2y 3 4a 2 b3 9x 2 16y
37.
57.
5x x2 y 2
3 x+y
38.
3a 4 c + 3d c 2d 4y 2 4y + 1 y2 1
58. 4 + 59.
a a 3b 2 a b
39. (c 2 9d 2 ) 40.
4y 2 1
a 2 ab
2a + b
60.
y 2 + 7y + 6
3 2 1 + x y z 5 x2 x 2 7x 2x 2 x 6 1 4 x2 2x 2x 2 + 7x + 6
41.
a 2 6a + 9 a2 9 3x 3y y 2 x2 x + y 2x + y (4x + 2y ) x y 2x + 2y 4 +6 11 13 5 16 8 5a d 2 5 3a b 4b + 9 3 4x y 3
61.
62.
42.
43.
63. 5y 3 64.
5x y
5y 2 4 y +3 + xy y 3x + 6y 2x 4y + 3 16 4x 2 2 2x 2 x 3
44.
x 2 4y 2 5
45.
65.
2x 2 + x 6 2 1 3 6 5 1 + 6 2 3 3 4
46.
66.
47. 2 48.
3 5 12t 2t 2 2 2x 3 3x 6x + 6 1 n +4 3n 3 n 2 + 3n 4 2x 4 3 + 4x
67.
3 +1 8 2 5 a 5 +4 a
49.
68.
50.
51. 3 4x 52.
u +v 2u + v u v v 2u 3 1 4 + 4 2 5
69.
3x 2x y 2y 4+ 2x y 3+ 1 x 1
53.
70. 54.
5 3 + x+y xy 3 x2 + 5 2x
4 2 x 1 1 2x 4x 2 1
55.
71.
56. 7
3 6 + y y2
40
Chapter 1
1 2 + a a2 2 3 1+ + 2 a a 1 2 5 x+y xy 3 1 + x+y xy 2 + 2 b2 a b a 3 b a + b a 2 b2 2 3 5 7 4a
72.
79. 2 80.
5x + 7 =0 2x 2
2 5 = x + 2 2x + 2 1 5 + =0 2x + 3 x 6 7 1 2x =4 2x x 3x 5 = 3+ x +2 x 3 7 2 = + x +1 x 1 x +1 ar n a for a r 1
73.
81.
82. 74.
83.
Find the reciprocal of the number. 75. ( + ) 76. (3x a/c) 77. ( 5/x) Solve the equation and check the solution. 78.
5 3 1 = 4x 2x 2 2 3
84.
85. Solve S = 86. Solve
1 1 1 = for y x y z
x 4
87. Solve
4 = x
2
1.7
Review Rational Expressions

A rational expression is the ratio of two polynomials:
3x P(x) , Such as Q(x)
1. Basic Denitions:
x 2 5x + 6
2. Simplifying Rational Expressions: Use the property

PK P = QK Q
For example,
(x 3)(x + 3) x + 3 x2 9 = = 2 5x + 6 (x 3)(x 2) x 2 x P U PU = Q V QV
3. Multiplying Rational Expressions: Use the property
4 x2 1
x 1 4(x 1) 4 = = x + 1 (x 1)(x + 1)(x + 1) (x + 1)2 PV P U = Q V QU
4. Dividing Rational Expressions: Use the property
4 x 1 4(x + 1) 4 = = x 2 1 x + 1 (x 1)(x + 1)(x 1) (x 1)2
41
Review Rational Expressions 5. Basic Rules for Simplifying Rational Expressions:

a b = a b a c (b) = if and only if ad = bc b d a a = a and = 1 (c) 1 a
(a)
(d) Divide out common factors (e)

a a a = = b b b a a a = (f) ( ) = b b b
ak a = bk b
6. Addition of Rational Expressions: For like denominators: Use the property

P U P +U + = Q Q Q 4 x2 1 + x x2 1 = 4+x x2 1
For unlike denominators: Find the LCD and write each fraction with the LCD.
3 5 3x 5(x 2) 2x + 10 = = x 2 x x(x 2) x(x 2) x(x 2)
7. Equations with fractions: Multiply both sides by the LCD,

1 4 3x 2 = x x 4 3x 1 ) x( 2) = x( x x 1 2x = 4 3x x =3
42
Radicals and Exponents
In the following sections, we shall introduce the integer exponents notation which include whole positive exponents and extend their interpretation to zero and negative whole powers, and develop their laws and rules. Next, we dene the radical notation and its connection to rational powers and introduce the rules of operating on radicals. Finally, we solve equations involving radicals and their applications.
2.1
Integer Exponents
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = 1024
For problems where a number is multiplied by itself repeatedly, such as the products:
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 = 48828125
3x 3x 3x 3x 3x = 243 x x x x x,
Mathematicians have invented a very powerful notation to represent this type of products. It is called exponential notation. In this notation, the repeated factor (multiplier) is called the base, and the number of factors (multipliers) is called the exponent. So the above products are written as follows:
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = 210
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 = 511
3x 3x 3x 3x 3x = (3x)5
Thus, we have the notation

21 = 2
22 = 2 2
23 = 2 2 2
and so on!
24 = 2 2 2 2
1 Denition For any real number a and any natural number n , we use the exponential notation a n to denote the product of n factors , each equal to a , that is
n
a = a a a ... a a
here, a is called the base, n is called the exponent or power, a n is called exponential number, and we read it as: a to the n -th power or a to exponent n . 2.1 Example Write the expressions using exponential notation 1. 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2. 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 Solution: 1. 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 = 37 43
Integer Exponents 2. 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 = 44 53 . Note the different bases. 2.2 Example Compute 1. (10)4 2. 107 3. (10)9 Solution: 1. (10)4 = (10) (10) (10) (10) = 10,000
2. 107 = 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 = 10,000,000 3. (10)9 = 1,000,000,000
2.3 Example Compute the following the values

1. 53 2. 72 3. (3)2 4. 24 52 5. (2)2 (3)2 6. 32 7. (5)2 8. 52 9. (5)2 10. (1)90 11. 1235 12. (10)3 13. (2)3 (3)2 14. (5)2 + (5)3 15. (1)8 + (1)9
Solution:
1. 53 = 125 2. 3. (3)2 = (3)(3) = 9 5. (2)2 (3)2 = 36
72 = 49
6. 32 == 3 3 = 9 7. 8. 52 = 25
(5)2 = 25
4. 24 52 = 16 25 = 400
10. (1)90 = 1, even power.
9. (5)2 = 25
15. (1)8 + (1)9 = 1 1 = 0
14. (5)2 + (5)3 = 25 125 = 100
13. (2)3 (3)2 = 8 9 = 17
12. (10)3 = (1000) = 1000
11. 1235 = 1, odd power.
2.4 Example Identify the base and the exponent of the following exponential numbers 1. (a)2 2. a 2 3. 5x 3 4. (5x)3 Solution: 1. (a)2 : The base is a , the exponent is 2. 3. 5x 3 : The base is x , the exponent is 3. 2. a 2 : The base is a , the exponent is 2.
4. (5x)3 : The base is 5x , the exponent is 3. As a result of the exponential denition, we are going to introduce the main rules of exponential numbers. 44
Chapter 2
2.1.1
Product Rule for Exponents
Based on the denition of the exponential numbers we have

x1 = x
x2 = x x
x3 = x x x
It follows x 2 x 3 = x x x x x = x 5
x4 = x x x x
x2 x4 = x x x x x x = x6
The last two equalities justify the product rule for any real number a and any natural numbers n,m :
a m a n = a m+n
The product of exponential numbers with same base is an exponential number with same base and exponent equals to the sum of their exponents. Keep the base and add the powers.
For example, a 3 a 4 = a 3+4 = a 7 , and x y x 2 y 2 x 3 y 5 = x 1+2+3 y 1+2+5 = x 6 y 8 . The product rule is not applicable to the product a 4 b 3 because the bases are different! 2.5 Example Simplify 1. 65 67 2. x 5 x 2 3. (7x)3 (7x)2 4. (x + 2)5 (x + 2)3 Solution: 1. 65 67 = 612
3. (7x)3 (7x)2 = (7x)5
2. x 5 x 2 = x 3
4. (x + 2)5 (x + 2)3 = (x + 2)8
2.6 Example Simplify 1. x 11 x 5 2. a 2 b 3 a 3 b 2 3. 8x 4 x 3 x 4. (t + 1)5 (t + 1)4 (t + 1) Solution: 1. x 11 x 5 = x 11+5 = x 16
3. 8x 4 x 3 x = 8x 4+3+1 = 8x 8
2. a 2 b 3 a 3 b 2 = a 2+3 + b 3+2 = a 5 b 5
4. (t + 1)5 (t + 1)4 (t + 1) = (t + 1)5+4+1 = (t + 1)10 45
Integer Exponents
2.1.2
Division Rule for Exponents

25 = 22 , 23 and 25 = 23 22
The product 23 22 = 25 , implies
We also can use the denition of exponential notation and cancellation principle of fractions to divide exponential numbers with same base as in the examples:
57 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 = 5 5 5 5 1 1 1 = 54 = 555 53 63 1 1 666 = = = 65 6 6 6 6 6 1 1 1 6 6 62
From these examples, point to the general quotient rule of exponential numbers with same bases a and for any natural numbers m,n : 1. If m > n , then 2. If m < n , then
x6 am = a mn . For example, 2 = x 62 = x 4 an x 1 y7 1 1 am = nm . For example, 9 = 97 = 2 n a a y y y

1. 2. 3. 4.
x4 x3 t4 t7 x3 y7 y5
The division of exponential numbers with same base is an exponential number with same base and exponent equals to the difference of their powers. Usually, we subtract the small power.
4(x + 2)5 (x + 2)3
Solution:
x4 = x 43 = x x3 t4 1 1 2. 7 = 74 = 3 t t t x3 y7 3. = x 3 y 75 = x 3 y 2 y5
1.
4.
4(x + 2)5 = 4(x + 2)53 = 4(x + 2)2 (x + 2)3
2.8 Example Simplify 1. 2. 3.

38 36 2x 5 x 11 6a 3 b 6 c 2 2ab 4 c 2
46
Chapter 2
x2 y3 x y4
4.
Solution:
38 = 386 = 32 = 9 36 2x 5 2 2 2. 11 = 115 = 6 x x x 6a 3 b 6 c 2 3. = 3a 31 b 64 = 3a 2 b 2 , note c 2 /c 2 = 1 2ab 4 c 2 x 2 y 3 x 21 x = 43 = 4. y x y4 y
1.
2.1.3
Power Rule for Exponents

(32 )3 = (32 ) (32 ) (32 ) = 32+2+2 = 36
To evaluate (32 )3 we proceed according to the denition as follows
Note that 6 = 3 2. Thus raising a power to a power, multiply the powers. 2 Denition For any real number a and any natural numbers m,n , we have
n
(a ) = (a ) (a ) (a m ) ... (a m )
n
m n
= a mn
= am + m + m + + m
For example,
(x 3 )4 = x 34 = x 12
(x 4 x 3 )2 = (x 4+3 )2 = x 72 = x 14
(y 2 )4 = y 24 = y 8
2.9 Example Simplify 1. (32 )3 2. (x 2 x 3 )6 3. (x 2 )4 (x 3 )2 4. (x k )3 5. x(x 2 )4 Solution: 1. (32 )3 = 323 = 36 2. (x 2 x 3 )6 = (x 2+3 )6 = (x 5 )6 = x 30 3. (x 2 )4 (x 3 )2 = x 8 x 6 = x 14 4. (x k )3 = x k3 = x 3k 5. x(x 2 )4 = x(x 8 ) = x 9 47
Integer Exponents
2.1.4
Power Rule for Products
To evaluate the products (5x)4 and (2x y 2 z 3 )3 we proceed according to the denition of exponentials as follows:
(5x)4 = (5x) (5x) (5x) (5x) = 54 x 4
(2x y 2 z 3 )3 = (2x y 2 z 3 ) (2x y 2 z 3 ) (2x y 2 z 3 ) = (2)3 x 3 y 23 z 33 = 8x 3 y 6 z 9 (24 x 3 )2 = 242 x 32 = 28 x 6 = 256x 6
3 Denition For any real numbers a,b and any natural number n , we have
n n
(ab) = (ab) (ab) (ab) ... (ab)

n n
= an bn
= a a a ... a b b b ... b
Similarly,
(abc)n = a n b n c n
Note that it is not true that (a + b)n = a n + b n .
For example,
(uv )2 = u 2 v 4
(4x)3 = (4)3 x 3 = 64x 3
(2x y)4 = 24 x 4 y 4 = 16x 4 y 4
(2 5)3 = 23 53 = 8 125 = 1000
2.10 Example Simplify 1. (2x 2 )3 2. (5x 3 y)4 3. (x y k )2 4. (x k y 2 )k 5. (x + 3)2 Solution: 1. (2x 2 )3 = (2)3 x 23 = 8x 6 2. (5x 3 y)4 = 54 x 12 y 4 3. (x y k )2 = x 2 y 2k 4. (x k y 2 )k = x kk y 2k = x k y 2k 5. (x + 3)2 = (x + 3)(x + 3) = x 2 + 3x + 3x + 33 = x 2 + 6x + 9 48
2
Chapter 2
2.1.5
Power Rule for Fractions
Exponentiation of fractions is accomplished according to the denition. For example,

3 3 3 3 33 ( )3 = ( ) ( ) ( ) = 3 5 5 5 5 5
4 Denition For any real numbers a,b = 0 and any natural number n , we have
a ( )n = b a n ( ) = bc an bn an bn c n
Note it is not true that (
a n an a n an ) = n . The correct answer is ( ) = . b +c b + cn b +c (b + c)n
For example,
2 3 x y x 2 +1 x
3
=
4
8 23 = 3 3 27 x4 y4 x3 (x 2 + 1)3
=
3
2.11 Example Simplify 1. ( )3 2. ( 3. ( 4. ( 5. (

3a 2 ) b2 18a 3 b 2 ) 9a 2 b 2 5x k ) 10x 2 5x 8 ) x+y 2 5
Solution: 1. ( )3 = 2. ( 3. (
2 5 23 8 = 53 125
3a 2 9a 2 ) = 4 b2 b
18a 3 b 2 2a 2 4a 2 ) = 2 ) =( 2b2 b 9a b 1 k 1 5x k ) =( ) = k k 4. ( 2x 10x 2 2 x
5. (
58 x 8 5x 8 ) = x+y (x + y)8
49
Integer Exponents
2.1.6 Zero Exponent

The exponential number 35 means 3 3 3 3 3, but 30 is meaningless in terms of product of repeated factors. However, we can give this a consistent explanation as follows: It is known that for any a = 0,
we dene
a 35 = 1, using this fact and the division rule of exponential numbers to simplify 1 = 5 = 355 = 30 . This a 3 implies that both sides of the equation are equal so we dene 30 to be 1. Similarly, for any base a = 0, a0 = 1
zero is undened.
For example, 50 = 1, (3x 2 + 1)0 = 1 and (
23 0 ) = 1. Note that a can not be zero because the division by 6
2.12 Example Find the values of the following expressions provided all variables are none zero.
1. 32 50 2.
3x 0 2x 0
6. (23x 4 + x 2 + 1)0 7. (5x)0 8. 5x 0 9. 5x 0 y 10. 00
3. (70 80 )0 4. x 0 5. 5x y 0
Solution:
1. 32 50 = 9 1 = 9 2.
3x 0
3 = 2x 0 2 3. (70 80 )0 = (1 1)0 = 00 , undened value.
6. (23x 4 + x 2 + 1)0 = 1 7. (5x)0 = 1 8. 5x 0 = 5 9. 5x 0 y = 5y 10. 00 , undened value.
5. 5x y 0 = 5x
4. x 0 = 1
In the following example, the plausibility of power zero is illustrated by a population growth variable.
2.13 Example Derive a population model so the number of rabbits are doubling each six months, the farm starts with three pairs. How many rabbits will be there in 5 years, 10 years? Solution: In 5 years we have 10 periods of doubling so we compute the product:
6 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = 6 210 = 6144
In general, we can derive a formula for the population growth p = 62t where t is the time period. So after one period t = 1, p = 621 = 12. In this example the number of rabbits at starting time can be written as
p = 6t 0 = 6
2.1.7 Negative exponents

How to interpret exponential numbers with negative exponents? What does 52 mean? Assume that 52 stands for a certain number. How to nd the value of this number? We start with the equality
52 = 1 multiply both sides by 52 and switch the sides 52 52 1 = 52 1 52 52+2 50 = = 2= 2 2 2 5 5 5 5
50
Chapter 2 This means

52 =
1 1 = 2 25 5
Similarly, we dene 23 =
1 1 = . 23 8
5 Denition We dene the negative exponent of any none zero number a :

a n = 1 an
Based on this denition, we can interpret the division of exponential numbers

am 1 = a mn = nm n a a 1 a m 1 m(n) =a = a m+n = n(m) = n+m a n a a 1 a n = n a 1 = am a m
2.14 Example Rewrite without negative exponents and simplify 1. 23 32 2. 3.

38 35 8x 4 y 2 4x 7 y 2
4. 6a 3 b 3 5. 2x 5 y 3 z 1 Solution: 1. 23 32 = 2. 3.
38 35 1 1 1 1 1 = = 23 32 8 9 72 1 1 1 = 5(8) = 3 = 27 3 3
2 8x 4 y 2 2y 2(2) = = 3 7 y 2 74 4x x x 6b 3 a3 2 x5 y3 Z
4. 6a 3 b 3 =
5. 2x 5 y 3 z 1 =
In the following illustration, we justify the denition of negative exponents by following a pattern formation of exponential numbers: 32
25
16
24
8
23
4
22
2
21
1
20
1 2 21
1 4 22
1 8 23
1 16 24
51
Integer Exponents The pattern in the rst row is dividing by 2 left to right, and the pattern in the second row is to subtract 1 from the power left to right. The two rows are equal so we have
25 = 32, 24 = 16, 1 , 2 23 = 8, 22 = 4, 21 = 2, 1 1 = 3 2 8 20 = 1
and similarly
21 = 22 = 1 1 = , 2 2 4 23 =
So we conclude that for any nonzero number a , the negative exponent is dened as follows:
a n = 1 an 1 1 = 53 125
For example,
x 5 = 1 , x5 53 =
Similarly we dene the reciprocal of negative exponents as

1 a n = an 1 = (2)3 = 8 (2)3
For example
1 x 2 = x2, 1 = 32 = 9, 32
The negative exponent of a fraction has an interesting short cut:

a n bn b a ( )n = n = n = ( )n b b a a
This means that instead of distributing the negative power, we ip the fraction and change to positive power. For example,
(
2
23 2 52 25 5 ) = ( 3 )2 = 6 = 5 32 2 2
2.15 Example Simplify Solution:
2x 2 3y 3
We can simplify in two ways (they are really equivalent)

2x 2 3y 3
2
1. Apply the exponent rules:
22 (x 2 )2 32 (y 3 )2 9y 6 = = 32 (y 3 )2 22 (x 2 )2 4x 4 2x 2 3y 3
2
2. Apply the negative exponent of fractions rule:
3y 3 2x 2
9y 6 4x 4
2.16 Example Change to positive exponents and simplify 1. 3a 2 b 3 2.

1 23
3. (23 32 )2 4.
a 2 a2
Solution: 1. 3a 2 b 3 = 2.
1 = 23 = 8 23 3 a2b3
52
Chapter 2 3. (23 32 )2 = ( )2 = ( 4.
a 2 a2 1 1 8 9 1 1 = 2 2= 4 a a a 1 2 ) 72
2.17 Example Why (a 2 + b 2 ) = Solution: Because
1 ? a2 + b2 a 2 + b 2 = 1 1 a2 + b2 + 2= 2 a b a 2b2
2.18 Example Simplify 1. (

a 4 2 ) b 3
2. 3x 312 3. (2a + 5)(2a + 5)3 4.

a 3 b 2 a 2 b 4
5. (3x 3 )2 (2x 2 )3 Solution:

a 4 2 a 8 1 ) = 6 = 8 6 b 3 b a b 2. 3x 312 = 3x+12
1. (
3. (2a + 5)(2a + 5)3 = (2a + 5)4
4.
a 3 b 2 = a 3(2)b 2(4) = a 5 b 2 a 2 b 4 5. (3x 3 )2 (2x 2 )3 = 9x 6 8x 6 = 2x 6
2.19 Example Which expressions are the same?

1. x n 2. x n 3. x n 4. (x)n 5. 6.
1 x n 1 xn
Solution: 1. x n = 2. x n
1 x n 1 = n x
Summary of Basic Rules of Exponents For any real numbers a and b and any integers numbers m and n , the following basic laws of exponential numbers 1. a m a n = a m+n 2. (ab)n = a n b n , and 3. (a m )n = a mn 53
a b
n
an bn
Integer Exponents
am = a mn , a = 0 an am = a mn an am 1 (b) If m < n , then n = nm a a
4.
(a) If m > n , then
5. Zero exponent: If a = 0, then a 0 = 1. 6. Negative Exponent: a n =

1 1 and n = a n . an a a b b a
7. Negative exponent of fraction: ( )n = ( )n for nonzero bases.
54
Chapter 2
2.1.8 Homework: Integer Exponents

Perform the indicated operations Perform the indicated operations 2.1.14 (31 )2 (91 )2 2.1.1 2.1.2
(2)3 (3)2 552 56 77 75 3 2
2.1.13 ( )1 ( )1
2 3
1 3
Simplify the expressions without negative exponents 2.1.15 a 4 a 3 a 3 2.1.16 (

x 4 1 ) y 2
2.1.3
2.1.4 ( )4 2.1.5 (2x y 3 )5

a 4b6 c a 3b3 c 24a 5 b 2 c 3 33a 5 bc 2 12x 4 y 3 3 ) 4x 2 y 2
2.1.17
90x 4 y 5 6x 2 y a 4 a4 a 2 2 ) b5 5 a
2.1.6
2.1.18
2.1.7
2.1.19 (
2.1.8 (
2.1.20 5a 1 2.1.21
x y 1 x 1 y 1
Find the value of the expressions 2.1.9 112
y + 1 x y x
2.1.22 2.1.10 202 202 2.1.11 (23 32 )1 2.1.12

24 22
2.1.23 (
a 3 b 2 c 3 4 ) a 0 b 2 c3
2.1.24 x 2 + 2x 3
55
Roots and Radicals
2.2
Roots and Radicals
In this section, we introduce the denition of roots of numbers as opposed to raising a number to integer powers. Geometrically, computing the area of a square and the volume of a cube given the side are the same as raising to power 2 and 3. However, computing the side of a square and the side of a cube from the area and the volume are the same as nding the square root and the cube root. The following table shows the familiar process of raising to powers:
b A = b2 V = b3 W = b4
2 -2 3 -3 4 -4 1.4
4 4 9 9 16 16 1.96
8 -8 27 -27 64 -64 2.744
16 16 81 81 256 256 3.8416
Raising a number to an integer power is a multiplication process. For example, the number 16 in 42 = 16, is the product of 4 4. The reverse process is to nd numbers whose square is 16. These numbers are +4 and 4. We call these numbers square roots of 16. Similarly, 3 is the cube root of 27 because 33 = 27. In general we have the denition: 6 Denition A number b is called the nth root of a if
bn = a
Roots of a number a are denoted by radical notation: A radical sign , a radicand a , a , and an index n specifying the power of the root: n a . It is standard to omit square root index. For example, 3 5 9 = 3, 64 = 4, 32 = 2.
2.2.1 Square Roots

Every positive real number p has two square roots: + p and p . The positive square root is the principal square root. Thus, 36 = 6 and 36 = 6.

1. 3.
For any real positive number p ,
p is the positive principal square root. For example, 49 = 7 and x 2 is a positive number whose square is x 2 , this number is not x but it is |x|, this absolute value insures that the answer is positive. p is not real number. For example, is a positive number. 9 is not real number because the square of any real number
2. p is the negative square root. For example, 49 = 7.
2.20 Example Evaluate the square roots:
56
Chapter 2
1.
36
4. 5. 6.
100 0.04 1 81
7.
0.0
2. 121 3.
4 25
8.
16
Solution:
1. 36 = 6 2. 121 = 11 3.
4 2 = 25 5
4. 5.
0.04 = 0.2 1 1 6. = 81 9
100 = 10
7. 8.
0.0 = 0 16, not real number.
Every number a 0 has a real square root, but only few numbers are perfect squares. For example, 5 is a number that it impossible to express it in decimal or fractional form, that is irrational, but we can approximate it 5 02.236.
Thus, in all your algebra work, you should never substitute a radical number with its approximation, unless you are asked to do that explicitly.
In the following list, we identify all perfect square numbers less than 1000:
1,4,9,16,25,36,49,64,81,100,121,144, 169,196,225,256,289,324,361,400,441, 484,529,576,625,676,729,784,841,900,961
Square roots of expressions Denition 1 For any real number x : root is positive number. 2.21 Example Simplify the square roots:
1.
25x 2
x 2 =| x |. Absolute value is needed to insure that the selected

2
3. 4.
x4 9y 4
5. 6.
a 2 + 2a + 1 x 2 10x + 25
2. 64u 2
Solution:
1.
25x 2 = 5|x|
4. 5. 6.
9y 4 = 3y 2 a 2 + 2a + 1 = x 2 10x + 25 = (a + 1)2 = |a + 1| (x 5)2 = |x 5|
2. 64u 2 = 8|u| 3.
x4 = x2
2.22 Example The area of a square given by the formula A = s 2 , where s is the length of its side. In the following, nd the side of a square whose area is 1. A = 144 2. A = 9a 2 b 2 3. A = 100x 2 Solution: 1. s = 144 = 12 2. s = 9a 2 b 2 = 3ab , provided a and b are positive.
3. s = 100x 2 = 10x , provided x > 0
57
Roots and Radicals
2.2.2 Cube Roots

We say 2 is a cube root of 8 because 23 = 8 and -3 is a cube root of -27 because (3)3 = 27. 7 Denition The cube root of a number a is denoted by 3 a = b so that b 3 = a . This denition implies the identity 3 a 3 = a, for any real number a 2.23 Example Simplify the cube roots:
1. 2.
3
64 64
4. 5. 6.
y 3 8a 3 b 3 c 3 125(x y )3
3. 3 27
Solution:
1. 2.
3
64 = 4 64 = 4
4. 5. 6.
3 3
y 3 = y 8a 3 b 3 c 3 = 2abc 125(x y )3 = 5(x y )
3. 3 27 = 3
2.24 Example The volume of a cube is given by the formula V = s 3 , where s is the side of the cube. In the following, nd the side of a cube whose volume is 1. V = 1000 2. V = 64x 3 y 3 3. V = 8a 3 Solution: 1. s = 3 1000 = 10 2. s =
3
3. s = 8a 3 = 2a
64x 3 y 3 = 4x y
2.2.3 nth Roots

8 Denition Similarly, we can dene roots of any index such as, the 4th, 5th, 6th,..., roots: 4 , 5 , 6 . In general, the nth root of a number a , denoted by n a is a number b :
n
a=b
if
bn = a
With restrictions on even indices: The radicand must be positive and the positive principal root must be assigned. 2.25 Example Simplify the radical expressions:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
3 4 5 4
4 8 16 32 16
6. 7. 8. 9.
1 128 81x 4 32x 5 (2x 1)6
4 5 6
58
Chapter 2 Solution:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
3 4 5 4
4=2 8=2 16 = 2 32 = 2 16 is not a real number.
6. 7. 8. 9.
1 1 = 128 2 81x 4 = 3|x|
4 5 6
32x 5 = 2x
(2x 1)6 = |2x 1|

1. The even roots are dened for positive numbers only, and the even roots are always positive. 2. The even roots of negative numbers are not real numbers. 3. The odd roots are dened for positive and negative numbers.
2.2.4 Properties of radicals

True or false? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
n
a2 = a an = a a +b = a+ b 5x
2x + 3x = 8=2 2
The answers to these questions will be clear by the end of this section. Fundamental Rules of Radicals 1. Perfect nth power Rule:
n n
an = a a n = |a|
if n is odd if n is even
For example, (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

3 4 5 6
(3.5x)2 = 3.5|x|
(6x + y)3 = 6x + y (5)4 = | 5| = 5 (22a)5 = 22a (3y)6 = 3|y|

n n
2. Product Rule of Radicals:

ab = b=
n n
Radicals are distributed to each factor in the radicand. Radicals with same index can be multiplied.
ab
provided the roots are real numbers. For example, (a) (b) (c) (d)
3 4 3
45 = 8 27 = 81x 8 y
3
4 5 = 2 5
3
8
4
27 = 2 3 = 6
4
81
3
x8
y = 3x 2
3
9x
3x 2
9x 3x 2
27x 3
= 3x
59
Roots and Radicals

n
This rule is valid for products only. It is not true to distribute radicals if an addition or a subtraction is in the radicand. For example, 4 + 9 = 4 + 9.
3. Division Rule of Radicals:

a = b a b =
n n
a b a b
Radicals are distributed to numerator and denominator in the the radicand. Radicals with same index can be divided.
n n
provided the roots are real numbers and b = 0. For example, (a) (b) (c)
3
5 = 36
5 36
=
3 3
5 6 x3 = x 5y 2 16y 4 = 4y 2
x3 = 125y 6 48x y 4 3x =
125y 6
48x y 4 = 3x
More Examples of Radical Rules 1.

n
a n = a or = |a|? In general
a mn = a m
or
a mn = |a|m
depending on odd or even index. This property is used very often for complete extraction of perfect roots! 2.26 Example Simplify the radical expressions using the perfect nth power rule:
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
3 3 3 7 5
8 8 y3 (1 2x)7 (13)5 25 y2
(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)
4 4 6
(1 2x)4 (15)4 (15)6 y4 y6
y6
Solution:
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
3 3 3 7 5
8=
8 =
23 = 2
(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)
4 4 6
y3 = y
(2)3 = 2
(1 2x)4 = |1 2x| (15)4 = 15 (15)6 = 15 y4 = y6 = (y 2 )2 = |y |2 = y 2 (y 3 )2 = |y |3

3
(1 2x)7 = 1 2x (13)5 = 13 25 = 52 = 5 y 2 = |y |
y6 =
(y 2 )3 = y 2
2.
extraction) 2.27 Example Simplify the radical expressions using the product rule of radicals:
ab =
b This property is applied to factor terms from under the radical signs!
( Partial
60
Chapter 2
(a) (b) (c)
3
48 8 16y 3
(d) (e) (f)
25x 4 y 10 y 2 (1 y ) (4)(4) = 16 = 4 = 4 4, explain why?
Solution:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3
48 = 16 3 = 16 3 = 4 3 8 = 42 = 4 2 = 2 2 16y 3 =
3
(e)
2 = 2y
3
y 2 (1 y ) = |y | 1 y (4)(4) = 16 = 4 = 4 4, because the even roots are dened for positive radicands only.
82 y3 = 25
8y 3
(f)
25x 4 y 10 =
x4
y 10 = 5x 2 y 5
3.
a = b
n n
a b
. This property is similar to the product property!
2.28 Example Simplify the radical expressions using the division rule of radicals:
(a) (b)
25 36 4x 8 9y 4
(c) (d)
16x 4 27 27 x3
Solution:
(a) (b)
25 = 36 4x 8 9y 4 = 25 36 = 5 6 = 2x 8 3y 2
(c)
16x 4 = 27 27 x3 =
8 2x 3 x
3
27
2x
2x
4x 8 9y 4
(d)
3 x
We mention the following important rule for completeness, Radical of a Radical Rule:
n m
multiply the indices, provided the roots are real numbers. For example, 1. 2. 3.
3 3
a=
mn
a,
x= a= 7=
3
x a 7
2.29 Example Simplify 1. 2. 3.

5 3
5 5 8x
Solution: 1. 2. 3.
3 5 3
5=
22 23
5=
5=
4 6
5 5
15
8x =
53
5=
8x =
8x
We will assume that all variables are positive in the following sections. This is important to avoid repeated distinction between odd and even indices and selecting the principal roots.
61
Roots and Radicals
2.2.5 Radical Simplications

A radical is in a simple form if the radical satises the following conditions: 1. No radical appears in the denominator of a fraction. For example but it can be simplied to
5 x . 2a 2
3x 4
5 x 4a 4
is not a simple radical,
2. The radicand does not have any fractions. For example be simplied to
3x 2
is not a simple radical, but it can
3. The radicand does not have any negative factors. For example it can be simplied to 3 5
5 is not a simple radical, but
4. The power of each factor in the radicand is less than the index of the radical. For example, 3 4x 4 y , 8x 4 are not simple fractions, but they can be simplied to 2x 2 y , 2x 3 x . Strategy to Simplify Radicals How to simplify
18x 5 ?
1. Rewrite the coefcient as product of two numbers one of them is a perfect number and rewrite the exponential number as product of two exponentials one of them is raised to a multiple power of the radical index, if possible:
18x 5 = 9 2 x4 x1
2. Apply the product rule of radicals. That is, factor out all perfect multiples outside the radical sign as follows:
18x 5 = 9 2 x 4 x 1 = 3x 2 2x
3. Rationalize denominators: This will be discussed after addition and multiplication sections.
Perfect nth powers
Perfect square numbers are: 1,4,9,16,25,36, Perfect cube numbers are: 1,8,27,64,125,
Perfect square exponentials have multiple of two powers: a 2 , a 4 , a 6 ,
Perfect cube exponentials have multiple of three powers: a 3 , a 6 , a 9 , Perfect fourth orders numbers are: 1,16,81,256,625, Perfect fourth order exponentials have multiple of four powers: a 4 , a 8 , a 12 ,
2.30 Example Simplify the following radicals using the fundamental rules of radicals 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
3 4 3
32x 3 y z 2 16x 2 y 5 50x 2x 400x 6 8 4x 4 5000x 4 y 2 32x 3 27

3
x2 y2
62
Chapter 2 Solution: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
3 4 3
32x 3 y z 2 = 16x 2 y 5 = 50x 2x = 400x 6 8 2x 4 =

4 3
16 2x 2 x y z 2 = 4xz 8 2x 2 y 3 y 2 = 2y 50x 2x =
4
2x y
3
2x 2 y 2
8 = 2x 4
3
16 25 x 4 x 2
2 4 = x4 x2
3
= 2x 25x 2 = 2x 5x
100x 2 = 10x
5000x 4 y 2 32x 3 = 27
3 3
x2 y2 = =
5000x 4 y 2 x 2 y 2 =
3
1000 5 x 6 y 3 y 1 = 10x 2 y
5y
8 4x 3 27
2x 4 3
2.31 Example Simplify the following radicals using the fundamental rules of radicals 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
3 5 3
12 54 24ab 4 c 3 3x 9x 2 8x 3 2x a 9b5 15 49x 2 45x y 2 5x 100x 10x 32 + 42

3 3
Solution: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
3 5 3 3 3
12 = 54 =
3
43 = 2 3 27 2 = 3 2
3 3 3
24ab 4 c 3 = 3x 9x 2 = 8x 3 2x =
5
3x 9x 2 =
8 3ab 3 b 1 c 3 = 2bc 3ab

3
27x 3 = 3x
8x 3 = 2x 15
4x 2 = 2x
5
a 9b5 =
15 = 49x 2 45x y 2 5x
3
a 5 a 4 b 5 = ab a 4 49x 2 = 15 7x
45x y 2 = 5x
3
9y 2 = 3y
3
32 + 42 =
100x 10x =
1000x 2 = 10 x 2
25 = 5
2.32 Example Simplify the radicals 63
Roots and Radicals 1. 2. 3.

3
4x 3 + 12x 4 40x 5 y 4 + 80x 6 y 6 40x 5 y 4 + 80x 6 y 6 27 40x 8 y 7 + 80x 9 y 9 40 + 80x y 2
4.
Solution: 1. 2. 3. 4.
3
4x 3 + 12x 4 = sqr t4x 2 (x + 3x 2 ) = 2x 40x 5 y 4 + 80x 6 y 6 = 40x 5 y 4 + 80x 6 y 6 = 27 40x 8 y 7 + 80x 9 y 9 = 40 + 80x y 2
40x 5 y 4 (1 + 2x 2 y 2 ) =
x + 3x 2 )
4 10 x 4 x 1 y 4 (1 + 2x y 2 ) = 2x 2 y 2
10x(1 + 2x y 2 )
3
40x 5 y 4 (1 + 2x 2 y 2 ) = 27 40x 8 y 7 (1 + 2x 2 y 2 ) = 40(1 + 2x y 2 )
8 5 x 3 x 2 y 3 y 1 (1 + 2x 2 y 2 ) 2x y = 27 3 x8 y7 =
4
5x 2 y(1 + 2x y 2 )
x8 y4 y3 = x2 y
y3
64
Chapter 2
2.2.6 Homework: Roots and Radicals

Evaluate the expressions 2.2.1 81 2.2.2 4 81 2.2.3
4
2.2.14 2.2.15 2.2.16

3
75
108x 4
28a 8 b 12
814
2.2.17
3 2.2.4 50 5
16x 3 y 6 x3 y 5z
2.2.18 2.2.5
22 16
2.2.19 2.2.6
3 4
x3 y 5z 8
2.2.20 2.2.7
15 5
48x 2 y 4 z 6
2.2.21 2.2.8
14 21 7
5x 5 9y 4
2.2.22 2.2.9
6 20 4 45
5x 20x
2.2.23 2.2.24 2.2.25 2.2.26

3
6a 24a
2.2.10 10 32 Simplify the radical expressions. Assume all variables are positive. 2.2.11 2.2.12
3
3ab
3
15ab 3
4x 2
2x
3
9x 4 y 6
100x 2
20x 2
8a 6 b 3 25x 8 16y 4 z 0
2.2.27
18x 2 y 3
12x y 4
2.2.13
2.2.28
28x y 2
65
Addition and Subtraction of Radicals
2.3
The addition and subtraction of radicals are possible for similar radicals. 9 Denition Radical expressions are called like or similar if they have the same index and the same radicand. For example 1. The radicals 2 6 and 5 6 are similar, but not 2 6 and 5 3 6 . 2. The radicals
3x and 7 3x are similar, but not 3x and 7 2x .
3. The radicals 3x 2x y and 8x 2y x are similar, but not 3 x y and 8x 2x y . Like radicals can be added and subtracted by combining their coefcients using the distribution law
ba + c a = (b + c)a
2.33 Example Combine the following 1. 3x + 2y 5x 2 + y 2 + 7x 2y + 6x 2 2. 2 5 + 7 5 3. 9 2a + 2a 5 2a + 10 a 4. 3 3 x + 2 x 6 3 x 3 x Solution: 1. 3x + 2y 5x 2 + y 2 + 7x 2y + 6x 2 = 10x + x 2 + y 2
4. 3 3 x + 2 x 6 3 x 3 x = 3 3 x x 2.34 Example True or False? 1. 2. 3. 4.

2 8 = 4 4 + 16 = x x=x x y = xy 4 + 16
3. 9 2a + 2a 5 2a + 10 a = 5 2a + 10 a
2. 2 5 + 7 5 = 9 5
5. 3 2x + 5 2x = 8 2x 6.
x+ y= x+y
7. 3x 2 x + y x = (3x 2 + y) x Solution: 1. True: 2. False: 3. True: 4. False: 6. False:

2 8 = x x=x x y= x+ xy x+y 28 = 16 = 4 20
4 + 16 =
4 + 16, 6 =
5. True: 3 2x + 5 2x = (3 + 5) 2x = 8 2x
2
7. True: 3x
x + y x = (3x 2 + y) x
y=
66
Chapter 2 2.35 Example Simplify and nd the sum of the radicals 1.

27 12
2. 2 3 5 48 + 8 75 3. 8 3 2 5 3 2 3 3 2 4. 4x y + 5.
3
x 2 y 2x y
3
16x 4 +
3
54x 4
128x 4
6. x 32x + 50x 3 7. x 3 3x 3x 4 8. 9.
5
a +6 5
a 32
4x + 8 + 16x + 32
10. 5y 2 3x 5 y 6 4x 12x 3 y 10 Solution: 1.

27 12 = 93 43 = 3 32 3 = 3
4. 4x y + 5.
3
3. 8 3 2 5 3 2 3 3 2 = 0
3 3
2. 2 3 5 48 + 8 75 = 2 3 5 16 3 + 8 25 3 = 2 3 20 3 + 40 3 = 22 3
x 2 y 2x y = 4x y + x y 2x y = 3x y
3 3
6. x 32x + 50x 3 = x 16 2x + 25 2x 2 x 1 = 4x 2x + 5x 2x = 9x 2x 7. x 3 3x 3x 4 = x 3 3x 3x 3 x = x 3 3x x 3 3x = 0 8. 9.
5 3 3
16x 4 + 54x 4 128x 4 =
8 2x 3 x 1 + 27 2x 3 x 1 64 2x 3 x 1 = 2x 2x+3x 2x+4x 2x9x 2x
a +6 5
2
a = 32
a+
6 2
a =4 5 a 4(x + 2) + 16(x + 2) = 2 x + 2 + 4 x + 2 = 6 x + 2 = 5y 2 3x 4 x y 6 4x 4 3x 2 x y 10 = 5y 2 x 2 y 3 3x4x2x y 5 3x = 5x 2 y 5 3x
10. 5y
4x + 8 + 16x + 32 =
2 5
4x y
3x 5 y 6 4x
12x 3 y 10 3x
3x = x y
2 5
67
2.3.1 Homework: Addition and Subtraction of Radicals

Simplify the Radical Expressions. Assume all variables are positive. 2.3.1 5 27 2 48 2.3.2 5 24 + 3 54 6 2.3.3 5 3 16 + 2 3 2 3 54 2.3.4 10 3 81 + 20 3 3 4 3 24 2.3.5 2.3.6
54a 5 b 8
2.3.10
24x 3 2x 54x 12x 3 y + 10x 2 54x 3 y + 5y

3
2.3.11 3 18x 5 y 3 2x y 2.3.12

3
3x y 3
16x 5 y 3 2x y
3
2x 5
2.3.13 5
8x 3 2x
16x 3
2.3.14 3 40x 3 2x 3 40x + 2 10x 3 + 4x 3 5x 2.3.15

8x 3 + 12x 4 20x 5
80x y 7
2.3.16 5 40x 5 2 90x 5 + 3 10x 5 + 2.3.17 6

3
2.3.7
5 4
3
5 16
24x 3 2x
75 4
81x 3
2.3.18 4 20a 5 45a + 5a 2.3.19 5 3 a 3x 3 27a

ab 2 25a 2 b
2.3.8
32x 2
2.3.9 5 9ab 2 2 16a 2 b
2.3.20
6a + 3 24a 4 54a
68
Chapter 2
2.4
Multiplication of Radicals
n
Multiplication of radicals is based on the law

a
n
b=
ab
That is, radicals with same index can be multiplied into a single radical. For example,
5 3 = 53 = 15
In general, to perform the multiplication of radicals expressions: 1. Multiply their coefcients 2. Multiply the radicands under the radical sign with same index 3. Simplify the result 2.36 Example Multiply the following radicals: 1. (5 3) 2 6 2.
20 10
3 3
3. 3 2 4 6 4.
22 4
5. (2 5)2 6. 3 2 4 2 2 7. 3 2 4 8 3 3 8. 3 2 + 5 Solution: 1. (5 3) 2 6 = (5 2)( 3 6) = 10 2 9 = 30 2 2. 3. 3 2 4 6 = 12 2 6 = 12 12 = 12 3 4 = 24 3 4.

3
2 5
20 10 =
3
200 = 10 2
6. 3 2 4 2 2 = 12 2 2 6 2 = 24 6 2 8. Distribute: 3 2 + 5
5. (2 5)2 = 4 5 5 = 20
22 4 = 2 8 = 4
7. Distribute: 3 2 4 8 3 3 = 12 16 9 6 = 48 9 6
2 5 = 3 4 3 10 + 10 25 = 6 2 10 5 = 1 2 10
2.37 Example Multiply the radicals and simplify 1.

5a 5a
2. (2 5)2 3. (3 8)(2 2) 4. ( 7 2)( 7 3 2) 5. ( x + 5)( x 3) 6. (2 x)2 7. ( 3 + 2)( 3 2) 69
Multiplication of Radicals 8. ( a b)( a + b) 9. ( 5 2)2 10. (3 + 9 x 2 )2 Solution: 1. 2. (2 5)2 = 4 5 = 20

5a 5a = 5a
7. ( 3 + 2)( 3 2) = 3 4 = 1 9. ( 5 2)2 = ( 5)2 2 5 2 + ( 2)2 = 5 2 10 + 2 = 7 2 10 8. ( a b)( a + b) = a b
6. (2 x)2 = 4 4 x + x
5. ( x + 5)( x 3) = x 3 x + 5 x 15 = x + 2 x 15
4. ( 7 2)( 7 3 2) = 7( 7 3 2) 2( 7 3 2) = 7 3 14 14 + 3 2 = 13 4 14
3. (3 8)(2 2) = 6 16 = 24
10. (3 + 9 x 2 )2 = 9 + 6 9 x 2 + 9 x 2 = 18 x 2 + 6 9 x 2
70
Chapter 2
2.4.1 Homework: Multiplication of Radicals

Multiply and simplify the radical expressions. 2.4.1 (5 6)(2 3) 2.4.2 (4 5)(3 5) 2.4.3 2.4.4
3( 2 + 7) 3(4 6 12)
2.4.12 (1 + 6x )(1 6x ) 2.4.13 ( x 5)2 2.4.14 ( 3x + 2)( 3x 3) 2.4.15 ( x + 2y )( x 2y ) 2.4.16 ( 3a + 3b)( 3a 3b) 2.4.17 ( x 1)( x + 1) 2.4.18
a( 2a a)
2.4.5 5 2(2 12 4 27) 2.4.6 (2 6 5 5)(2 6 + 5) 2.4.7 ( 6 3)( 6 + 3) 2.4.8 ( 3x

7y)( 3x + 7y )
2.4.19 ( 3x + 3)2 2.4.20 ( 5x 2.4.21 (1 + 7)2 2.4.22 ( 4 x x)2

5y )2
2.4.9 (5 3 3)(2 3 9 + 3 18) 2.4.10 2.4.11

5a( 5a 5b) 2ab( 5bc )( 10ac )
71
Division of Radicals and Rationalization
2.5

n n
Division of radicals and simplifying radical denominators are based on the following facts: 1. The law of radical division is
a b
n
a b 3a 2 a 3 = 2 b4 b
n
For example,
27a 7 b 5 9a 5 b 9 = 27a 7 b 5 = 9a 5 b 9
2. The complement of the radical root n a m where m < n is the radical the radical root and its complement is given by
n
a nm . The multiplication of
a nm
am = a a a =a
3 7
The complement of The complement of The complement of

3 7
a is a is a 2 is
3
a . Their product is a2.

7
Their product is
a 5 . Their product is
a2
a2 = a
7
a5 = a
3. The binomials a b and a + b are called conjugate binomials. They have the interesting property
(a b)(a + b) = a 2 b 2
For example (2x 3)(2x + 3) = 4x 2 9. The product of conjugate binomials with square root radicals is an expression without any radical. For example, (b) ( 5 1)( 5 + 1) = 5 1 = 4 (c) ( x + 1)( x 1) = x 1 (a) (2 3)(2 + 3) = 22 ( 3)2 = 4 3 = 1
(d) ( 14 + 6)( 14 6) = 14 6 = 8
(e) (3 2 + 5)(3 2 5) = 18 5 = 13
In the the following subsection, we will simplify fractions containing radicals in the denominators.
2.5.1
Rationalizing Denominators
1. Denominators consisting of radical monomials such as

2 5 , 3 2x , 1
3
25
are simplied by multiplying and dividing the fraction by the complement of the radical. For example, we simplify the above radical fractions as follows (a) (b) (c)
2 5 3 2x 1
3
= = =
2 5
3 2x
5 5
2 5 25 =
3
2 5 5
2x 2x
3
6x 2x
3
1
3
25
25
5 5
125
5 5
2.38 Example Rationalize the following radical expressions and simplify (a)
2 2
72
Chapter 2 (b) (c) (d)

1 x 1 x 5 a b
Solution: (a) (b) (c) (d)

2 2 1 2 2 = 2 2 x = x x x 1 x 5 x 5 = x 5 x 5 x 5 a a b ab = = b b b b 2 x = 2
2. Denominators consisting of binomial with square root radicals such as

3 2 2 , 2 51 , 1 5x + 5 , 3x 3x 2x
are simplied by multiplying and dividing the fraction by the conjugate of the denominator. For example, we simplify the above radical fractions as follows (a) (b) (c) (d)
3 2 2 2 51 1 = = = 3 2+ 2 6+3 2 6+3 2 6+3 2 = = = 42 2 2 2 2 + 2 (2)2 ( 2)2 2 51 1 5+1 5+1 3x 3x 2x = 2( 5 + 1) = 51 = 5+1 2
5x + 5 3x
5x + 5 =
5x 5 5x 5
5x 5 5x 25 =
3x 2x
3x + 2x 3x + 2x
3x + 6x 2 3x + x 6 = = 3+ 6 3x 2x x
2.39 Example Rationalize the following radical expressions and simplify 1. 2. 3.

1 21 1 5+ 3 1+ x 1x
Solution: 1. 2.
1 21 = 1 21 2+1 2+1 = 2+1 = 21 2+1
1 1 = 5+ 3 5+ 3 1x 1 1x = 3. 1+ x 1+ x 1
5 3
5 3 5 3 = = 53 2 5 3 x (1 x)(1 x) = 1 x = 1x x
2.40 Example Rationalize and simplify the radicals 73

70 3 6 3
1.
2. 5 3 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
3 3 xy + 3 4x 11 20a 5 3
3
xy xy
9x a 1+ 1 a 1 70 3 6 3 3 3 3 210 3 6 3 3 3 = 5 3 6 3 = 5 32 3 = 3 3 3
Solution: 1.
70 3 = =
2. 5 3 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
3
= 5 3 3
3 3 = 3 = = 3 3 3 3 xy xy xy + = xy + xy xy 3 4x = 3 2 x x x = 3x 2x 5a 5a
3
xy xy
xy +
xy xy xy
= 2 xy
11 11 = 20a 5 2a 2 5a 3
3
55a 10a 3
3
9x
3
3
9x
3x 2 3x 2 =
3 3x 2
3
a 1+
1 a 1
27x 3 a 1 a 1 + 1 a 1
3x 2 x 1 a 1 = a 1+1 a 1 = a a 1 a 1 a 1 = a a 1 a 1
2.41 Example Rationalize and simplify the radicals 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1 2+1 x+ 2 x 2 12 62 3+ 6 3 6 m n m+ n 6 6
74
Chapter 2 Solution: 1. 2. 3.
1 2+1 = = 6 6 1 2+1 21 21 = 21 = 21 = 21
x+ 2 x 2 12
x+ 2 x 2 12
x+ 2 x+ 2 6+2 6+2
x + 2 2x + 2 x 2 6 6 6 6 = 12( 6 + 2) 6 6 = 6( 6 + 2) 6 = 5 6 + 12 64 6
3 + 6 3 + 6 9 + 6 6 + 6 3(5 + 2 6) = = 5+2 6 4. = = 96 3 3 6 3 6 3+ 6
3+ 6
62
62
5.
m n m+ n
m n m+ n
m n m n
m 2 mn + n m n
2.42 Example Simplify ( x 2)2 ( x 2)2 Solution:

( x 2)2 ( x 2)2 = x 2 x + 4 (x 2) = 6 2 x
75
2.5.2 Homework: Division of Radicals and Rationalization

Rationalize the denominator and simplify 2.5.1
1 2 3 3
2.5.11
2( 15 + 3) 5 3
2.5.12
x+
xy
2.5.2
2.5.13 2.5.3
2x 6x
2a 1
2a 1 5 2x 5
2.5.14 2.5.4
x+y 2 x+y
2.5.15 2.5.5
3 a +4 1 1+ 2 1 32 1 52 1 3+ 2 2 3 2+ 3 a +4 a +4
1
3
4 1
2.5.16
2.5.6
25t
3
2.5.7
2.5.17
25
100x 2
2.5.8
2.5.18
x 4
x 4 10
2.5.9
2.5.19
10 + 3 1 x 2 1 x +2
2.5.10
2.5.20
76
Chapter 2
2.6
Equations involving radicals

15 2x = x, 4x x + 3 = 0, 2x 1 3x 2 = 4,
3
10 Denition Equations involving at least one radical expression are referred as equations with radicals, such as
x2 + 2 = x + 2
Finding the solutions of equations with radicals is based on the power rule of equality If a = b, then a n = b n This means that if two expressions are equal, then their squares, cubes, and nth power are equal. However, the converse is not true. For example, squaring the trivial equation x = 5 is the equation x 2 = 25 which can be solved by factoring x 2 25 = (x 5)(x +5) = 0 which has two solutions x = 5 and x = 5. The rst solution x = 5 satises the original equation, but the second solution x = 5 does not satisfy the original equation and it is called extraneous solution. 2.43 Example Find the power of the radicals 1. ( 5)2 = 2. ( 3x)2 = 3. ( x + 7)2 = 4. ( 3 x + 7)3 = In this section, we will restrict ourselves to equations with square radicals.
2.6.1
Method of solving equations with radicals
1. Isolate one of the radicals on one side of the equation. 2. Square both sides. 3. Repeat rst step if needed. 4. Solve the resulting equation 5. Check the solution in the original equation 2.44 Example Solve the equation Solution:
4x 3 = 5 ( 4x 3)2 = 52
Square both sides of the equation
4x 3 = 25 x =7
4x = 28
Check
4(7) 3 =
28 3 = 5
2.45 Example Solve the equation Solution:
2x + 3 = 1 ( 2x + 3)2 = 12 2x + 3 = 1 x = 1 1=1
Square both sides of the equation
Check
2(1) + 3 =
77
Equations involving radicals 2.46 Example Solve the equation Solution:

2x + 3 = 7
Subtract 3 and square both sides of the equation

( 2x)2 = 42 x =8
2x = 16
Check 2.47 Example Solve the equation x = 15 2x Solution:
2(8) + 3 =
16 + 3 = 7
(x)2 = ( 15 2x)2 x 2 + 2x 15 = 0 x 2 = 15 2x
(x + 5)(x 3) = 0
x = 3,
x = 5
Check Check
x = 5 :
x =3: 5 =
3=
15 6 = 3
15 + 10 = 5 Extraneous solution.
4a + 5 2a + 13 = 0
Isolate one of the radicals and square both sides

4a + 5 2a + 13 = 0 4a + 5 = 4a + 5 = 2a + 13 a=4 2a = +8 2a + 13
2x + 1 x = 1
Isolate one of the radicals and square both sides

2x + 1 = 1 + x
( 2x + 1)2 = (1 + x)2 2x + 1 = 1 + x + 2 x x 2 = 4x x =2 x
x = 0,
x(x 4) = 0 x =4
x 2 4x = 0
Both are true solutions
5x 2 1 = 2x
78
Chapter 2 Solution:
( 5x 2 1)2 = (2x)2 5x 2 1 = 4x 2 x2 1 = 0
(x + 1)(x 1) = 0
x = 1,
x = 1
Check Check
x = 1 :
x =1:
51 = 2
5 1 = 2 = 2 Extraneous solution.
2.51 Example Solve the equation 2x 1 = x + 7 Solution:

4x 2 4x + 1 = x + 7 (4x + 3)(x 2) = 0 4x 2 5x 6 = 0 (2x 1)2 = ( x + 7)2
x = 2,
x = 3/4
Check Check
x = 3/4 :
x =2: 2
41 = 3 1 = 4
2+7 = 3 3 + 7 Left side is negative. Extraneous solution. 4
2.52 Example Solve the following equations 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

2a 3 4 = 1 5x 10 = x +2 4x x + 3 = 0 3x + 1 = 3 + x x + x +3 = 3
Solution: 1.
2a 3 4 = 1 Isolate the radical and square both sides ( 2a 3)2 = (5)2 2a 3 = 25 2a = 28 a = 14
Check 2.
5x 10 = x +2
a = 14 :
28 3 4 = 1
( 2a 3)2 = (5)2 4x = 12 x =3
5x 10 = x + 2
Check
x =3:
15 10 =
3+2
79
Equations involving radicals 3.

4x x + 3 = 0 ( 4x)2 = (x 3)2 x 2 10x + 9 = 0 4x = x 2 6x + 9
(x 1)(x 9) = 0
x = 1,
x =9
Check Check 4.
3x + 1 = 3 + x
x =1: x =9:
41+3 = 0 36 9 + 3 = 0
( 3x + 1)2 = (3 + x)2 3x + 1 = 9 + 6 x + x (x 4)2 = (3 x)2 2x 8 = 6 x
(x 1)(x 16) = 0
x 2 17x + 16 = 0
x 2 8x + 16 = 9x
x = 1,
x = 16
Check Check 5.
x + x +3 = 3
x =1:
3 + 1 = 3 + 1 Extraneous solution 48 + 1 = 3 + 16 = 7
x = 16 :
( x + 3)2 = (3 x)2 x +3 = 96 x +x 6 x =6 x =1 x =1
Check
x =1:
1+ 1+3 = 3
80
Chapter 2
2.6.2 Homework: Equations in Radicals

Solve the following equations in radicals and check your solution 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.6.4 2.6.5
x +7 = 3x + 6 = 4x + 1 4x + 1
2.6.11 2.6.12
x 2 + 5x + 10 = 2 x 2 + 4x + 16 = 2x + 15
2.6.13 4 n = n 5 2.6.14
3y + 4 = 4
x + 9 2x + 1 = 0 3x + 1 + 2x 1 = 0 3y + 4 = 4
2.6.15 x + 6 = x + 6 2.6.16 2.6.17 2.6.18 2.6.19 2.6.20

3
10 x x = 2 2a 7 = 3x 9 =
3
2.6.6 3 x + 2 = 18 2.6.7 4 n 6 = 0 2.6.8 2.6.9 2.6.10

2n 5 6 = 5 5x + 7 = 4x + 6
3a + 1 2 x 27
x + 3 2x 1 = 1 4x + 9 + x + 1 = 5x + 10
4x 2 2x 4 = 0
2.6.21 2 = x 4 x
81
Rational Exponents and Roots
2.7
Rational Exponents and Roots
It is known that simplifying radical expressions require many rules and tricks. Thus, can we nd an exponential representation of radicals since the rules of exponential expressions are familiar and they are easier to remember?. To answer this question, say for 6, let us assume that the square root 6 can be expressed exponentially say 6x that is 6 = 6x . Now, we need to nd is the actual value of x that satises this equation. Square both sides ( 6)2 = (6x )2 , and simplify to get 6 = 62x , the powers of 6 must be equal that is, 2x = 1 and hence x = 1 . 2 Inspired by the power rule of the nth root
( n a)n = a
and its corresponding exponential representation

(a x )n = a xn = a 1
The last equality is possible, if x =
1 , then we have n (a n )n = a n = a
1 n
Thus we have the exponential representations of the nth roots of 3:

32 = 3 = 3 = 3 = 3 =
1 n 1 5 1 4 1 3 3 4 1
3 3 3 3 3
5 n
In general, we can dene that any radical of order n for any positive real number a , can be expressed in exponential form
an = a
m n 1 n
a, a)m =
n
=(
am
2.53 Example Convert each exponential number to a radical and simplify

1. 161/2 2. 3. 4.
641/2 0.011/2 641/3
6. 322/5 7. 93/2 8. (25x 2 )1/2 9. (27x 3 )1/3 10. (8x 3 y 6 )1/3
9 5. ( )1/2 16
Solution:
1. 161/2 = 16 = 4 2. 3. 0.011/2 = 0.01 = 0.1
641/2 = 64 = 8
4. 641/3 = 5. (
64 = 4 3 9 = 16 4
9 1/2 ) = 16
82
Chapter 2
6. 322/5 = ( 5 32)2 = 22 = 4 7. 93/2 = ( 9)3 = 33 = 27 8. (25x 2 )1/2 = 25x 2 = 5x 9. (27x 3 )1/3 =
3
27x 3 = 3x
3
10. (8x 3 y 6 )1/3 =
8x 3 y 6 = 2x y 2
2.54 Example Change the radical notation of the expressions to exponential notation 1. 2.
3
7x y 4a 2 b
Solution: 1. 2.
3 6
7x y = (7x y)1/3 4a 2 b = (4a 2 b)1/6
Rational Exponents For a real number a 1/n , the fractional power

a n = (a n )m
m 1
indicates that the denominator is the index( order) of the root and numerator is its power, for example,
43/2 = (41/2 )3 = ( 4)3 = 23 = 8
Negative rational exponents The negative fractional exponents are dened as follows:
a m/n = 1 a m/n 1 (
3
For example
64
2 3
1 64
2 3
64)2
1 1 = 2 4 16
2.55 Example Evaluate the following

1. 32 5 2. 3.
3 92 3 25 2 4
5. (
1 8x 3
)4/3
6. 251/2 7. 163/2 8. (27a 3 )2/3
4. (27)2/3
Solution:
1. 32 5 = (32 5 )4 = 24 = 16 2.
3 92 3 25 2 1 = (9 2 4 1
)3 = 33 = 27 1 1 1 1 = = = 3= 3. 3 1 125 5 3 25 2 (25 2 ) 4. (27)2/3 = (271/3 )2 = 32 = 9 1 1 1 1 5. ( 3 )4/3 = (( 3 )1/3 )4 = ( )4 = 2x 8x 8x 16x 4

1/2
6. 251/2 = 7. 163/2 =
1 251/2 1 163/2
1 5
1 1 = 3= 64 4 1 (27a 3 )2/3 = 1 (3a)2 = 1 9a 2
8. (27a 3 )2/3 =
2.56 Example Simplify (16)1/2 Solution:
Use the power to power rule: (16)1/2
1/2
= (24 )1/2
1/2
= 24 2 2 = 2
1 1
83
Rational Exponents and Roots 2.57 Example Use rational exponents to simplify 1. 2.
6
(25x)3 16a 4 y 2
Solution: 1. 2.
6 4
(25x)3 = ((25x) 6 )3 = (25x)3/6 = (25x)1/2 = 16a 4 y 2 = (16a y )

4 2 1/4
= 16
1/4
(a )
4 1/4
(y )
2 1/4
= 2a y 1/2 = 2a y
25x = 5 x
2.58 Example Use rational exponents to express as a single radical 1. 2. 3. 4.

3 4 3
2 5
a
3
Solution: 1. 2. 3. 4.
3 3
4
4
2 = (21/2 )1/2 = 21/4 = 5 = (5 = a a

1 2 1 3
4 = 43 44 = 4
1/4 1/3
4+3 12
= 4 12 =
4
12
47
2
15
=5
1
1/15
1
a
3
= a 23 = a 6 =
2.59 Example Simplify the following fractional expressions 1. a 2 a 5 2. (7a 2 b 2 a 2 b 3 )0 3. (x 2 + y 2 )(x 2 y 2 ) Solution: 2. (7a 2 b 2 a 2 b 3 )0 = 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 2
1. a 2 a 5 = a 2 + 5 = a
1 3
5+4 10
= a 10
3. (x 2 + y 2 )(x 2 y 2 ) = x y
84
Chapter 2
2.7.1 Homework: Rational Exponents and Radicals

Evaluate the following expressions
1 2
2.7.11 (4a + 5b) 3 2.7.12 (x 2 + y 2 )1/2 Express in exponential form 2.7.13 4 3 x 2 + y 2 2.7.14
a 2 b2
6
2.7.1 (27) 3
1
2.7.2 (49) 2
2 2.7.3 (64) 3
2.7.4 (25) 2
3
2.7.15
6x 2 y 3
2.7.5 9 2
3
Simplify the expressions without negative exponents. Assume all variables are positive. 2.7.16 (27x 6 )1/3
1
2.7.6 (256) 4
2.7.17 (36x 4 y 6 )1/2 2.7.18 [(x + 64)4 ]1/4 2.7.19 62/3 61/3 2.7.20
44/3 41/3 42/3
2.7.7 (1000) 3
4 8 2.7.8 ( ) 3 27 1 321/5
2.7.9
Express in radical form

1 2.7.10 (3x) 4
2.7.21 (31/2 51/2 )(31/2 + 51/2 ) 2.7.22 (2x 3 )(x 2 )

1 1
85
Scientic Notation
2.8
Scientic Notation
Scientic notation are used by scientists to express very large numbers and very small numbers in a compact form. For example, the distance from earth to sun is about
93,000,000 miles.
The mass of the proton is about

0.000000000000000000000000000001672 kg (26 zeros).
The national public debt as of February 28, 2007 was about

8,776,000,000,000.0
and as of January 10, 2011 was about 14,021,000,000,000.0 dollars. Scientic notation Every decimal number q can be written in scientic notation as follows
q = a 10n ,
where 1 a < 10
and n
is an integer
How to Write a number q in scientic notation? 1. Move the decimal point to a place so it will be of the form 1 a < 10, that is the point should be after the st signicant digit from left. 2. n is the number of decimal places that the point was moved. 3. If the decimal point was moved to the left (q > 1) then n is positive and q = a 10n , for example
q = 309 = 3.09 102
4. If the decimal point was moved to the right (q < 1) then n is negative and q = a 10n , for example
q = 0.00309 = 3.09 103
Powers of 10: 1. 103 Thousandth, 102 Hundredth, 101 Tenth 2. 103 Thousand, 106 Million, 109 Billion, 1012 Trillion 2.60 Example Express the distance from earth to sun in scientic notation Solution:
93,000,000 = 9.3 107
2.61 Example Express the mass of the proton in scientic notation Solution:
0.000000000000000000000000000001672 = 1.672 1027
2.62 Example Write in scientic notation 1. 1991 2. 200900.0003 3. 0.010099100 4. 47.6 103 5. 0.063 102 Solution: 86
Chapter 2 1. 1991 = 1.991 103
5. 0.063 102 = 6.3 102 102 = 6.3 104 2.63 Example Convert to standard form: 1. 8.706 105 2. 1.1 103 Solution: (a) 8.706 105 = 870600 (b) 1.1 103 = 0.0011 2.64 Example Change to scientic notation and simplify
(1.8 103 )(8 102 ) . (3 105 )(4 102 ) (220,000)(0.000009) . 0.00033
4. 47.6 103 = 4.76 102 103 = 4.76 105
3. 0.010099100 = 1.00991 102
2. 200900.0003 = 2.009000003 105
2.66 Example A megabyte is 220 bites. (A gegabyte has 230 bites). How many bites in one megabyte and one gegabyte?. Express your answer in scientic notation.
2.8.1 Homework: Scientic Notation

Write in scientic notation 2.8.1 35,000,00 2.8.2 7803.021 2.8.3 0.00035 2.8.4 53,700 1000 Write in standard decimal notation 2.8.5 2.67 103 2.8.6 5.09 101 2.8.11
3
2.8.7 3.00601 104 2.8.8 3.77 107 Use scientic notation and simplify 2.8.9
0.000048 0.0012 (60,000,0)(0.0012) (0.036)(2,000,00) 27000 2
2.8.10
2.8.12 (125000) 3
87
Exercises
2.9
1. 2. 3. 4.
64 .49 (9)2 1 36 9u 2 16v 4
Exercises
2
Find the roots
22. (x 3 )6 23. (5a 3 b 2 c 3 )3

2
24. (43 x 6 ) 3 25. 26.

3
.008x 7 16 3 6 x y 5 10 2ac 4c
5. 6. 7. 8.
27.
25x 4 z 2
28.
4x 10 y 6 100a 2 9z 6 9 x2 121a 4 c 2 z 8 100x 4
3
29. (2 2 + 3)(3 2 4 3) 30.

2+ 5
9.
3 5 2 7 6
10.
31.
2 6+ 7
11.
12. 13. 14.
Solve the equation 32. 2x 1 = 2x 2 + 1 33. 2x 1 = 2x 2 + 1 34.

2x 2 4x + 5 = 3 8 = 3x + 1
216 a 12 b 3 56
35. 15. ( 16.

7
67)7 32x 5 a 4b8 16k 12 8a 6 27b 3
36. 6 y = y 37. 4x 2 + x 3 = 0 38. Multiply and simplify 39. Simplify 3x y 2 y 2 x 3 40. Simplify 7 8a 2 b Advanced Exercises Simplify 2 3 41. (1)3 + 12 42.
x2 x2 + ,x >0 16 9
3
17.
2x 2
4x
18.
Simplify
1 3
16a 2 b 5
36a 2 b 10
2a 2 b
19. x 0 x 4 x 4 20. (3a 3 )2 + (2a 2 )3 21. 3 2

62 8
88
Chapter 2
1
43. ( ) 4
1 1 ) 9 27
1 4
50. 66 + 66 + 66 + 66 + 66 + 66 51.
1530 4515 810 + 410 84 + 411
44. (
45. (41 31 )1 46. (31 21 )1 47.

x x x
52.
53. 44 94 49 99 54. Find m > 0: the points (m,2) and (1,m) lie on a line with slope m 55. Solve
x+ x2 1 + 1 x x2 1 = 20
48.
2 2
2 2
49. 55 + 55 + 55 + 55 + 55
2.10
Review Radicals and Exponents
1. Basic Denitions: A square, cube, nth root are denoted by

a = b,
3
a = c,
a=d
These radical numbers are the same as the rational exponents

a 1/2 = b, a 1/3 = c,
n 3
a 1/n = d
Also we have
a m/n = 84/3 = ( 8)4 = 24 = 16 a m = ( n a)m
If n is even, the radicand must be positive or zero. 2. Properties of Radicals:

n
a
n
b= a = b
ab 400 = 20 a b
10 40 =
n n 3
t2 t2 = 125 5
3. Rationalize the denominator: Use the property

a a=a
to eliminate radical from the denominator

4 3 = 4 3 3 3 = 4 3 3
4. Like Radicals: Have the same index and the same radicand
4 ab
and
7 ab but not 4 x
and
7 3 x
89
Review Radicals and Exponents 5. Adding and subtracting radicals: Combine like radicals
2 10 40 = 2 10 4 10 = 0
6. Multiplying radicals: Use distributive property

( x 1)( x + 5) = x + 4 x 5
7. Conjugate and rationalizing the denominator: Conjugate pairs by changing + to and vice versa:
x +3
and x 3
3 5 and 3 + 5
Multiply and divide by the conjugate of denominator

1 x +3 = 1 x +3 x 3 x 3 = x 3 x 9
8. Equations in radicals: Apply the power rule to transform the equation to an equivalent equation without radicals
2x = 3x
x = 0,
x(2 9x) = 0 x = 2/9
2x 9x 2 = 0
2x = 9x 2
90
Quadratic Equations and Inequalities
3.1
Complex Numbers
OBJECTIVES Imaginary numbers Arithmetic of complex numbers Powers of imaginary unit Complex numbers are introduced in connection with solving quadratic equations. For example, the equation x 2 = 1 has two solutions x = +1, x = 1, but the equation x 2 = 1 has no real solution because the square of any real number is positive number. To resolve this dilemma, Mathematicians invented a new notation just to handle the 1 in this type of equation. They called it imaginary numbers. The introduction of these numbers has long historical development starting with the works of Cardano (1501-1576) on cubic equations, Bombelli (1526-1572) on negative and complex numbers, and Descartes (1596-1650) who coined the name imaginary. Finally, the works of Euler (1707-1783) and Gauss (1777-1855) had established the rules of complex numbers and their interpretations. Currently, complex numbers and analysis are applied to model phenomena in physics, electronics, and computer science. 1 Denition The square root of negative one is denoted by the letter i (imaginary unit): i 2 = ( 1)2 = 1. That is, i = 1 and i 2 = 1
1 = i and
Using this denition, we will express the square root of any negative number in terms of this new notation:
a = 1 a = 1 a = i a = ai
For example, 1. 2. 3.
16 = 1 16 = 1 16 = i 4 = 4i
18 = i 18 = i 3 2 = 3 2 i 7 = 7i
4. 100 = 10i 3.1 Example Expression the following radicals in terms of i : 1.

81 98 16
2. 8 3.
Solution: 1.
81 = 1 81 = i 9 = 9i
2. 8 = i 8 = 2 2 i 3.
98 7 2 = i 16 4
91
Complex Numbers With the introduction of numbers involving the imaginary unit i , we dene a new type of numbers called complex numbers. 2 Denition A complex number is a number of the form a + bi , where a and b are real numbers and i = 1 is the imaginary unit. The number a is called the real part, and b is called the imaginary part of the complex number a + bi . For example, the real part of the complex number 3 + 2i 5 is 2 and the imaginary part is 2 5. In fact any real number x can be considered a complex number x + 0i and a complex number in the form bi is called pure imaginary, such as 3i . 3.2 Example Identify the real and imaginary part of the complex numbers: 1. 3 + 4i 2. 6 5i 3. 7 4. i 2 Solution: 1. Re(3 + 4i ) = 3, Im(3 + 4i ) = 4 3. Re(7) = 7, Im(7) = 0
2. Re(6 5i ) = 6, Im(6 5i ) = 5
4. Re(i 2) = 0, Im(i 2) = 2
The product rule of square radicals is valid for positive numbers only. For example,
6 10 = 6 10 = 60 = 4 15 = 2 15 9=3
but it is not true that

3 3 = (3) (3) =
The previous multiplication is false. The correct multiplication is

3 3 = i 3 i 3 = i 2 9 = 3
3.3 Example Multiply or divide the radicals and simplify 1. 2. 3. 4.

5 6 3 6 72 2 20 5
Solution: 1. 2. 3. 4.
5 6 = i 5 6 = i 30 3 6 = i 3 i 6 = i 18 = 3i 2 72 20 5 2 = = i 72 i 2 i 20 5 = =i 72 = 2 36 = 6
20 = i 4 = 2i 5
92
Chapter 3 3 Denition Two complex numbers a + bi and c + d i are equal if and only if a = c and b = d . For example
(3 2) + i 9 is equal to 3i + 1
To solve linear equations involving complex numbers: Equate real and imaginary parts:
3.4 Example Find the values x and y so the complex numbers (x 2) + 2yi and 8 5i are equal. Solution: and 2y = 5 hence y = Apply the equality denition: (x 2) + 2yi = 8 5i , this leads to x 2 = 8 hence x = 10
5 2
3.5 Example Solve 3y + 2 21i = 8 + 7xi Solution: Real and imaginary parts are equal, that is: 3y + 2 = 8, y = 2 and 7x = 21, x = 3
4 Denition The form a + bi is called in the standard form of a complex number. For example, the following complex numbers are the same number. The last form is the standard form: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
5 + 3i 8 3i + 5 8 3i 5 + 8 8 5 3i + 8 8 5 3 + i 8 8
3.1.1 Fundamental Operations with Complex Numbers

Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers 3.6 Example Simplify the expressions 1. (2 + 7x) + (5 4x) 2. (3 5x) (9 8x) Solution: Combine like terms 1. (2 + 7x) + (5 4x) = 2 + 7x + 5 4x = 7 + 3x
2. (3 5x) (9 8x) = 3 5x 9 + 8x = 6 + 3x The sum and difference of complex numbers is performed by combining like terms: 3.7 Example Simplify the expressions 1. (2 + 7i ) + (5 4i ) 2. (3 5i ) (9 8i ) Solution: Combine like terms 1. (2 + 7i ) + (5 4i ) = 2 + 7i + 5 4i = 7 + 3i
2. (3 5i ) (9 8i ) = 3 5i 9 + 8i = 6 + 3i 93
Complex Numbers 5 Denition The addition and subtraction of complex numbers is dened by combining real parts and imaginary parts, as follows:
(a + bi ) + (c + d i ) = (a + c) + (b + d )i (a + bi ) (c + d i ) = (a c) + (b d )i
For any real numbers: a,b,c,d . 3.8 Example Find the sum or the difference: 1. (5 + 3i ) + (3 + i ) 2. (4 + i ) 2(6 2i ) 3. (8 + 4i ) + (12 + 8i ) 4. (6 + i ) (3 + 2i ) Solution: 1. (5 + 3i ) + (3 + i ) = 5 + 3 + 3i + i = 8 + 4i
2. (4 + i ) 2(6 2i ) = 4 + i 12 + 4i = 16 + 5i 3. (8 + 4i ) + (12 + 8i ) = 8 + 12 + (4 + 8)i = 20 + 12i 4. (6 + i ) (3 + 2i ) = (6 3) + (1 2)i = 9 i
Multiplication of Complex Numbers The product of two complex numbers involves the application of three rules: 1. Distributive property 2. Combining like terms 3. Substituting i 2 = 1 3.9 Example Evaluate 1. 5(3 2i ) 2. (3i )(2 + 7i ) 3. (4i )(1 7i ) 4. (2 + 3i )(4 + 5i ) Solution: 2. (3i )(2 + 7i ) = 6i + 21i 2 = 6i + 21(1) = 21 + 6i 1. 5(3 2i ) = 5 3 5 2i = 15 10i
4. (2 + 3i )(4 + 5i ) = 2(4 + 5i ) + 3i (4 + 5i ) = 8 + 10i + 12i + 15i 2 = 8 + 22i 15 = 7 + 22i 3.10 Example Multiply the complex numbers 1. (2 + i )(5 + 6i ) 2. (2 + 3i )(3 2i ) 3. (3 + 5i )2 Solution: 94
3. (4i )(1 7i ) = 4i + 28i 2 = 4i + 28(1) = 28 4i
Chapter 3 1. (2 + i )(5 + 6i ) = 2(5 + 6i ) + i (5 + 6i ) = 10 + 12i + 5i + 6i 2 = 10 + 17i 6 = 4 + 17i 3. (3 + 5i )2 = 32 + 2(3)(5i ) + (5i )2 = 9 + 30i 25 = 16 + 30i
2. (2 + 3i )(3 2i ) = 2(3 2i ) + 3i (3 2i ) = 6 4i + 9i 6i 2 = 6 5i + 6 = 12 5i
6 Denition The multiplication of two complex numbers is dened as follows

(a + bi )(c + d i ) = (ac bd ) + (ad + bc)i
For any real numbers: a,b,c,d . 3.11 Example Multiply (4 + 2i )(2 + i )

2i (4+2i )(2+i ) = (8i +4i 2)(2+i ) = (48i )(2+i ) = 4(2+i )8i (2+i ) = 84i 16i 8i 2 = 8 20i + 8 = 20i
Solution:
Complex Conjugate 7 Denition The complex numbers a + bi and a bi are called complex conjugates. For example,the pairs 3 + 4i , 3 4i and 5 7i , 5 + 7i are complex conjugates. The product of complex conjugates is always positive real number:
(a + bi )(a bi ) = a 2 (bi )2 = a2 + b2
= a 2 b 2 (1)
For example (2 3i )(2 + 3i ) = (2)2 (3i )2 = 4 9i 2 = 4 9(1) = 4 + 9 = 13 3.12 Example Evaluate 1. (3 + i )(3 i ) 2. (1 i )(1 + i ) 3. (3 + 5i )(3 5i ) Solution: 1. (3 + i )(3 i ) = 3(3 i ) + i (3 i ) = 9 3i + 3i i 2 = 9 + 1 = 10 2. (1 i )(1 + i ) = 12 + 12 = 2 3. (3 + 5i )(3 5i ) = 32 + 52 = 9 + 25 = 34
Division of Complex Numbers The division of complex numbers is accomplished by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator, then simplify and express the result in standard form. that is
a + bi c d i (ac + bd ) + (bc ad )i (ac + bd ) (bc ad ) a + bi = = = 2 + 2 i c +di c +di c di c2 + d 2 c +d2 c +d2
3.13 Example Evaluate and write the answer in standard form 1. 2.

3 + 5i 8 7 5i
95
Complex Numbers 3.
2 6i 3i 3i 1 3i 2 3i 5 + 4i
4.
5.
Solution: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
3 + 5i 3 5 = + i 8 8 8 7 7 i 7i 7 = = = i 5i 5i i 5i 2 5 2 6i 2 6i i 2i 6i 2 2i + 6 2 = = = = 2 + i 3i 3i i 3 3 3i 2 3i 1 + 3i 3i + 9i 2 3i 9 9 3 3i = = = = + i 1 3i 1 3i 1 + 3i 1+9 10 10 10 2 3i 2 3i 5 4i 10 8i 15i + 12i 2 10 23i 12 2 23i 2 23 = = = = i = 5 + 4i 5 + 4i 5 4i 25 + 16 41 41 41 52 + 42
3.14 Example Evaluate and write the answer in standard form 1.

2 3i 1 2i 1 3+i 7 2i 3i 2+i
2.
3.
4.
Solution: 1. 2. 3. 4.
2 3i 2 3i 1 + 2i (2 3i )(1 + 2i ) 2 4i 3i 6i 2 2 7i + 6 4 7i 4 7 = = = = = = i 1 2i 1 2i 1 + 2i 12 (2i )2 1 4i 2 1+4 5 5 5 1 1 3i 3i 3 1 = = = i 3 + i 3 + i 3 i 9 + 1 10 10 7 i 7i 7 7 = = = i 2i 2i i 2 2 3 i 3 i 2 i 6 3i 2i + i 2 5 5i = = = = 1i 2+i 2+i 2i 4+1 5
Powers of i 96
Chapter 3 The powers of i have the following pattern

i1 = i i 2 = 1
i 4 = i 2 i 2 = 1 (1) = 1 i 6 = i 4 i 2 = 1 (1) = 1 i8 = i4 i4 = 11 = 1 i 7 = i 4 i 3 = 1 (i ) = i i5 = i4 i = i
i 3 = i 2 i = i
i 4k+1 = i
i 4k = 1
i 4k+2 = 1 i 4k+3 = i
3.15 Example Simplify 1. i 44 2. i 55 3. i 102 4. i 2010 Solution: 1. 2. 3. 4.

i i
44 55
Express the powers as a multiple of 4 and a remainder:

4(11) 4(13)+3
=i
i 102 = i 4(25)+2 = 1
=i
=1
= i
i 2010 = i 4(502)+2 = 1
3.16 Example Simplify 1. ( 2. 3.

1+i 2 )2
5 + 2 1 2 3 6i 3 2i
4. (1 + i + i 2 )3 5. (1 i + i 2 + i 3 )2 Solution: 1. ( 2.
2 5 + 2 1+i )2 = (1 + i )2 1 + 2i + i 2 = =i 2 2
5 + i 2 1 + i 2 5 + 5 2i + 2i 2 3 + 6 2i = = 1 + 2 2i = 1+2 3 1 2 1 i 2 1 + i 2 3 6i 3 6i 3 + 2i 3 + 2 3i 6 3i 12i 2 15 4 3i 15 4 3 3. = = = = i 3+4 7 7 7 3 2i 3 2i 3 + 2i 4. (1 + i + i 2 )3 = (1 + i 1)3 = i 3 = i =
5. (1 i + i 2 + i 3 )2 = (1 i 1 i )2 = (2i )2 = (2)2 i 2 = 4(1) = 4
97
Complex Numbers
3.1.2 Homework: Complex Numbers

Simplify the radical expressions 3.1.1 3.1.2
48 20
3.1.13 (2 i )(2 + i ) 3.1.14 (3 + 4i )(3 4i ) 3.1.15 (2 3i )2 3.1.16

5 i 3 2i 2+i 3i 10 1 2i 20i 3 + 4i 7 3 + 2i 3i 3 5i
3.1.3 1000 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.1.6

64 22 6 16
3.1.17
3.1.18
Perform the operations and write in standard form

a + bi
3.1.19
3.1.7 (2 + 3i ) + (7 + 5i ) 3.1.8 (5 + 4i ) (3 2i ) 3.1.9 (12 22i ) (5 6i ) 3.1.10 (3 + 5i ) + (5 7i ) (3 + 2i ) 3.1.11 (4 + 3i )(5 7i ) 3.1.12 (6i )(3 + 2i )
3.1.20
3.1.21
3.1.22
3.1.23 i 20 3.1.24 i 33
98
Chapter 3
3.2
Quadratic Equations
OBJECTIVES Factoring method to solve quadratic equations The square root method In this chapter, we will introduce various techniques to solve quadratic equations in one variable. 8 Denition A quadratic equation is an equation of the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where a = 0,b,c are real numbers. Such as 3x 2 12 = 0 and x 2 5x + 6 = 0.
3.2.1 Solving equations by factoring

The basic principle for solving factored equations is the zero-factor property: If
a b = 0,
then
a=0
or
b=0
That is, if the product of factors is zero, then at least one of them is zero. For example if 3(x 5) = 0, then one factor is zero: x 5 = 0, x = 5. The factored equation: (x +3)(x 4) = 0 is satised for x +3 = 0, x = 3 and x 4 = 0, x = 4. To solve equations by factoring, we apply the following procedure: 1. Get zero on one side and all terms on one the other side of the equation. 2. Factor the expression into linear factors. 3. Set each factor to zero and solve the simpler equations. 3.17 Example Solve the quadratic equation x 2 2x = 3 Solution:
x 2 2x 3 = 3 3 x 2x 3 = 0 x + 1 = 0,
2
Subtract 3 from both sides
Factor (x + 1)(x 3) = 0, Set each factor to zero

x = 1, x 3 = 0, x =3
The solutions are x = 1 and x = 3. 3.18 Example Solve the equation x 2 4 = 0 Solution:
x2 4 = 0
Factor
x 2 = 0 x =2
(x + 2)(x 2) = 0 x + 2 = 0, x = 2,
3.19 Example Solve the equation x 2 + 3x 18 = 0 Solution:

x 2 + 3x 18 = 0 x + 6 = 0,
Factor
x 3 = 0, x =3
(x + 6)(x 3) = 0 x = 6,
99
Quadratic Equations 3.20 Example Solve the quadratic equations by factoring 1. 4(x 5)(2x 7) = 0 2. x 2 + 12 = 7x 3. 6x 2 7x = 3 Solution: 1. 4(x 5)(2x 7) = 0
4(x 5)(2x 7) = 0, x 5 = 0, x = 5,
Set each factor to zero

2x 7 = 0, x = 7/2
2. x 2 + 12 = 7x
x 2 + 12 7x = 7x 7x (x 4)(x 3) = 0 x 4 = 0, x = 4, x 2 7x + 12 = 0
x 3 = 0, x =3
3. 6x 2 7x = 3
6x 2 7x 3 = 3 3 (2x 3)(3x + 1) = 0 2x 3 = 0, x = 3/2, 6x 2 7x 3 = 0
3x + 1 = 0, x = 1/3
3.21 Example Solve the quadratic equation (2x + 3)(x + 1) = 1 Solution: Distribute left side and combined with 1:
(2x + 3)(x + 1) = 1
2x + 2x + 3x + 3 = 1
2x 2 + 5x + 3 1 = 1 1 (2x + 1)(x + 2) = 0 2x + 1 = 0, x = 1/2, 2x 2 + 5x + 2 = 0
x + 2 = 0, x = 2
3.22 Example Solve the cubic equation 5x 3 20x = 0 Solution: Factor the expression and use the zero factor property:
5x 3 20x = 0
5x = 0,
5x(x 2)(x + 2) = 0 x 2 = 0, x = 2,
5x(x 2 4) = 0
x = 0,
x = 2
x + 2 = 0,
100
Chapter 3
3.2.2 The square root property

Many quadratic equations cannot be factored over integer coefcients such as the equation 2x 2 +4x+1 = 0 and x 2 10 = 0. To resolve such difculty, we introduce a new method of solving quadratic equations based on the square root property: if x 2 = c, if (x a)2 = c, For any real numbers a,c .
You may ask, The square root of any number is positive (we called it the principal root) so why we have two of them? Let me show why there is no inconsistency here.
x 2 = c, |x| = + c, c, x2 = c,
then x = + c, then x = a + c,
or or
x = c x=a c
Take the square root of both sides Apply the denition of the square root Both sides are positive. Solve the absolute value equation Two solutions
x=
x = c,
There is a standard notation to combine these two solutions:

x = + c,
or
x = c :
x = c = c
3.23 Example Solve the quadratic equations by the square root method 1. x 2 = 25 2. y 2 = 81 3. x 2 + 16 = 0 4. (x + 3)2 = 16 5. (2x + 3)2 = 49 Solution: 1. x = 5
3. x 2 = 16, x = 16 = 4i 4.
(x + 3)2 = 16,
2. y = 9
Take the the square root Solve for x Separate the solutions
x + 3 = 4,
x = 3 + 4, x = 1,
x = 3 4,
x = 7
x = 3 4
5. (2x + 3)2 = 49
(2x + 3)2 = 49, 2x + 3 = 7,
Take the the square root Solve for x Separate the solutions
2x = 3 + 7,
2x = 3 7,
x = 2,
2x = 3 7 x = 5
3.24 Example Solve the quadratic equations by the square root method 101
Quadratic Equations 1. x 2 = 15 2. 2y 2 = 36 3. x 2 + 8 = 0 4. 3(x + 2)2 = 18 5. (2x + 6)2 + 4 = 0 6. 9(x 4)2 11 = 0 Solution: 1. x = 15 2.

2y 2 = 36 y 2 = 18 y = 18 y = 3 2
3.
x2 + 8 = 0
x 2 = 8 x = 8 x = 2 2i
4.
3(x + 2)2 = 18 (x + 2)2 = 6 x +2 = 6 x = 2 6
5.
(2x + 6)2 + 4 = 0
(2x + 6)2 = 4 2x + 6 = 4 x = 3 i 2x = 6 2i
6.
9(x 4)2 11 = 0 (x 4)2 =
11 9
x 4 =
11 3 11 x = 4 3
102
Chapter 3
3.2.3 Homework: Factoring and Square Root Method

Solve the following equations by factoring 3.2.1 x 2 + x 20 = 0 3.2.2 12x 2 + 16x 3 = 0 3.2.3 x 2 + 4kx = 0 3.2.4 x 2 25x = 0 3.2.5 2x 2 3x = 9 3.2.6 10x 2 7x + 1 = 0 3.2.7 20 x = 12x 2 3.2.8 2x 3 50x = 0 3.2.9
x 3 4x 2 + 3x = 0
3.2.11 x 2 = 44 3.2.12 12x 2 = 20 3.2.13 (2 3x)2 = 16 3.2.14 5x 2 + 20 = 0 3.2.15 5(2x + 1)2 25 = 0 3.2.16 4x 2 8 = 0 3.2.17 x 2 + 12 = 0 3.2.18 5(x 1)2 = 45 3.2.19 4(x + 3)2 + 4 = 0 3.2.20 18x 2 3 = 0 3.2.21 In isosceles right triangle (a = b ), nd the hypotenuse c if b = 8 3.2.22 In a right triangle , nd the side a if the hypotenuse c = 10 and b = 4
Solve the following equations by the Square Root Method 3.2.10 x 2 = 36
103
Completing the square method
3.3
Completing the square method

x 2 + 2ax + a 2 = (x + a)2 x 2 2ax + a 2 = (x a)2
Perfect quadratic trinomials can be written as squared quantity. These trinomials are recognizable from the two special products:
For example,
x 2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3)2
1 1 = (x + )2 4 2 x 2 14x + 49 = (x 7)2 x2 + x +
x 2 + 10x + 25 = (x + 5)2
x 2 6x + 9 = (x 3)2
The last term in the trinomial is a positive number and it is equal to the square of half the coefcient of x . Thus, if the perfect trinomial is x 2 + p x + q = 0 then
q =( p 2 1 2 ) = P . 2 4
For the previous examples,

1 36 6 =9 9 = ( )2 = 62 = 2 4 4 6 2 9=( ) 2 10 25 = ( )2 2 1 1 2 =( ) 4 2 14 2 49 = ( ) 2
3.25 Example Identify the coefcient of x and nd half of the coefcient of x and calculate its square: 1. x 2 12x + 8 = 0 2. x 2 + 7x + 12 = 0 3. x 2 1 x = 10 2 4. x 2 + 3 x = 2 5 Solution: Let b be the coefcient of x , one half of it be
1 b= 2
12 2
b b2 1 b , its square be ( )2 = 2 2 4
1. x 2 12x + 8 = 0: b = 12, its half,

1 3. x 2 1 x = 10: b = 2 , its half, 2 3 4. x 2 + 3 x = 2: b = 5 , its half, 5 1 2 1 2 3 5
= 6, its square (6)2 = 36

49 4 1 16
7 7 2. x 2 + 7x + 12 = 0: b = 7, its half, 2 , its square ( 2 )2 = 3 10 ,
1 1 = 4 , its square ( 1 )2 = 2 4 3 9 its square ( 10 )2 = 100
3.26 Example Add a third term to the binomial, so the resulting trinomial is a perfect square: 104
Chapter 3 1. x 2 12x 2. x 2 + 30x

2 3. x 2 3 x
4. x 2 + x Solution: The third term must be the square of one-half the coefcient of b :
1 2 1 2
1. x 2 12x + 2. x 2 + 30x + 4. 3. x 2 2 x + 3
(12) (30)
= x 2 12x + 36 = (x 6)2
1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 ( 3 ) = x 3 x + 9 = (x 3 ) 1 x 2 + x + ( 2 )2 = x 2 + x + 1 = (x + 1 )2 4 2
= x 2 + 30x + 225 = (x + 15)2
Quadratic equations that are not perfect squares can be made perfect by adding a suitable positive number to both sides of the equation. The process of solving quadratic equations by completing the square consists of the following steps: The method of completing the square Any quadratic equations of the form can be solved by the method of completing the square.
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
1. Terms involving the variable (x ) should be on one side (left side) and the constant on the other side (right). 2. The coefcient of x 2 should be 1, divide both sides by a . 3. Completing the square: Add to both sides the square of one-half the coefcient of x . 4. Write the perfect trinomial (left side) as a squared quantity, and write the right side as one number if possible. 5. Apply the square root method and solve for x . 3.27 Example Solve x 2 + 8x + 7 = 0 by completing the square method Solution:
x 2 + 8x + (8/2)2 = 7 + (8/2)2 , x + 8x + 16 = 7 + 16 x + 4 = 3, (x + 4)2 = 9,
2
x 2 + 8x = 7,
Prepare the equation Add the missing constant
Apply the square root method
x = 1,
x + 4 = 3 x = 7
3.28 Example Solve the quadratic equation x 2 6x + 4 = 0 by completing the square Solution:
x 2 6x + 4 = 0 x 2 6x = 4,
x 2 6x + 9 = 9 4 (x 3)2 = 5 x 3 = 5 x = 3 5
-6, -3, (3)2 = 9, Add 9
105
Completing the square method 3.29 Example Solve 4x 2 8x 3 = 0 by completing the square Solution:
4x 2 8x = +3,
Divide by 4
3 x 2 2x = , Prepare the equation 4 3 Add the missing constant x 2 2x + (1)2 = + (1)2 , 4 3 x 2 2x + 1 = + 1 4 7 2 (x 1) = , Apply the square root method 4 7 7 , x 1 = x 1 = 2 2 7 7 , x = 1 x = 1+ 2 2
3.30 Example Solve the quadratic equation 2x 2 + 4x + 1 = 0 by completing the square Solution:
2x 2 + 4x = 1 x 2 + 2x = 1
1 2 1 2 2 x + 2x + (1) = + (1)2 2 1 2 x + 2x + 1 = + 1 2 1 2 (x + 1) = 2 1 x +1 = 2 1 2 x = 1 = 1 2 2
3.31 Example Solve the quadratic equation x 2 + 18x = 19 by completing the square Solution:
x 2 + 18x = 19
x 2 + 18x + (9)2 = 19 + (9)2 x 2 + 18x + 81 = 19 + 81 x + 9 = 10, (x + 9)2 = 100
x = 1,
x + 9 = 10 x = 19
3.32 Example Solve 6x 2 + 5x 6 = 0 106
Chapter 3 Solution:
6x 2 + 5x = 6
5 x2 + x = 1 6 5 1 5 2 1 5 2 x + x + ( ) = 1 + ( )2 6 2 6 2 6 5 2 144 + 25 169 ) = = (x + 12 144 144 13 5 = x+ 12 12 2 3 x = , x = 3 2
3.33 Example Solve the quadratic equations by completing the square 1. x 2 x = 1 2. 2u 2 + 9u + 9 = 0 3. 2y 2 7y + 8 = 0 Solution: 1. x 2 x = 1
x2 x = 1
x2 x +
1 1 = 1+ 4 4 1 2 5 (x ) = 2 4 1 5 x = 2 2 1 5 x= 2 2
2. 2u 2 + 9u + 9 = 0
2u 2 + 9u = 9
9 9 u2 + u = 2 2 9 81 9 81 2 u + u+ = + 2 16 2 16 9 9 2 (u + ) = 4 16 9 9 u+ = 4 4 9 u = , u = 3 2
107
Completing the square method 3. 2y 2 7y + 8 = 0

7 y = 4 2 49 49 7 = 4 + y2 y + 2 16 16 15 7 (y )2 = 4 16 7 15 y = i 4 4 7 15 y= i 4 4 y2 2y 2 7y = 8
108
Chapter 3
3.3.1 Homework: Completing the Square Method

Solve the equations by completing the square 3.3.1 x 2 3x 18 = 0 3.3.2 3n 2 14n 5 = 0 3.3.3 x 2 4x 1 = 0 3.3.4 x 2 8x = 8 3.3.5
x 2 4 = x
3.3.10 x 2 + 6x 7 = 0 3.3.11 (3x 2)(2x + 9) = 0 3.3.12 (x + 5)2 = 18 3.3.13 2n 2 + 4n 3 = 0 3.3.14 x 2 7 = 2x 3.3.15 4x 2 + 4x = 1 3.3.16 x 2 + 8x + 10 = 0 3.3.17 3x 2 + 6x + 2 = 0 3.3.18 x 2 5x 5 = 0
3.3.6 3x 2 9x = 6 3.3.7 y 2 8y = 17 3.3.8 n 2 + 2n + 12 = 0 3.3.9 x 2 7x 1 = 0
109
The Quadratic Formula
3.4
The quadratic formula is the short cut for completing the square method of a general quadratic equation. The derivation of quadratic formula for solving quadratic equation in standard form
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
is parallel to solving by completing the square: 1. Divide both sides by a 2. Separate the variables from constants 3. Complete the square Identify rule that has bee applied to the equation in each step:
bx c 0 + = , Divide by a a a a bx c x2 + = , Constant on right side a a b 2 b 2 c bx +( ) =( ) , Add the missing constant to both sides x2 + a 2a 2a a b2 c bx b2 , x2 + +( 2 ) = Common denominator is 4a 2 a 4a 4a 2 a b 2 b 2 4ac , Apply the square root ) = (x + 2a 4a 2 b 2 4ac b x+ = 2a 4a 2 x2 + b 2 4ac b , 2a 2a b b 2 4ac , x= 2a x =
Combine as one fraction The quadratic formula
The most famous quadratic formula is

x= b b 2 4ac 2a
it says, give the coefcients of a quadratic equation in standard form, and I give you the solution by just an arithmetic operations. 3.34 Example Solve the quadratic equation x 2 + x 1 = 0 by use of the quadratic formula Solution: The equation is in standard form, so the coefcients are a = 1,b = 1,c = 1, substitute in the quadratic formula
x= x= 1 (1)2 4(1)(1) 2(1)
1 1 + 4 2 1 5 x= 2
3.35 Example Solve the quadratic equation x 2 2x 3 = 0 by using the quadratic formula 110
Chapter 3 Solution: The equation is in standard form, so the coefcients are a = 1,b = 2,c = 3, substitute in the quadratic formula
x= x= (2) (2)2 4(1)(3) 2(1)
2 4 + 12 2 2 16 x= 2 24 x= 2 2+4 24 x= , = 2 2 x = 3, x = 1
3.36 Example Solve the quadratic equation x 2 12x + 36 = 0 by using the quadratic formula Solution: The equation is in standard form, so the coefcients are a = 1,b = 12,c = 36, substitute in the quadratic formula
x= x= (12) (12)2 4(1)(36) 2(1)
12 144 144 2 12 0 x= 2 12 0 x= 2 x =6
3.37 Example Solve the quadratic equation 3x 2 + x 10 = 0 by use of the quadratic formula Solution: The equation is in standard form, so the coefcients are a = 3,b = 1,c = 10, substitute in the quadratic formula
x= x= 1 (1)2 4(3)(10) 2(3)
x=
1 + 11 , 6 5 x= , 3
1 1 + 120 6 1 121 x= 6 1 11 x= 6 1 11 = 6 x = 2
3.38 Example Solve the quadratic equation x 2 + 30 = 11x by use of the quadratic formula Solution: Write the equation in standard form that is x 2 11x + 30 = 0, the coefcients are 111

a = 1,b = 11,c = 30, substitute in the quadratic formula x= x= 11 (11)2 4(1)(30) 2(1)
x=
11 + 1 , 2 x = 6,
11 121 120 2 11 1 x= 2 11 1 x= 2 11 1 = 2 x =5
3.39 Example Solve x 2 + 2x + 9 = 0 by use of the quadratic formula Solution: We have a = 1,b = 2,c = 9, substitute in the quadratic formula
x= x= 2 (2)2 4(1)(9) 2(1)
2 4 36 2 2 32 x= 2 2 4 2i x= 2 2 4 2i x= 2 2 x = 1 2 2i
3.40 Example Solve 6x 2 x 5 = 0 by using quadratic formula Solution: We have a = 6,b = 1,c = 5, substitute in the quadratic formula
x= x= (1) (1)2 4(6)(5) 2(12)
x=
1 + 11 , 24 1 x= , 2
+1 1 + 120 24 1 121 x= 24 1 11 x= 24 1 11 = 24 5 x = 12
3.41 Example Solve x 2
5 11 = x 3 6
Solution: It is easy to rewrite the equation without fractions by multiplying both sides by 6, then substitute in the quadratic formula 112
Chapter 3
11 5 = x, Rewrite in standard form 3 6 11 5 x2 + x = 0, Multiply both sides by 6 6 3 6x 2 + 11x 10 = 0, The coefcients a=6, b=11, c=-10 x2 x= x= (11) (11)2 4(6)(10) 2(6)
x=
11 + 19 , 12 2 x= , 3
11 121 + 240 12 11 361 x= 12 11 19 x= 12 11 19 = 12 5 x = 2
3.42 Example Solve 2x 2 = 4x 1 by using quadratic formula Solution: Rewrite in standard form 2x 2 + 4x + 1 = 0, so that a = 2,b = 4,c = 1, substitute in the quadratic formula
x= x= (4) (4)2 4(2)(1) 2(2)
4 16 8 4 4 8 x= 4 4 2 2 x= 4 2 2 x= 2
3.43 Example Use quadratic equations to solve 1. 2x 2 + 4x 3 = 0 2. 3y 2 + 7y 6 = 0 3. 5x 2 9x + 3 = 0 4. 11s 2 7s + 1 = 0 Solution: 1. 2x 2 + 4x 3 = 0, Multiply by 1 to get 2x 2 4x + 3 = 0, the solution is x = 2. 3y 2 + 7y 6 = 0, the solution is x = 3. 5x 2 9x + 3 = 0, the solution is x =
4 16 24 2i = 1 4 2
7 49 + 72 7 + 121 = , x = 3, x = 2/3 6 6 9 81 60 9 + 21 = 10 10 7 49 44 7 + 5 = 22 22
4. 11s 2 7s + 1 = 0, the solution is x =
113
The Quadratic Formula 3.44 Example Find two consecutive positive integers whose product is 240. Solution: Assume the rst number is x , so the next number must be x + 1. These two numbers satisfy the equation x(x + 1) = 240. Put in standard form x 2 + x 240 = 0, solve by factoring (x 16)(x + 15) = 0. The pair of solutions are: 15,16. 3.45 Example The sum of a number and its reciprocal is Solution:
25 . Find the number. 12 1 25 = , this fractional equation x 12
Assume the number is x , it satises the equation x+
is equivalent to 12x 2 25x + 12 = 0, by quadratic formula x = 3/4.
114
Chapter 3
3.4.1 Homework: Quadratic Formula

Solve the equations by the quadratic formula. Identify the coefcients a,b,c . 3.4.1 4x 2 4x + 1 = 0 3.4.2 3x 2 = 4x + 2 3.4.3 a 2 6a = 3 3.4.4 x 2 16x + 60 = 0 3.4.5 2x 2 x 4 = 0 3.4.6 5n 2 + 3n 5 = 0 3.4.7 4x 2 x = 4 3.4.8 5x 2 = 3 3.4.9 x 2 + 5x 3 = 0 3.4.10 3x 2 4x 3 = 0 3.4.11 7x 2 4x 20 = 0 3.4.12 x 2 + 2 = 8x 3.4.13 x 2 = 4 12x 3.4.14 2x 2 = 4x 1 3.4.15 13x 2 4x = 4 3.4.16 x 2 + x + 1 = 0 3.4.17 x 2 + 4 = x + 2 3.4.18 x 2 5x + 4 = 5x + 4 3.4.19 3x 2 3x + 5 = x 2 2x + 1 3.4.20
1 2 2 x 3x 5 = 0
3.4.21 x 2 + 4x + 4 = 2x 2 + 1
115
Equations in Quadratic Form and the Discriminant
3.5
Equations in Quadratic Form and the Discriminant
Equations of the form 1. x 4 5x 2 + 6 = 0 2. 2x 6 + x 3 8 = 0 3. x 2/3 4x 1/3 + 4 = 0 4. (x 2 9)2 3(x 2 9) 10 = 0 are not quadratic equations, but it is easy to rewrite them in quadratic form with the help of a substitution. This happens because the power of the middle term is half of the rst term. Thus 1. x 4 5x 2 + 6 = 0 becomes u 2 5u + 6 = 0 with substitution u = x 2 2. 2x 6 + x 3 8 = 0 becomes 2u 2 + u 8 = 0 with substitution u = x 3 3. x 2/3 4x 1/3 + 4 = 0 becomes u 2 4u + 4 = 0 with substitution u = x 1/3 4. (x 2 9)2 3(x 2 9) 10 = 0 becomes u 2 3u + 6 = 0 with substitution u = x 2 9 3.46 Example Solve x 4 10x 2 + 9 = 0 Solution:
x 4 10x 2 + 9 = 0
x =1
u=1
(u 1)(u 9) = 0,
u 2 10u + 9 = 0,
Substitute u = x 2 Solve for u by factoring Solve for x
or
or
x = 1
x 2 = 9,
u =9
x = 3
3.47 Example Solve x 4 + x 2 20 = 0 Solution:

x 4 + x 2 20 = 0
x =4
u=4
(u 4)(u + 5) = 0,
u 2 + u 10 = 0,
Substitute u = x 2
Solve for u by factoring Solve for x
or
or
x = 2
x 2 = 5, x = i 5
u = 5
3.48 Example Solve x 2/3 5x 1/3 + 6 = 0 Solution:

x 2/3 5x 1/3 + 6 = 0
1/3
u =2 =2
(u 2)(u + 3) = 0,
u 2 5u + 6 = 0,
Substitute u = x 1/3 Solve for u by factoring Solve for x
or
or
x =8
1/3
u = 3 x = 27 = 3,
116
Chapter 3 3.49 Example Solve (2x + 3)2 6(2x + 3) 7 = 0 Solution:

(2x + 3)2 6(2x + 3) 7 = 0
2x + 3 = 1
u = 1
(u + 1)(u 7) = 0,
u 2 6u 7 = 0,
Substitute u = 2x + 3 Solve for u by factoring Solve for x
or
or
x = 2
2x + 3 = 7, x =2
u =7
3.50 Example Solve x 5 81x = 0 Solution:

x 5 81x = 0
2
x(x 3)(x + 3)(x 2 + 9) = 0, x = 0, x = 3, x = 3, x = i 3
x(x 9)(x + 9) = 0
x(x 4 81) = 0,
Factor Solve for x
3.51 Example Solve x 4 5x 2 + 4 = 0 Solution: We factor the equation in terms of x 2 :

x 4 5x 2 + 4 = 0
(x 2 1)(x 2 4) = 0 x 2 1 = 0, x = 1,
x2 4 = 0 x = 2
3.52 Example Solve the fourth order equations x 4 8x 2 + 7 = 0 Solution: We factor the equation in terms of x 2 :
x 4 8x 2 + 7 = 0
(x 2 1)(x 2 7) = 0 x 2 1 = 0, x = 1,
x2 7 = 0 x = 7
3.5.1
The Discriminant
9 Denition The expression b 2 4ac from the quadratic formula is called the discriminant and it is denoted by d = b 2 4ac . 3.53 Example Compute the discriminant of the following quadratic equations 1. x 2 7x + 12 = 0 2. x 2 + 10x + 25 = 0 3. x 2 + x + 1 = 0 Solution: 117
Equations in Quadratic Form and the Discriminant 1. x 2 7x + 12 = 0, d = (7)2 4(1)(12) = 49 48 = 1 3. x 2 + x + 1 = 0, d = 12 4(1)(1) = 1 4 = 3
2. x 2 + 10x + 25 = 0, d = 102 4(1)(25) = 100 100 = 0
The discriminant gives information about the number of solutions and the nature of the solutions Discriminant
d = b 2 4ac > 0 d = b 2 4ac = 0 d = b 2 4ac < 0
Nature of solutions Two real solutions One real solution Two complex solutions
3.54 Example Compute the discriminant and identify the nature of solutions of the following quadratic equations 1. x 2 + 7x + 1 = 0 2. 12x 2 + 14x + 5 = 0 3. x 2 8x + 16 = 0 Solution: 1. x 2 + 7x + 1 = 0, d = (7)2 4(1)(1) = 49 4 = 45 > 0. The equation has two real solutions. 3. x 2 8x + 16 = 0, d = (8)2 4(1)(16) = 64 64 = 0. The equation has one real solution. 2. 12x 2 + 14x + 5 = 0, d = 142 4(12)(5) = 196 480 < 0. The equation has two complex solutions.
3.5.2 Homework: Equations in Quadratic Form

Solve the following equations 3.5.1 x 4 x 2 12 = 0 3.5.2 x 4 10x 2 + 25 = 0 3.5.3 x 4 6x 3 = 0 3.5.4 x 2/3 x 1/3 6 = 0 3.5.5 (4x + 5)2 (4x + 5) 2 = 0 3.5.6 2x 4 32 = 0 3.5.7 x 4 + x 2 90 = 0 Find the number of distinct real roots of the equation without solving it. 3.5.8 x 2 50x 250 = 0 3.5.9 x 2 20x + 200 = 0 3.5.10 10x 2 30x 1 = 0
118
Chapter 3
3.6
Quadratic and Rational Inequalities

x 2 4x + 3 > 0, 2x 6 0 x +4
In this section we will study quadratic inequalities and linear rational inequalities of the form
The process of solving these inequalities involve several ideas and it is accomplished by following a step by step procedure.

1. There are many variations of performing the procedure of solving quadratic and rational inequalities, such as sign chart and graphical method. 2. The procedures of solving inequalities can be applied and generalized to any polynomial and any rational inequality.
We will review some of the inequalities basics by true or false examples. 3.55 Example True or false? Explain 1. The solution of the equation 4x + 5 = 17 is x = 3 2. The solution of the inequality 4x + 5 < 17 is x < 12 3. The solution of the inequality 4x + 5 17 is x 3 4. The solution of the inequality x < 2 is the interval (2,) 5. The solution of the inequality 10 2x 4 is the interval [2,5] 6. The inequality x 2 3x 4 is equivalent to x 2 3x 4 0 7. The inequality 10 > 5x is equivalent to 5x 10 > 0 8. The inequality 0 > 2x 2 5x + 3 is equivalent to 2x 2 5x + 3 < 0 9. The inequality x 2 + 7 0 is equivalent to x 2 7 0 Solution: 1. True 2. False, 4x < 12, x < 3 3. True 4. True 5. False, it is equivalent to the interval [5,2]. There is an order to the interval notation. 6. True 7. False, the correct answer is 5x 10 < 0 8. True 9. False, x 2 7 0 3.56 Example True or false? Explain 1. The solution of the inequality 4x 2 5x +15 > 0 is the set of all real numbers that make the expression 4x 2 5x + 15 positive upon substitution. 2. The solution of the inequality x 2 + 3x < 8 is the set of all real numbers that make the expression x 2 + 3x + 8 negative upon substitution. 3. The solution of the inequality x 2 + 1 > 0 is the interval (,) 119
Quadratic and Rational Inequalities 4. The solution of the inequality x 2 + 4 < 0 is the interval (,) Solution: 1. True 2. True 3. True 4. False. The square of any real number plus 4 is a positive number.
3.6.1 Quadratic Inequality

We will illustrate the steps of solving quadratic inequality by example with detailed explanations. 3.57 Example Solve the quadratic inequality x 2 x < 6 Solution: 1. Get zero on one side of the inequality (It does not matter left or right side). This is accomplished by moving all terms to one side of the inequality.
x2 x 6 < 0
2. Factor the quadratic polynomial (if possible) and nd its zeros that is solve the equation:
x2 x 6 = 0 x + 2 = 0,
Note that the expression x 2 x 6 is a quadratic polynomial. The zeros of this polynomial are the solutions of the equation: x 2 x 6 = 0
(x + 2)(x 3) = 0 x = 2,
x 3 = 0, x =3
The solutions 2, 3 divide number line into three intervals. There is a theorem in algebra, states that the sign of a polynomial is positive or negative in each interval that is bounded by its zeros. To nd out the signs of the polynomial (quadratic expression), it is sufcient to pick a single point from each interval and substitute in the expression. 3. Graph the zeros (solution points) on a number line (schematically), as in the Figure 5.1. Pick a test point in each interval ( it does not matter which point so select easy numbers, as long as these points are not the zeros (dividers), and substitute in the expression, then record the signs only. (a) Test point x = 3, substitute in the expression (x + 2)(x 3) : (3 + 2)(3 3) = (1)(6) > 0. The sign is positive + (b) Test point x = 0: (0 + 2)(0 3) = (2)(3) < 0. The sign is negative (c) Test point x = 4: (4 + 2)(4 3) = (6)(1) > 0. The sign is positive +
4. Select the intervals that satisfy the inequality. The inequality is satised for negative signs only, that is for 2 < x < 3 and in interval notation (2,3). The boundaries are not included, because the inequality is strictly less <. The solution is the interval (2,3).
3.58 Example Solve the quadratic inequality x 2 x 6 > 0 Solution: Using the previous procedure, we conclude that the solution is the two intervals
(,2) and (3,). Note that these two intervals are separated and they cannot be written as
double inequality. 120
Chapter 3
Test Points Evaluate Signs Ranges Intervals
x=3 (1)(6) >0 +++ x<2 ( , 2)
x=0 (0+2)(03) < 0 2 < x < 3 ( 2 , 3 )

2
x=4 (4+2)(43) >0 +++ x>3 (3, )
Figure A: Solution Diagram of x x6 < 0
Test Points Evaluate Signs Ranges Intervals
x=0 (1)(3) >0 +++ x<1 ( , 1)
x=2 (1)(2) < 0 1<x<3 (1, 3)
x=4 (3)(1) >0 +++ x>3 (3, )
Figure B: Solution Diagram of x2 4x+3 > 0
Figure 3.1: Quadratic Inequalities
3.59 Example Solve the quadratic inequality 2x 2 12 2x Solution:

2
Note this inequality is equivalent to 2x 2 2x 12 0. Divide both sides by 2 to get x x 6 0. This is the same inequality as the previous detailed example, with allowed equality at the end point. That is the zeros are acceptable solutions so the solution of this inequality is
[2,3]
Method of solving quadratic inequalities 1. Zero: Move all terms to one side of the inequality and zero to the other side. 2. Factor and solve: Factor the quadratic polynomial, set it to zero and solve the equation. 3. Number line: Mark the solution points on a number line. 4. Test Points: Select a number in each interval, substitute these numbers in the inequality, and determine its signs (+ or ). 5. Select the solution interval based on the sign diagram. 6. Graph the solution on a number line if requested. 3.60 Example Solve the quadratic inequality x 2 4x > 3 Solution: 1. Zero: x 2 4x + 3 > 3 + 3,
x 2 4x + 3 > 0
121
Quadratic and Rational Inequalities 2. Factor and solve:

x 2 4x + 3 = 0 x 1 = 0, x 3 = 0, x =3
(x 1)(x 3) = 0 x = 1,
4. Test Points:
3. Number line: Mark x = 1 and x = 3 on a number line.

x = 0, x = 2, x =4
(0 1)(0 3) > 0, + ++,
(2 1)(2 3) < 0,
(4 1)(4 3) > 0 + ++
5. The solution is: (,1) and (3,)
3.61 Example Solve the quadratic inequality x 2 4x + 3 0 Solution: From the previous diagram, the solution interval is [1,3], note the boundary points x = 1 and x = 3 are included in the solution because they satisfy the inequality. 3.62 Example Solve the quadratic inequality x 2 x 12 < 0 Solution: 1. Zero: x 2 x 12 < 0
x 2 x 12 = 0 x + 3 = 0, x 4 = 0, x =4
2. Factor and solve:
(x + 3)(x 4) = 0 x = 3,
4. Test Points:
3. Number line: Mark x = 3 and x = 4 on a number line.

x = 5, + ++, x = 0, x =5
(5 + 3)(5 4) > 0,
(0 + 3)(0 4) < 0, ,
(5 + 3)(5 4) > 0 + ++
5. The solution is the interval (3,4)
3.63 Example Solve the quadratic inequality x 3 2x 2 8x > 0 Solution: 122
Chapter 3 1. Zero: x 3 2x 2 8x > 0 2. Factor and solve:

x 3 2x 2 8x = 0
x = 0,
x(x + 2)(x 4) = 0 x + 2 = 0, x = 2,
x(x 2 2x 8) = 0
x = 0,
x =4
x 4 = 0,
4. Test Points:
x = 3,
3. Number line: Mark x = 2, 0 and x = 4 on a number line.

x = 1, x = 1, x =5
3(3 + 2)(3 4) = 21 < 0, ,
1(1 + 2)(1 4) = 5 > 0, + + ++,
(1 + 2)(1 4) = 6 < 0, ,
5(5 + 2)(5 4) = 35 > 0 +++
5. The solution is the interval (2,0) or (4,)
3.64 Example Solve the inequality x 2 9 Solution: 1. Rewrite as x 2 9 0
2. Factor and solve (x + 3)(x 3) = 0, x = 3 and x = 3 3. Mark the points, 3,3 on a number line. 4. Test points: x = 4, (4 + 3)(4 3) > 0, x = 0, (0 + 3)(0 3) < 0, x = 4, (4 + 3)(4 3) > 0.
5. The solution is 3 x 3 or [3,3] 3.65 Example Solve x 2 + 16 0
Solution: The polynomial x 2 + 16 does not have any real zero and it is positive for any real number, so the inequality is satises for all real number, that is the solution is (,) 3.66 Example Solve x 2 > 16 Solution: 1. Rewrite as x 2 16 > 0
2. Factor and solve (x + 4)(x 4) = 0, x = 4 and x = 4 3. Mark the points, 4,4 on a number line. 4. Test points: x = 5, (5 + 4)(5 4) > 0, x = 0, (0 + 4)(0 4) < 0, x = 5, (5 + 4)(5 4) > 0.
5. The solution set is the intervals (,4) and (4,) 3.67 Example Solve 2x 2 < 9x 4 Solution: 1. Zero: 2x 2 9x + 4 < 0
123
Quadratic and Rational Inequalities 2. Factor and solve:

2x 2 9x + 4 = 0 2x 1 = 0,
(2x 1)(x 4) = 0 x = 1/2,
x 4 = 0, x =4
4. Test Points:
3. Number line: Mark x = 1/2 and x = 4 on a number line.

x = 0, x = 1, x =5
(0 1)(0 4) > 0, + ++,
(2 1)(1 4) < 0, ,
(10 1)(5 4) > 0 + ++
5. The solution is the interval (0.5,4)
3.6.2 Rational Inequality

The process of solving inequalities that involve rational expressions such as
1 x > , 3+x 3+x 3x 2 < 0 x 2
is similar to the process of solving quadratic equations. Method of solving rational inequalities 1. Zero: Move all terms to one side of the inequality and zero to the other side. 2. Combine all terms into a single fraction. 3. Determine the numbers that make the numerator and denominator zero. 4. Number line: Mark the numbers from previous step on a number line. 5. Test Points: Select a number in each interval, substitute these numbers in the inequality, and determine its signs (+ or ). 6. Select the solution interval based on the sign diagram. 7. Graph the solution on a number line if requested. 3.68 Example Solve the rational inequality Solution: 1. Zero:
3x 2 > 0 x 2 3x x 2 x +4 2 = >0 2. Combine: x 2 x 2 x 2 3x >2 x 2
x + 4 = 0,
x = 4,
x 2 = 0, x =2
4. Number line: Mark x = 4 and x = 2 on a number line to form three regions x < 4, 4 < x < 2, x > 2. 124
Chapter 3 5. Test Points:

(,4) x = 5, 5 + 4 > 0, 5 2 + + +, (4,2) x = 0, 0+4 < 0, 02 , (2,) x =5 5+4 >0 52 +++
6. The solution set is the regions x < 4, x > 2 or in interval notation (,4) and (2,)
3.69 Example Solve the rational inequality Solution: 1. Zero:

3 1 0 x 4 3x +4 7x 2. Combine: = 0 x 4 x 4
3 1 x 4
x 4 = 0,
x = 4,
7 x = 0, x =7
5. Test Points:
(,4] x = 0, 70 < 0, 04 ,
4. Number line: Mark x = 4 and x = 7 on a number line to form three regions x 4, 4 x 7, 7 x .

[4,7] x = 5, 75 > 0, 54 + + +, [7,) x =8 78 <0 84
6. The solution set is (,4] and [7,)
3.70 Example Solve the rational inequality Solution: 1. Zero:

1 x <0 3+x 3+x x 1 2. Combine: <0 3+x
1 x < 3+x 3+x
3 + x = 0, x = 3,
x =1
x 1 = 0,
125
Quadratic and Rational Inequalities 4. Number line: Mark x = 3 and x = 1 on a number line to form three regions x < 3, 3 < x < 1, 1 < x . 5. Test Points:
(,3) x = 4, 4 1 > 0, 34 + + +, (3,1) x = 0, 01 < 0, 3+0 , (1,) x =2 21 >0 3+2 +++
6. The solution set is (3,1)

8 >3 x
3.71 Example Solve the rational inequality Solution:

8 3 > 0 x 8 3x 2. Combine: >0 x
1. Zero:

x = 0, 8 3x = 0, x = 8/3
x = 0,
4. Number line: Mark x = 0 and x = 8/3 on a number line to form three regions x < 0, 0 < x < 8/3, 8/3 < x . 5. Test Points:
(,0) x = 2, 8+4 < 0, 2 , (0,8/3) x = 1, 83 > 0, 1 + + +, (8/3,) x =5 8 15 <0 5
6. The solution set is (0,8/3)
3.72 Example Solve Solution: 1. Zero:
x + 15 3 3x 5
x + 15 +3 0 3x 5 x + 15 + 9x 15 10x 2. Combine: = 0 3x 5 3x 5
126
Chapter 3 3. Factor and solve:

10x = 0, x = 0, 3x 5 = 0, x = 5/3
5. Test Points:
(,0] x = 1, 10 > 0, 3 5 + + +,
4. Number line: Mark x = 0 and x = 5/3 on a number line to form three regions x < 0, 0 < x < 5/3, 5/3 < x .
[0,5/3] x = 1, 10 < 0, 35 , [5/3,) x =5 50 >0 15 5 +++
6. The solution set is [0,5/3]
3.73 Example Solve the rational inequality
1 <0 (x + 1)2
Solution: There is no real number that satises this inequality, because left side is always positive. The solution does not exist.
127
Quadratic and Rational Inequalities
3.6.3 Homework: Quadratic and Rational Inequalities

Solve the following inequalities. Express the solution in interval notation and graph the solution on a number line 3.6.1 (x + 3)(2x 7) 0 3.6.2 (x 2)(x + 4) < 0 3.6.3 x(x + 5) 0 3.6.17 3.6.4 x 2 + 2x 3 < 0 3.6.5 x(x 1) < 30 3.6.6 7(x 2 9) < 0 3.6.7 16(x 2 16) 0 3.6.8 4x 2 + 20x + 25 > 0 3.6.9 2x 2 > x + 10 3.6.10
x 2 + 6x 0
3.6.14
3 >6 x 4 x + >0 x 2 x 2 (3x + 10) 0 (x) (1 x) 0 (x + 6) (x + 3) 2 (x + 6) 3y 5 <3 y +1 3 2 + >0 x 1 x +1 5x (2x + 7)2 6 >0 x 0
3.6.15
3.6.16
3.6.18
3.6.19
3.6.20
3.6.21
3.6.11 x 2 6x + 5 < 0 3.6.12

(x + 2) <0 (x 2) x <0 x 2
3.6.22 1 3.6.23
x x2 + 1
<0
3.6.13
3.6.24 (x + 3)(x + 1)(x 3) > 0
128
Chapter 3
3.7
Exercises
24. 25x 2 + 4 = 20x 25. x 2 + 5x 5 = 0 26. x 2 2 3 + 12 = 0 Solve by factoring, by completing a square, and by the quadratic formula 27. 2x 2 + 5x 3 = 0 28. (x + 6)(5x 1) = 5x 25 29. (3x 4)2 45 = 0 30. x 2 + x = 42 31. 3x 2 + 5 = 16x 32. The sum of two numbers is 16 and the sum of their squares is 200. What are the numbers? 33. Find two numbers whose difference is 5 and the difference of their squares is 45. 34. Divide 45 into two parts whose product is 434. 35. Find two consecutive integers whose product is
Solve the following equations by the method of square root or factoring 1. (x + 2)2 1 = 0 2. 3(x 4)2 = 36 3. x 2 + 8 = 6x 4. 3x 2 =
27 4
5. 10x 2 60x = 80 6. x(x 1) = 6x 10 Solve the following equations by the method of completing the square 7. x 2 + 8x = 33 8. x 2 6x = 7 9. x 2 + 12 = 8x 10. 3x 2 6x + 5 = 0 11.
4x 2 8x = 3
12. x 2 + 2x 10 = 0 13. 4x 2 12x + 9 = 0 14. x 2 4x + 6 = 0 15. 2x 2 4 = 3x Solve the following equations using the quadratic formula 16. x 2 4x 12 = 0 17. x 2 + 10x 25 = 0 18. 2x 2 x = 1 19. (x 3)2 = 10x + 5 20. x 2 + 5x + 1 = 0 21. 4x 2 + 9 = 12x 22.
16x 2 25 = 0
306. 36. Find two consecutive odd positive integers whose product is 323. 37. Find the length of a side of a square where a diagonal is 4 feet longer than a side. 38. Simplify (i + i 1 )1 39. Simplify (i i 1 )1 Solve the following inequalities 40. x(x 4) 0 41. x 2 x 2 < 0 42. (2x 5)2 100 43. x 2 > 2x + 3 44.
2x 8 <0 x +8 x 1 >1 x +2
23. 2x 2 + 3 8x = 0
45.
129
Review Quadratic Equations

46.
2 7 x 6
3.8
Review Quadratic Equations
1. Complex Numbers Imaginary unit is i = 1 and i 2 = 1 and a = i a if a > 0 Complex numbers have theorem a + bi such as 3 4i 2. Arithmetic Operations on complex numbers: To add or subtract complex numbers: combine real parts and imaginary parts. To multiply complex numbers, use distribution and the fact that i 2 = 1. To divide complex numbers, multiply and divide by the conjugate of the denominator. For example,
(3 + 2i ) (5 6i ) = 2 + 8i
4 4(2 3i ) 8 12 = = i 2 + 3i (2 + 3i )(2 3i ) 13 13
(2 + 3i )(2 + 5i ) = 19 6i
3. Quadratic Equations Methods of solving quadratic equations are (a) Factoring: Solve x 2 + 2x 8 = 0 Solution: (x + 4)(x 2) = 0, so x = 4,2 (b) Square root: Solve 4x 2 24 = 0 Solution: x 2 = 6, so x = 6 (c) Completing the square: Solve 2x 2 20x 48 = 0
2x 2 20x = 48
1 1 x 2 10x + ( 10)2 = 24 + ( 10)2 2 2 x 2 10x + 25 = 24 + 25 (x 5)2 = 49 x 5 = 7
x 2 10x = 24
x = 12,
x = 2
(d) Quadratic Formula:

x= b b 2 4ac 2a
Solve 2x 2 7x + 3 = 0 Solution:
a = 2,b = 7,c = 3 substitute in the formula to get x= 7 (7)2 4(2)(3) 2(2)
Simplify to obtain x = ,3
1 2
130
The Distance Formula and Circles
4.1
The Distance Formula and Circle
OBJECTIVES The distance Formula The Midpoint Formula The equation of a circle Graph circles with center and radius
4.1.1 Coordinate System

A rectangular Cartesian system of coordinates on the plane consists of two perpendicular axis identied as x-axis and y-axis. Both are given xed positive direction and a scale. Each point P of the plane is dened by a pair of numbers (x, y) referred as the coordinates of the point. These coordinates represent the distances with proper sign of the point from both axis. The axes divide the plane into four quadrants. 4.1 Example Draw a system of coordinates and plot the points A(4,3), B (0,1.5) and C (2,4)
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
A B
Figure 4.1: Plotting Points
4.2 Example Find the coordinates of the vertices of the given rectangle in the gure.
4 3 2 1
3 2 1 2 3
Figure 4.2: Vertices of Rectangle
131
The Distance Formula and Circle Solution: The vertices are ((4,2),(2,2),(2,1),(4,1).
4.1.2 The Distance Formula

The distance between two points is a positive number. For any two points with coordinates x1 and x2 on a number line, the distance between the two points is |x2 x1 |, the absolute value is to insure the answer is always positive. For example, the distance between the points x1 = 1 and x2 = 5 is clearly
|5 1| = 4
4.3 Example Plot the two points on a number line and nd the distance between them. 1. x1 = 3; x2 = 7 2. x1 = 2; x2 = 4 3. x1 = 1; x2 = 5 4. x1 = 3; x2 = 8 Solution: 1. x1 = 3; x2 = 7: d = |7 3| = 4
4. x1 = 3; x2 = 8: d = | 8 (3)| = | 5| = 5 The distance formula between any two points P 1 (x1 , y 1 ) and P 2 (x2 , y 2 ) is based on the Pythagorean Theorem for the right triangle with hypotenuse c and sides a and b and it has the familiar form
3. x1 = 1; x2 = 5: d = | 5 1| = 6
2. x1 = 2; x2 = 4: d = |4 (2)| = 6
Figure 4.3: a 2 + b 2 = c 2
a2 + b2 = c 2
Applying this formula for the right triangle P 1 P 2 Q :

P1Q + P2 Q = P1 P2
2 2 2
or in terms of the coordinated of the points and letting d = P 1 P 2 , we have (x2 x1 )2 + (y 2 y 1 )2 = d 2 .
132
Chapter 4 This leads to the distance formula

d= (x2 x1 )2 + (y 2 y 1 )2 P2
P1 |x2 x1 | Q
Figure 4.4: Distance between two points
4.4 Example Find the distance between the points (3,2) and (1,8) Solution: Substitute carefully in the formula, making sure the order of coordinates and their signs are correct. Let (x1 , y 1 ) = (3,2) and (x2 , y 2 ) = (1,8). It does not matter which point is called rst.
d= (1 3)2 + (8 (2))2 = (2)2 + (10)2 = 4 + 100 = 104 = 2 26
4.5 Example Find the distance between the points (2,3) and (4,5) Solution: Let (x1 , y 1 ) = (2,3) and (x2 , y 2 ) = (4,5). Then
d= = = = (4 (2))2 + (5 3)2 (4 + 2)2 + (2)2 36 + 4 40
=2 5
4.6 Example Find the distance between the points (0,5) and (3,3) Solution: Let (x1 , y 1 ) = (0,5) and (x2 , y 2 ) = (3,3). Then
d= = = = (3 0)2 + (3 5)2 (3)2 + (8)2 9 + 64 73
4.7 Example Graph and nd the distance between (6,3),(2,0) Solution: Let (x1 , y 1 ) = (6,3) and (x2 , y 2 ) = (2,0). Then
d= = = (3 + 6)2 + (0 3)2 (3)2 + (3)2 9+9
=3 2
|y 2 y 1 |
133
The Distance Formula and Circle Another useful formula is the midpoint formula between two points. For example the midpoint between the points A(1) and B (5) on a number line below is the point M(3), with distance 2 to A and B .
In fact, for any two points on a number line x1 , x2 , the midpoint between them is given by x = 4.8 Example Find the midpoint of the given two points. 1. x1 = 3; x2 = 7 2. x1 = 2; x2 = 4 3. x1 = 1; x2 = 5 4. x1 = 3; x2 = 8 Solution:
3+7 =5 2 2 + 4 2. x1 = 2; x2 = 4: x = =1 2 15 3. x1 = 1; x2 = 5: x = = 2 2 3 8 = 11/2 4. x1 = 3; x2 = 8: x = 2
x1 + x2 . 2
1. x1 = 3; x2 = 7: x =
1 Denition The midpoint M of the segment line joining two points P 1 (x1 , y 1 ) and P 2 (x2 , y 2 ) is a point on the segment line P 1 P 2 which is equidistant from its endpoints, the coordinates of the midpoint are given by the formula
M( x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2 , ) 2 2
4.9 Example Find the midpoint of the pair (6,4),(8,7) Solution: Use the midpoint formula to get (
6 8 4 + 7 3 , ) = (1, ) 2 2 2
4.10 Example Find the midpoint of the pair (0,5),(4,3) Solution: Use the midpoint formula to get (
0+4 53 , ) = (2,1) 2 2
134
Chapter 4
4.1.3 The Circle

2 Denition A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are a xed distance from a point called the center. The xed distance is called the radius of the circle.
(h,k)
Figure 4.5: A circle with centre (h,k) and radius r To develop the general equation of a circle with center (h,k) and radius r . Note that the distance between the center and any point on the circle (x, y) is = r :
r= (x h)2 + (y k)2
(x h)2 + (y k)2 = r 2
This is the standard form of the general equation of a circle. If the center is at (0,0), then the equation is x 2 + y 2 = r 2 . 4.11 Example Find the equation of the circle with 1. Center (4,2) and radius 5 2. Center (1,0) and radius 3. Center (0,0) and radius 10 Solution: 1. Center (4,2) and radius 5: (x 4)2 + (y 2)2 = 25 2. Center (1,0) and radius 3. Center (0,0) and radius 10: x 2 + y 2 = 100
6: (x + 1)2 + y 2 = 6 6
4.12 Example Identify the radius and center of the circles 1. x 2 + y 2 = 1 2. (x 4)2 + y 2 = 8 3. (x + 3)2 + (y 9)2 = 7 Solution: 2. The circle (x 4)2 + y 2 = 8 has center (4,0) and radius r = 2 2 1. The circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 has center (0,0) and radius r = 1
3. The circle (x + 3)2 + (y 9)2 = 7 has center (3,9) and radius r = 7 4.13 Example Graph the circle x 2 +y 2 = 25 by identifying the center and ve opposite points on the circle. 135
The Distance Formula and Circle 4.14 Example Find the equation of the circle with radius 5 and center at (3,2), by identifying the center and ve opposite points on the circle.
8 6 4 2 8 6 4 2
10
2 2 4 6 8
10
2 2 4 6 8
Figure 4.6: x 2 + y 2 = 25
10
Figure 4.7: center (3,2), r=5
10
4.15 Example Find the center and the radius of the circle x 2 + 2x + y 2 = 15 Solution: follows: Write the equation in standard form by using completing the square method as
x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 = 15 + 1 (x + 1)2 + y 2 = 16
Thus the center is (1,0) and the radius is r = 4 4.16 Example Find the center and the radius of the circle x 2 + y 2 8y = 0 Solution: follows: Write the equation in standard form by using completing the square method as
x 2 + y 2 8y + 16 = 0 + 16 x 2 + (y 4)2 = 16
Thus the center is (0,4) and the radius is r = 4 4.17 Example Find the center, the radius and graph the circle x 2 + y 2 + 10x + 6y = 0 Solution: Write the equation in standard form as follows:
x 2 + 10x + y 2 + 6y = 0 Separate the variables and complete the squares (x + 5)2 + (y + 3)2 = 25 + 9
x 2 + 10x + 52 + y 2 + 6y + 32 = 0 + 52 + 32 (x + 5)2 + (y + 3)2 = 34
Thus the center is (5,3) and the radius is r = 34 4.18 Example Find the center, the radius and graph the circle x 2 + y 2 4x + 2y = 20 Solution: follows: Write the equation in standard form by using completing the square method as
x 2 4x + y 2 + 2y = 20 Separate the variables and complete the squares
x 2 4x + 4 + y 2 + 2y + 1 = 20 + 4 + 1 (x 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 25
136
Chapter 4 Thus the center is (2,1) and the radius is r = 5

8 6 4 2
10
2 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 4.8: (x 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 25 4.19 Example Find the center, the radius and graph the circle x 2 + y 2 = 20x 91 Solution: Write the equation in standard form as follows:
x 2 20x + y 2 = 91 Separate the variables and complete the squares
x 2 20x + 102 + y 2 = 91 + 102 (x 10)2 + y 2 = 9
Thus the center is (10,0) and the radius is r = 3 4.20 Example Write the equation of the circle with center (1,3) and passing through the point (4,2) Solution: To write the equation of the circle with the given center (1,3), we need to nd its radius. The radius of this circle is the distance between the center and the point (4,2). That is r = (1 4)2 + (3 2)2 = 9 + 25 = 34. Using the standard form, the equation of the circle is
(x 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 34
4.21 Example Sketch the graph of the circle (x 1)2 + (y 2)2 = 4

6 4 2
2 2 4 6
Figure 4.9: (x 1)2 + (y 2)2 = 4
137
The Distance Formula and Circle
4.1.4 Homework: The Distance Formula and Circles

Find the distance between the points 4.1.1 (3,1) and (1,0) 4.1.2 (2,5) and (8,2) 4.1.3 (0,11) and (1,12) Find the midpoint between the pair of points 4.1.4 (3,2) and (1,0) 4.1.5 (7,6) and (3,6) 4.1.6 (2,3 and (6,9) Find equations of the circles 4.1.7 Center (2,3); r = 3 4.1.8 Center (5,4); r = 3 2 4.1.9 Center (0,0); r = 8 4.1.10 Center (0,0); r = 12 4.1.11 Write the equation of the circle that satises: tangent to both axes, center is in the second quadrant and r = 6 Write the equations in standard form (x h)2 + (y k)2 = r 2 and identify the center and the radius 4.1.12 x 2 + y 2 = 49 4.1.13 x 2 = 16 y 2 4.1.14 x 2 + 2x + y 2 = 8 4.1.15 x 2 + y 2 + 6x = 0 4.1.16 x 2 + y 2 8x 14y = 62 4.1.17 x 2 + y 2 6x + 8y 55 = 0 4.1.18 x 2 + y 2 12y = 0 4.1.19 4x 2 + 4y 2 = 100 4.1.20 2x 2 + 2y 2 8x = 0
138
Functions
5.1
Introduction to Functions
OBJECTIVES Representing Functions Function notation Finding the domain and range of a function The vertical line test Graph functions with a calculator Functions are the most fundamental concept in higher mathematics. Discovering any relationship between quantities in nature is advanced with understanding and related to the idea of functional relationships. Roughly speaking, if a function exists between two quantities, then it implies that any information about one quantity leads to concrete information about the other quantity. Such as, the relationship between the area of a square and its side. For some people, the word function is associated with the performance of concrete tasks, such as the functions of various organs (heart, kidneys) in the body. In fact, there is a humorous joke about Mathematicians that asks: Why old mathematicians never die? and the answer is: because they just lose some of their functions. Relevant vocabularies 1. A Set is a collection of well dened objects. The objects are called elements or members of the set. Capital letters are used to name the sets. The list of elements are given within braces { }. For example, A = {1,2,3,4, book, box, s} Familiar sets are the sets of natural numbers N , integer numbers Z , rational numbers Q , and real numbers R , or part of them. 2. A variable is a symbol such as x, y, t which represents a number that can vary over a set of numbers. For example, the room temperature and the stock market index are variables. 3. A constant is a symbol that represents a number which is xed for all time, such as 5,8,. In expression such as 3x 2 5x + 2 = 0, the symbol x is assumed to be a variable until it is been determined by the equation. 4. A formula is an equation that relates variables and constants such as the circumference of a circle C = 2r and the area of a triangle A =
hb . 2
5. An ordered pair (x, y) is a pair of real numbers x, y enclosed in parentheses, where x is called the rst coordinate or the rst component (element) and y is called the second coordinate or the second component (element) of the pair (x, y). For example, the three pairs: (2,5),(5,2),(0,7) are different pairs. 6. A rectangular Cartesian system of coordinates on the plane consists of two perpendicular axis identied as x-axis and y-axis. Both are given xed positive direction and a scale. Each point P of the plane is dened by a pair of numbers (x, y) referred as the coordinates of the point. These coordinates represent the distances with proper sign of the point from both axis. 139
5.1.1 Basic denitions

There are different approaches to dening functions. Some of these denitions are Mathematicians dene functions according to their own abstract considerations. We list some of these denitions. Interdependency approach The concept of function started with observations that the magnitude of some natural quantities are uniquely dened by the magnitude of other quantities. These interdependencies were discovered and called formulas or laws of nature. Some of these quantities are: length, area, volume, time, temperature, distance, speed, pressure and so on. For example, 1. the area of a circle is uniquely dened by its radius r :
A = r 2
2. the volume of a cube is completely dened by the length of its side s :

V = s3
3. the distance of a free falling object from a high point is determined by the time t :
d= g 2 t 2
where g is the earth gravitational constant, 4. the roots (or solutions) of the quadratic equation x 2 +2x +n = 0 are given by the formula x = 1 1 n. The interdependency leads to calling the area, volume, distance and roots dependent magnitudes and the radius, side, time and coefcient n independent magnitudes. 1 Denition We say there is a function between a dependent variable y and an independent variable x , if there is a rule between them such that, for every value of x from a well dened set of numbers, there corresponds a unique value of y . The set of values x is called the domain of the function, the set of values y is called the range of the function. The rule is denoted by a letter such as f , the function (interdependence) is denoted by
y = f (x)
which is read as y is a function of x . Usually, the names of functions are denoted by f , g ,h,K ,F,G, H ,T or any other letter. For example, f (x) = 3x + 4. Correspondence approach This approach is purely formal and it has been by many authors. 2 Denition A function has three components: 1. A set X called the domain, 2. a set Y called the range, and 3. a rule denoted by f : X Y , such that for every element x in X , there is a unique element y in Y. We write y = f (x). This equation is read y equals f of x . 140
Chapter 5 For example, let X ,Y be the sets of all humans. The function f assigns to each x in X a father (dened in concrete way) y in F , f : X F , where F is the set of all fathers which is a subset in Y . that is y = f (x) is the father of x . Another example, m : X M , where y = m(x) mother of x and M is the set of all mothers. In both examples, the father and the mother are well dened functions and satisfy the conditions of functions. An example of a rule that is not a function is the relationship child: son or daughter. Let us call the relationship child g , that is y = g (x) is a child of x from X . y = g (x) is not a function, Because x may not have a child, or may have many children. However by restriction the set on which g to the set of all humans having children, and modifying the rule to associate y = g (x) to be the oldest child, or the youngest child. In such a case, this modied g is a well dened function. Another variant of the above denition is expressed in terms of ordered pairs. 3 Denition A function is a set of ordered pairs such that no two different ordered pairs have the same rst component. Ordered pairs can be graphed in the so called mapping diagram, where it is easy to observe whether a relation is a function or not, we use , as shown in gures (5.1-5.4). For example, we can express the gure 5.2 as the set of ordered pairs {(0,0),(1,2),(2,4),(2,8)}. Clearly the rst component in the distinct pairs (1,2),(1,4) is the same, which violates the denition of the function.
rule
range total set
domain
Figure 5.1: Mapping diagram of a function .
0 1 2
0 2 4 8
0 1 2
2 4
0 1 2
2 4
Figure 5.2: Not a function
Figure 5.3: Not a function
Figure 5.4: A function
A relation is a set of ordered pairs, where the set of the rst components is the domain and the set of of its second components is the range. Note, there is no restriction on the domain as we did in the function denition. Thus, every function is a relation, but not every relation is a function.
Black Box analogy In this approach, it is assumed that the function is a machine, the domain of the function is called the input and the range is called the output, with the requirement that the machine gives exactly one output for every valid input. Input We write y = f (x).
x
Function
Output
141
5.1.2 Representations of a Function

The function is a rule between two sets. The rule can be expressed verbally (words), numerically (tables), visually (Graphs), and abstractly (formulas). We will give examples illustrating these possibilities. 1. Verbal format: the function f is "Triple the input". Thus if the input is 5, then the output is 3 5 = 15. 2. Table format: The data are given in a table format in which the domain is the set {1,3,5,7,9} and the range is the set {3,6,15,21,27} as in the following table x y 1 3 3 9 5 15 7 21 9 27
3. Relation format: The set of all ordered pairs are given explicitly. For example, The function is identied by the set {(3,5),(3,5),(0,8)}. 4. Algebraic format: The function is identied by a formula. For example y = 3x and y = x 2 . 5. Graphical format: In this representation the ordered pairs are plotted on a system of coordinates. For example, The graph of the function F = {(4,2),(3,1),(2,4),(3,3)} is shown below.
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.5: The graph of function F 5.1 Example The function F is described by the following set of ordered pairs: F = {(0,1),(1,3),(2,5),(3,7)}. Express the function F in table, algebraic, verbal and graphical representations. Solution: 1. Table representation: x 0 1 2 3 F(x) 1 3 5 7 142
Chapter 5 2. Algebraic (Symbolic) representation: We observe that as we change the input by one, the output is increased by two. This indicates a linear relationship with slope two and yintercept ve. Thus, y = 2x + 1 or F (x) = 2x + 1. 3. Verbal representation: "Double the input and add one". 4. Graphical representation:
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.6: Graph of f = 2x + 1
5.2 Example Give the domain (the set of all independent rst component) and the range (the set of all dependent second component) and determine whether each relation denes a function. 1. F = {(2,0),(4,1),(6,0)} 2. G = {(2,1),(3,1),(2,1)} 3. H = {(5,0),(7,0),(8,0)} Solution: 1. Domain: {2,4,6}, Range: {0,1}, F represents a function. Each rst component has a unique second component. 2. Domain: {2,3}, Range: {1,1}, G is not a function, The input 2 has two different outputs. 3. Domain: {5,7,8}, Range: {0}, H is a function. In the denition of the function, there is no restriction on the output. 5.3 Example Give the domain and the range and determine whether each relation denes a function.
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure 5.7: f
Figure 5.8: g
Figure 5.9: h
Solution: 143
Introduction to Functions 1. Domain: {2,0,1}, Range: {1,3}, f represents a function. 2. Domain: {2,1}, Range: {0,3,1}, g is not a function, The x-component 2 has two different y-components 0,3. 3. Domain: {2,1,3}, Range: {2}, h is a function. 5.4 Example Express the numerical data of the function as an equation between x and y . x 1. y -1 1 3 5 7 9 0 1 2 3 4 5
x 2. y
-2 -8
-1 -5
0 -2
1 1
2 4
3 7
Solution: 1. The difference between consecutive y is 2 as x changes by 1. This indicates a linear formula with slope 2, that is y = 2x + b , when x = 0, y = 1, thus y = 2x 1. 2. Comparing the changes in x and y , leads to the linear formula y = 3x 2.
1 2
5.5 Example The function f is given by the formula f (x) = x +1. Its domain consists of all positive even integers less than 13. List the elements of the domain and the range of the function f . Solution: 1. Domain: {2,4,6,8,10,12}, Range: {2,3,4,5,6,7} 5.6 Example Find the functional relationship between the diagonal d of a square with side s . Solution: Using the Pythagoras Theorem: d = 2s
5.7 Example The price of gasoline in a city is $3.45 per gallon. Express the cost C of a quantity of gasoline as a function of the number x of gallons bought. Solution:
C = 3.45x . So the cost of ten gallons is C = 3.45(10) = 34.5.
5.1.3 Evaluation and equality of Functions

To evaluate a function f (x) of a value x = a is to replace or to substitute x by a and use the formula or the table or the graph to nd the value f (a). 5.8 Example For f (x) = x 2 3x , evaluate the following: 1. f (3) 2. f ( ) 3. f (a) 4. f (a 2) 5. f (t) 144
1 2
Chapter 5 6. f ( ) Solution:
1 1 3 5 = 2 4 2 4 3. f (a) = a 2 3a 1 t
1. f (3) = (3)2 3(3) = 9 + 9 = 18, " f of 3 equals 18, 2. f ( ) =
5. f (t) = t 2 3t 6. f ( ) =
1 t
4. f (a 2) = (a 2)2 3a = a 2 4a + 4 3a = a 2 7a + 4
1 3 1 3t = t2 t t2
5.9 Example For the function g (x) dened by g = {(1,2),(1.4,3),(2,2),(3,1),(4,0),(5,6)}. 1. Evaluate g (3) and g (1.4). 2. Find two different values of x such that g (x) = 2. Solution: 1. g (3) = 1 and g (1.4) = 3.
2. By looking at the set, we see that g (1) = 2 and g (2) = 2. 5.10 Example For the function f (x) = 3x 2 2x evaluate f (2), f (2) and f (3) f (1). Solution: 1. f (2) = 3(22 ) 2(2) = 12 4 = 8 2. f (2) = 3(2)2 2(2) = 12 + 4 = 16
3. f (3) f (1) = 3(32 ) 2(3) (3(1)2 2(1)) = 27 6 3 + 2 = 20 5.11 Example Let g (x) = x 2 x . Find 1. g (s) 2. g (2s) 3. g (3) g (2) Solution: 2. g (2s) = (2s)2 2s = 4s 2 2s 1. g (s) = s 2 s
3. g (3) g (2) = 32 3 (22 2) = 9 3 4 + 2 = 4
Equality of Functions 4 Denition Two functions f (x) and g (t) are equal if they have the same domain and for every input, they produce same output. For example, the functions f (x) = 3x + 1 is equal to the function g (t) = 3t + 1 dened on the set of real numbers. Take the input 5 and check that
f (5) = 3(5) + 1 = 16, g (5) = 3(5) + 1 = 16
5.12 Example Are the following pair of functions equal, why? 145
Introduction to Functions 1. f (x) = x 2 1 and g (x) = (x + 1)(x 1). Both are dened on the set of all real numbers. 2. f (t) = 3t + 3 dened on the set t > 0 and g (t) = 3t + 3 dened on the set t < 0 Solution: 1. f (x) is equal to the function g (x). They have the same domain and the same expression. 2. f (t) is not equal to g (t). They are dened on different domains, although, they have the same expression.
5.1.4 Domain of Functions

The domain of a function is the set of all elements where the function is well dened. If the function is given as a set of ordered pairs, then the domain is the set of all rst components as seen before. However, if the function is given as an expression (formula), then the domain is either given explicitly or implicitly. For example, 1. Explicit domain: The function f (x) = 3x 5 is dened on [0,9]. Clearly the domain is the given interval. 2. Implicit domain: Given a function g (x) = 3x 5. Here, the domain of g is not specied, so we always assume that the domain is all real numbers that is (,) except where the function fails to be well dened "real number". The domain of any function in algebraic form is all real numbers except: (a) The values that make denominator zero. For example, the domain of f (x) =
2x is x = 3. x 3
(b) The values that make the radicand of square root ("even roots") a negative number. For example, the domain of f (x) = x is x 0. 5.13 Example Find the domain of the following functions 1. f (x) = 3x 2 + 4x 5 2. g (x) =
x +3 x +6
3. h(x) = x + 4 4. f (x) = 7x 4 2x 3 + 2 x 5 5. f (x) = 6. g (x) =

2x + 7 (x 2)(3x + 8) x2 4 x 2 7x + 12
7. h(x) = 3x 5 Solution: 1. f (x) = 3x 2 + 4x 5. The expression is dened for all real number, that is the domain is (,). 2. g (x) =
x +3 . The expression makes sense for all real numbers except when x = 6, thus the x +6 domain can be expressed as x = 6, or in interval notation: (,6) and (6,).
2 4. f (x) = 7x 4 2x 3 + 5 x . The domain is all numbers (,).
3. h(x) = x + 4. The formula denes real number if x + 4 0, that is x 4.

2x + 7 . The domain is all numbers except {2,8/3}. (x 2)(3x + 8)
5. f (x) =
146
Chapter 5
x2 4
6. g (x) =
(x 3)(x 4) = 0 we solve x = 3,4, that is the domain is all numbers except {3,4}. 5 3
x 2 7x + 12
. The domain is all numbers except where x 2 7x + 12 = 0, by factoring

5 3
7. h(x) = 3x 5: The domain is all numbers for which 3x 5 0 or x < 5, that is x , or in interval notation [ ,).
5.14 Example Find the domain of the following functions 1. F = {(2,4),(0,6),(2,8)} 2. f (x) = 7x 2 + 5 |3 2x| 3. f (x) = 4. g (x) =
1 x 2 3x 12 2x + 5
5. h(x) = 4 + 2x 6. h(x) = x 2 + 1 Solution: 1. F = {(2,4),(0,6),(2,8)}. D = {2,0,2}
3. f (x) =
1 . D = {x|x = 2} x 2 3x 12 5 4. g (x) = . D = {x|x = } 2x + 5 2
2. f (x) = 7x 2 + 5 |3 2x|. D = (,)
6. h(x) = x 2 + 1. D = (,)
5. h(x) = 4 + 2x . D = {x|x 2}
5.1.5 Graphical Representation of Functions

The graphical representation of a function is to visualize the correspondence between the input values and the output values based on the given rule of the function. This visualization is accomplished with the help of the familiar Cartesian coordinate system. The approach is to plot enough points whose coordinates satisfy the functional relation. We already saw in Figure 5.5 the graph of the function F = {(4,2),(3,1),(2,4),(3,3)} is represented by four points. 5 Denition The graph of a function y = f (x) dened on a domain D is the set of all points of the form (x, y) where x varies over the domain D . The denition will be illustrated by the following example. 5.15 Example Sketch the function f (x) = 2x + 2 on the interval [0,3] Solution: General steps to draw graphs by hand:
1. Rewrite the function in the familiar format y = 2x + 3 2. Select several values of x and compute the corresponding y values. The values of x usually are whole numbers such as 5,2,0,1,4, simple fractions such as
0.1,0.2,0.4,0.6. The choice of these inputs is up to the user, and the number of these points 1 1 1 3 , , , or decimals 2 3 4 4
should be sufcient to draw the main features of the graph and this is gained by experimenting with graphing functions. The simpler the better. 147
Introduction to Functions 3. Create a table x 0 1 2 3 y=f(x)=-2x+2 2 0 -2 -4 (x,y) (0,2) (1,0) (2,-2) (3,-4)
4. Draw a system of coordinates 5. Plot the points 6. Connect the points

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.10: f = 2x + 2 5.16 Example Sketch the function f (x) = x 2 2x Solution: General steps to draw graphs by hand: 1. Rewrite the function in the familiar format y = x 2 2x x y (x,y) -2 8 (-2,8) -1 3 (-1,3) 0 0 (0,0) 1 -1 (1,-1) 2 0 (2,0) 3 3 (3,3) 4 8 (4,8)
Figure 5.11: f = 2x + 2
2. Create a table
148
Chapter 5 3. Draw a system of coordinates 4. Plot the points 5. Connect the points
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 1 2 3
Figure 5.12: The graph of points of (x,f(x))
Figure 5.13: The graph of function f(x)
5.17 Example Sketch the function f (x) = |x| on the interval [5,5] Solution: values: x y (x,y) -5 5 (-2,5) Rewrite as y = |x|. Select several values of x and compute the corresponding y -2 2 (-2,2) -1 1 (-1,1) 0 0 (0,0) 1 1 (1,1) 3 3 (3,3) 5 5 (5,5) Plot the points and connect them.
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.14: f = |x|
Figure 5.15: f = |x|
149
Introduction to Functions Interpretations of Graphs If the graph of a function is the only given representation. That is no formula or numerical values, then the graph can be used to determine the values, the domain and the range of the function. We also, can determine if a given graph represent a function or just a relation between variables. 1. Finding the values of a function from its graph We illustrate the techniques of estimating the values of the function from its graph by example. 5.18 Example The graph of function f is given in Figure (5.15) and the graph of function g is given in Figure (5.16). (a) Find f (1) (b) Find the value of x for which f (x) = 2 (d) Find g (1) (c) Is 1.5 in the domain of f ?
(e) Find the value of x for which g (x) = 1 (f) Is 3 in the domain of g ?
7 6 4 5 3 4 3 2 1 1
1 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.17
Solution: (a) To nd the value f (1): i. Locate 1 on the x-axis. ii. Move vertically until you reach the graph. iii. Move horizontally to the y-axis. iv. Estimate the value f (1) = 2. Note the point of intersection on the graph is (1,2). (b) To nd the value of x for which f (x) = 2: 150
Chapter 5 i. Locate 2 on the y-axis. ii. Move horizontally until you reach the graph. iii. Move vertically to the x-axis. iv. Estimate the value x = 3. The graph point is (3,2) To check if the input x = 1.5 in the domain of f , If the vertical line passing through the input point, intersects the graph, then the input is in the domain. That is x = 1.5 is in the domain of f . We follow the previous procedure to estimate that g (1) = 3 We estimate that x 2.25 for which g (x) = 1 The input 3 is not in the domain of g , because there is no intersection with the vertical line passing through x = 3.
(c)
(d) (e) (f)
2. Finding the domain and range of a function from its graph We note that the domain is assumed to be on x-axis and the range on y-axis. It is possible to estimate the domain by combining all x values such that the vertical line passing through it intersects the graph this approach can be said by considering the projection of the graph on x-axis. Similarly, the range can be estimated by identifying the projection of the graph on y-axis. 5.19 Example The graph of function f is given in Figure (5.15) and the graph of function g is given in Figure (5.16). (a) Find the domain and range of the function f (x) from Figure (5.15) (b) Find the domain and range of the function g (x) from Figure (5.16) Solution: (a) The graph of the function f (x) is extended in both direction. The projection on x-axis covers the entire line. Thus the domain is the set of all real numbers. The range is also the set of all real numbers. (b) The projection of the graph of g (x) can be seen to be the interval [2,3] which represents the domain. The range is the interval [4,5] 5.20 Example The graph of function f is given in Figure (5.17) and the graph of function g is given in Figure (5.18). (a) Find the domain and range of the function f (x) from Figure (5.17) (b) Find the domain and range of the function g (x) from Figure (5.18)
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1
1 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.18
Figure 5.19
151
Introduction to Functions Solution: (a) By considering the projection of the graph, we conclude that the domain of f(x) is [4,) and the range is [2,) (b) The domain of g (x) is the interval [3,3] and the range is [0,3] 3. Does every graph represent a function? Some graphs represent functions and some graphs do not. To test for functional relationship, we have the so called the vertical line test: If a vertical line intersects the graph at more than one point, then the graph does not dene a function. For example, the graph of Figures 5.19 and 5.20 do not represent a function because they fail the vertical line test.
Figure 5.20
Figure 5.21
152
Chapter 5
5.1.6 Homework: Introduction to Functions

Determine which of the relations are functions. 5.1.1 {(2,3),(4,5),(6,9), (2,11)} 5.1.2 {(1,0),(2,1),(3,0), (4,1)} 5.1.3 y = 3x + 1 5.1.4 x 2 + y 2 = 9 5.1.5 Given h(x) = x , nd 1. h(2) 2. h(3) 3. h( ) 5.1.12 f (x) = (x 3)2 5.1.13 f (x) = 4x 9 5.1.14 f (x) = x 3 5x 2 + 7 5.1.15 f (x) = 2 4 2x nd 5.1.16 f (x) = 5.1.17 f (x) =
6x 5x + 2 3x (x + 2)(3x 1) 1 3 4. h(a) 1 3 2 3
5.1.9 Given f (x) = x 2 + 5x 3, nd 1. f (2) + f (5) 2. f (2 + 5) 3. f (a) + 3 4. f (x) f (3) 5. 4f (x) Determine the domain of the following functions 5.1.10 f (x) = x 5.1.11 f (x) =
2 3x
5.1.6 Given f (x) = 3x + 1, nd 1. f (a) 2. f (a + 3) 3. f (a + h) 5.1.7 Given 1. f (a) 2. f (a 1) 3. f (a + h) 5.1.8 Given f (x) = x 2 6x + 9, nd 1. f (a) 2. f (3) 3. f (a 3) 4. f (3x) 5. f (x 2 )
f (x) = x 2 5x ,
5.1.18 F = {(1,2),(2,5),(3,10), (0, 1)} 5.1.19 F = {(1,1),(2,1),(3, 1),(4,1), } 5.1.20 f (x) =

3x x2 + 3
153
Quadratic Functions: Parabolas
5.2
OBJECTIVES Quadratic functions and parabolas The vertex and axis of symmetry Finding the zeros 6 Denition A quadratic function f in one variable x is a second degree polynomial function of the form
f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c,
where a,b, and c are real numbers and a = 0. For example, f (x) = x 2 2x 3 and f (x) = 4x 2 1. The simplest quadratic function is f (x) = x 2 . The graph of this function in the x-y plane, can be studied by plotting enough points y = x 2 as demonstrated in the two tables and the corresponding gures: x y (x,y) -3 9 (-3,9 -2 4 (-2,4) -1 1 (-1,1) 0 0 (0,0) 1 1 (1,1) 2 4 (2,4) 3 9 (3,9)
and the table with additional points

5 2 3 2 1 2 1 2 1 4 3 2 9 4 5 2 25 4
x y
-3 9
-2 4
-1 1
0 0
1 1
2 4
3 9
25 4
9 4
1 4
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure 5.22: 7 points of (x, y = x 2 )
Figure 5.23: 13 points of (x, y = x 2 ) 154
Chapter 5
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 1 2
Figure 5.24: The graph of quadratic function f (x) = x 2 The graph of y = x 2 is called parabola. It has a U shaped graph. The parabola has a line of symmetry that passes through its vertex. The vertex of a vertical parabola is its lowest point or highest point and its axis of symmetry is a vertical line passing through the vertex.
Parabolas have very interesting properties and can be observed in many applications
1. Any point on the parabolas is equidistant from a xed point (focus) and a straight line (directrix). 2. The surface of a liquid in a rotating container is a paraboloid of revolution. This can be observed by stirring a glass of water with a spoon. 3. A tossed stone travels along a parabola. 4. Parabolic mirrors are used in telescope construction.
Balls with different initial velocities 8 7 6 5 Height 4 3 2 1 0
8 Distance
10
12
14
16
Figure 5.25: Parabolas Every quadratic function in general form f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c can be rewritten in the form of
f (x) = a(x h)2 + k,
155
Quadratic Functions: Parabolas where h and k will be specied and derived in the following section. For example, the function f (x) = 3x 2 6x + 5 can be rewritten as f (x) = 3(x 1)2 + 2, so that h = 1,k = 2. Thus, the study of the graph of any quadratic function can be reduced to the investigation of the effects of the parameters a,h,k on the graph of the function.
5.2.1
Graphs of f (x) = ax 2
1. Compare the table values of y = x 2 ,
y = 2x 2 , y= 1 2 x , 4 y = 2x 2 , y = 3x 2
How is the graph of the parabola y = ax 2 changes as a varies? 5.21 Example
2. Graph y = x 2 , 3. Graph y = x 2 , 4. Graph y = x 2 ,
y = 3x 2 on the same system of coordinates y= 1 2 x on the same system of coordinates 16 1 2 x , 4 y= 1 2 x on the same system of coordinates 16
y = x 2 , y = 4x 2 , y =
5. Discuss the effect of changing a on their graphs.

x y = x2 y = 2x 2 y = 3x 2
0 0 0 0
1 2 3
4 8 12
9 18 27
16 32 48
Solution:
1. The output in the table values are multiplied by a factor a as compared to y = f (x). 2. The graphs of y = 2x 2 , y = 3x 2 are vertically stretched by a factor of a 3. The graph y = x 2 ,
1 2 y=
1 2 x are vertically compressed by a factor of a 16 1 4. The graphs of y = x 2 , y = 4x 2 , y = x 2 are reected with respect to x-axis with vertical 4
stretching and compression.
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1
Figure 5.26
Figure 5.27
156
Chapter 5 7 Denition The the vertex of the parabolas y = ax 2 is the origin (0,0), and the axis of symmetry is the vertical line passing through the vertex: x = 0. Main conclusions The effects of a on the graph of y = ax 2 are 1. The parabola opens upward when a > 0 2. The parabola opens downward when a < 0 3. The parabola stretches vertically when |a| > 1 and compresses vertically when |a| < 1 4. The parabola has a vertex (0,0) and axis of symmetry x = 0
5 4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 2 3 4
Figure 5.28: y = x 2 , y = x 2 , y = 4x 2 , y = 1/4x 2
5.2.2
Graphs of f (x) = ax 2 + k
What are the effects of adding or subtracting k units to the output of the function f = ax 2 ? 5.22 Example Graph the parabolas and compare their graphs 1. y = x 2 , 2. y = x 2 + 3, 3. y = x 2 4
Figure 5.29: y = x 2 , x 2 + 3, x 2 4 157
Quadratic Functions: Parabolas The graph of y = x 2 + 3 is a vertical translation (or vertical shift) of the graph y = x 2 . Its vertex is (0,3). The graph of y = x 2 4 is shifted downward compared to the graph of y = x 2 . Its vertex is (0,4). Main conclusions Suppose the graph of y = ax 2 is given. The graph of y = ax 2 + k is a vertical shift, such that 1. If k > 0, then the shift is k units upward. 2. If k < 0, then the shift is k units downward.
5.2.3
Graphs of f (x) = a(x h)2
What are the effects of adding or subtracting h units to the input of the function f = ax 2 ? 5.23 Example Graph the parabolas and compare their graphs 1. y = x 2 2. y = (x 3)2 3. y = (x + 4)2
y = x2
Figure 5.30: y = (x + 4)2 , y = x 2 , y = (x 3)2 The graph of y = (x + 4)2 is a horizontal translation (or horizontal shift) of the graph y = x 2 , the shift is to the left by 4 units. Its vertex is (4,0). The graph of y = (x 3)2 is shifted to the right by 3 units, compared to the graph of y = x 2 . Its vertex is (3,0). Main conclusions Suppose the graph of y = ax 2 is given. The graph of y = a(x h)2 is a horizontal shift, such that 1. If h > 0, then the shift is h units to the left. 2. If h < 0, then the shift is h units to the right. 3. The graph of y = a(x h)2 has vertex (h,0) and axis of symmetry x = h .
5.2.4
Graphs of f (x) = a(x h)2 + k
The graph of the quadratic function f (x) = a(x h)2 + k is a parabola with vertex (h,k) and axis of symmetry x = h . The parabola opens up when the parameter a > 0 and opens down when a < 0. 5.24 Example Graph y = 2(x 3)2 4 by identifying the vertex and axis of symmetry. Solution: To nd the vertex we let h = 3,h = 3 and k = 4 so the vertex is (3,4) and the axis of symmetry is x = 3. The parabola opens up because a = 2 > 0. 158
Chapter 5 5.25 Example Determine the vertex, the axis of symmetry and the direction of y = (x + 1)2 4 Solution: The vertex is (1,4), The axis of symmetry is x = 1, and the parabola opens down (a = 1 < 0). 5.26 Example Determine the vertex and the axis of symmetry of y = 2(x 5)2 + 3 Solution: (a = 2 > 0). The vertex is (5,3), the axis of symmetry is x = 5, and the parabola opens up
159
5.2.5 Homework: Quadratic Functions

Graph the functions by setting up a table of values for x and y 5.2.1 y = 2x 2 4 5.2.2 y = x 2 + 4x + 4 Graph the reference function f (x) = x 2 , then graph the following functions by identifying their transformations 5.2.3 f (x) = x 2 + 2 5.2.4 f (x) = x 2 + 2 5.2.5 f (x) = (x 3)2 4 5.2.6 f (x) = (x + 5)2 + 6 5.2.7 f (x) = (x 3)2 1 Graph the reference function then graph the following functions by identifying their transformations 5.2.8 f (x) = x 2
1 2 f (x) = x 2 ,
5.2.9 f (x) = 4x 2 5.2.10 f (x) = x 2 5.2.11 f (x) = 5x 2 8 Identify the vertex and line of symmetry 5.2.12 f (x) = 3x 2 5 5.2.13 f (x) = 5(x + 4)2 2 5.2.14 f (x) = 2(x 3)2 + 9 5.2.15 f (x) = (x 5)2 +
5 6 1 4
5.2.16 f (x) = (x + 1)2 + 4 5.2.17 f (x) = (x 6)2 7 5.2.18 f (x) = 3(x + 2)2
160
Chapter 5
5.3
Quadratic Functions: General form
It is important to recognize that the graph of ay quadratic function of the form f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c is a vertical parabola. The characteristics of a parabola are 1. The vertex point 2. The direction of its opening: Up or down 3. The axis of symmetry 4. The x-intercept points which are also called zeros or roots of the quadratic function 5. The y-intercept point These values will be easily identied once we express the general form in standard form that is to write f (x) = a(x h)2 + k . This will be accomplished by completing the square method. We will illustrate these properties by the following examples: 5.27 Example Find the vertex and axis of symmetry of the quadratic function f (x) = x 2 + 2x Solution: We use completing the square method
f (x) = x 2 + 2x
= x 2 + 2x + 1 1
2
Add a number to complete the square and subtract it
= (x + 1) 1
Compare with f (x) = a(x h)2 + k to conclude that a = 1, h = 1, k = 1. The vertex is (1,1) and the axis of symmetry is x = 1. 5.28 Example Find the vertex and axis of symmetry of the quadratic function f (x) = x 2 3x Solution: We use completing the square method
f (x) = x 2 3x
9 9 4 4 3 9 = (x )2 2 4 = x 2 3x +
The vertex is (3/2,9/4) and the axis of symmetry is x = 3/2. 5.29 Example Find the vertex and axis of symmetry of the quadratic function f (x) = x 2 6x + 5 Solution: We use completing the square method
f (x) = x 2 6x + 5
= x 2 6x + 9 9 + 5 = (x 3)2 4
Compare with f (x) = a(x h)2 +k to conclude that a = 1, h = 3, k = 4. The vertex is (3,4) and the axis of symmetry is x = 3. 161
Quadratic Functions: General form 5.30 Example Find the vertex and axis of symmetry of the quadratic function f (x) = 2x 2 + 4x 6 Solution: We use completing the square method
f (x) = 2x 2 + 4x 6
= 2(x 2 + 2x) 6
2
Factor the coefcient of x 2 Add a number to complete the square and subtract it
= 2(x 2 + 2x + 1 1) 6 = 2(x + 2x + 1) 2 6
f (x) = 2(x + 1)2 8
Compare with f (x) = a(x h)2 + k to conclude that a = 2, h = 1, k = 8. The vertex is (1,8) and the axis of symmetry is x = 1. The general formula for nding the vertex of the quadratic function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c is given by
( b b , f ( )) 2a 2a
For example, the parameters of the parabola f (x) = 2x 2 +4x 6 are a = 2,b = 4,c = 6, thus the x-coordinate of the vertex is x =
4 b = = 1, the y-coordinate is computed as follows: y = f (1) = 2(1)2 + 4(1) 6 = 2a 4 2 4 6 = 8, that is the vertex is (1,8) as derived in the previous example. To see how this formula is
obtained we use the complete of square to the general form:

f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = a(x 2 +
b x) + c a b2 b2 b )+c = a(x 2 + x + a 4a 2 4a 2 b 2 b 2 4c a = a(x + ) + 2a 4a 4a b 2 4ac b 2 f (x) = a x + + 2a 4a
The last equation is the equation of quadratic function in standard form. By comparison, we have
b 4ac b 2 and k = . The value of k is hard to memorize, instead we use an equivalent but an 2a 4a 4ac b 2 b . easier substitution k = f (h) = f ( ) = 2a 4a h=
5.31 Example Find the vertex of the following parabolas: 1. y = 3x 2 12x 1 2. f (x) = 4x 2 6x + 7 3. y = 2x 2 + 5x Solution: Use the formulas: h =
b b and k = f (h) = f ( ) 2a 2a
12 = 2, k = y(2) = 3(2)2 12(2) 1 = 11 6 3 3 3 9 18 4 19 6 3 = , k = f ( ) = 4( )2 6( ) + 7 = +7 = 2. f (x) = 4x 2 6x + 7: a = 4,b = 6,c = 7, h = 8 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 2 3 45 45 45 15 2 = 3. y = 5x + 15x : a = 2,b = 15,c = 0, h = = , k = y() = 5( ) + 15( ) = 10 2 2 2 4 2 4
1. y = 3x 2 12x 1: a = 3,b = 12,c = 1, h =
162
Chapter 5
The y-coordinate of the vertex represent the minimum of upward parabola, or the maximum of downward parabola.
5.32 Example Find the length and width of a rectangle, whose sum is 18, so the area is a maximum. Solution: Let L = x be the length then the width will be W = 18 x . The area is their product and can be considered as a function of x : A = x(18 x) = x 2 + 18x . The parameter
a = 1 indicates the parabola opens down, and its vertex is the maximal value. x = A = (9)2 + 18(9) = 81 18 = 9 and 2
5.3.1
Finding the x- and y- intercepts
To nd the intercepts of f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c , we proceed as follows 1. The y-intercept is easily computed y = f (0) 2. The x-intercepts or (zeros) are the solution of the equation f (x) = 0 5.33 Example Find the intercepts of y = x 2 + 5x Solution: 1. The y-intercept: y = f (0) = 02 + 5(0) = 0, so the y-intercept is the point (0,0) 2. The x-intercepts: Set x 2 +5x = 0, solve by factoring x(x+5) = 0, hence x = 0,5, so the intercept points are (0,0) and (5,0)
5.34 Example Find the intercepts of y = x 2 6x + 8 Solution: 2. The x-intercepts: Set x 2 6x + 8 = 0, solve by factoring (x 4)(x 2) = 0, hence x = 2,4, so the intercept points are (2,0) and (4,0) 5.35 Example Find the zeros of the following quadratic functions 1. y = x 2 + x 2 2. y = x 2 + 4x 5 Solution: To nd the zeros, set y = 0 and solve the equations for x
1 1 + 4 1 5 = 2 2 Use quadratic formula with a = 1,b = 4,c = 5: x =
1. The y-intercept: y = f (0) = 02 6(0) + 8 = 0, so the y-intercept is the point (0,8)
1. x 2 + x 2 = 0. Use quadratic formula with a = 1,b = 1,c = 1: x = 2. x 2 + 4x 5 = 0, or x 2 4x + 5 = 0.

4 16 + 25 4 41 = 2 2
5.36 Example Find the vertex and the zeros of the parabola y = 4x 2 3x + 5 Solution: Identify a = 4,b = 3,c = 5 and use the vertex formula and the quadratic formula
3 3 53 3 53 3 3 = , y = f (x) = 4( )2 3 + 5 = ,( , ) 8 8 8 8 16 8 16 3 9 80 3 71 2. 4x 2 3x +5, x = = , the zeros are complex numbers, so the parabola does 8 8
1. The vertex: x =
not intersect x-axis.
163
Quadratic Functions: General form
5.3.2 Homework: Quadratic Functions: General Form

Write each quadratic function in the form y = a(x h)2 + k and sketch its graph. 5.3.1 y = x 2 4x 5.3.2 y = x 2 + 2x 5.3.3 y = x 2 6x + 9 5.3.4 y = x 2 + 14x + 50 5.3.5 f (x) = x 2 5x 2 5.3.6 f (x) = 2x 2 + 8x 5 5.3.7 f (x) = 3x 2 30x 70 Find the vertex, axis of symmetry, y-intercept, x-intercepts, and direction of the parabola, then sketch the graph. 5.3.8 y = x 2 4 5.3.9 y = x 2 1 5.3.10 y = 9 x 2 5.3.11 f (x) = x 2 2x + 3 5.3.12 f (x) = x 2 + 10x + 25 5.3.13 f (x) = x 2 8x + 12 5.3.14 f (x) = 3x 2 6x + 3 5.3.15 f (x) = x 2 + 4x + 1 5.3.16 f (x) = x 2 6 5.3.17 f (x) = x 2 + 5x 5.3.18 y = (x 4)2 1
164
Chapter 5
5.4
Function Transformations and their Graphs
8 Denition The graph of a function y = f (x) is the set of all points of the form (x, f (x)) plotted on the plane and x is any value in the domain of the function.
5.4.1
Graphs of basic functions
In this section, we will list the basic functions that are encountered in algebra and its applications. In this section, using graphing calculators is encouraged as an appropriate tool to investigate the properties of functions. 1. The power functions are the reference (base) functions for polynomials: f (x) = x 0 , x, x 2 , x 3 , x 4 , (a) The constant function has the form f (x) = a , where a is a real number. The graph of this function is a horizontal line. For example, y = 3 and y = 4 are two horizontal lines.
(b) The linear function is represented by the function f (x) = x . Its graph is a straight line. The general form of linear functions is f (x) = mx + b , for example, y = 2x + 5 and y = 3x + 1. The properties of linear functions are studied in the chapter on straight lines.
(c) The quadratic function is represented by the function f (x) = x 2 . We already studied the parabola and its graph. (d) The cubic function is represented by the function f (x) = x 3 . Its graph has two branches extending in opposite direction to Note that the similarity of graphs of even and odd powers. In the following sections, we will restrict our examples and illustrations to polynomials of degree three or less.
Figure 5.31: y = x 2
2. The root functions are the reference functions for radicals: f (x) = x, 3 x, 4 x, (a) The square root function is represented by the function f (x) = x . Its graph is a half horizontal parabola and its domain is restricted to positive numbers. (b) The cubic root function is represented by the function f (x) = 3 x . Its graph is a rotated graph of the cube function and its domain is the entire number line.
165
Function Transformations and their Graphs 3. The absolute value function is represented by the function f (x) = |x|. It has a V shaped graph. 4. The rational function is represented by the function f (x) =
x = 0 and it has two branches and it is called a hyperbola. 1 . This function is not dened at x
Figure 5.35: y = x
Figure 5.36: y =
Figure 5.37: y = |x|
Figure 5.38: y =
1 x
5.4.2
Transformations of Functions and their Graphs
In this section we will study the following questions: 1. What are the effects of shifting the output by a number on the graph of the function y = f (x)? That is how the graph of y = f (x)k is compared to the graph of y = f (x), where k is a real number? 2. What are the effects of shifting the input on the graph of the function y = f (x)? That is how the graph of y = f (x h) is compared to the graph of y = f (x) , where h is a real number? 3. What are the effects of scaling the output on the graph of the function y = f (x)? That is how the graph of y = a f (x) is compared to the graph of y = f (x) , where a is a real number?
The words: shift, transformation, translation have the same denition in this text.
In the following discussion, we will assume that the function y = f (x) is one of the basic functions and the numbers k and h are real positive numbers. Vertical Shifts (Vertical Translations) The graph of a function y = f (x) is a curve in the xy-plane. The coordinates of each point are the pairs of numbers (x, f (x). The graph of the function y = f (x) + k is also a curve. The coordinates of each point are the pairs (x, f (x) + k). Comparing the points (x, f (x) and (x, f (x) + k) shows a vertical shift upward by a k units. This leads to conclude that the graph of y = f (x) + k is a mere vertical shift of the graph of y = f (x) by k units upward. Similarly the graph of y = f (x) k is a vertical shift of the graph of y = f (x) by k units downward. 5.37 Example For the function y = |x|, sketch the graph of the following functions and compare them to the reference function. 1. y = |x| 2. y = |x| + 2 3. y = |x| 4 5.38 Example Graph the function y = f (x) = x 3 . Sketch and write the formula of the graph that it is obtained from y = x 3 by the following transformations: 166
Chapter 5 1. Shift the graph up by 2.5 units 2. Shift the graph down by 2 units 3. Shift the graph up by 1 units
y = |x| + 2
y = x 3 + 2.5
y = |x| 4
y = x3 2
Figure 5.39: y = |x|, y = |x| + 2, y = |x| 4
Figure 5.40: y = x 3 , y = x 3 + 2.5, y = x 3 + 1, y = x 3 2
Horizontal Shifts (Horizontal Translations) Comparing the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f (x + h) shows that the graph of y = f (x + h) is the same as the y = f (x) but horizontally shifted to the left by h units. Similarly, the graph of y = f (x h) is the same as graph y = f (x) but horizontally shifted to the right by h units.
Note that the shift in the input moves in the opposite sign:
2. The shift of f (x h) is h units to the right. For example, the functions y = (x 2)2 , y = (x 3)3 , y = |x 2|, y = x 2 are shifted two units to the right.
1. The shift of f (x +h) is h units to the left. For example, the functions y = (x 2)2 , y = (x 3)3 , y = |x 2|, y = x 2 are shifted two units to the right.
5.39 Example Plot the function y = x , then use the shifting techniques to sketch the graphs of 1. y = x 4, 2. y = x + 5,
y= y= x +4 x 5 y= x +5
y=
x +5
y=
x 4
y=
x 4
Figure 5.41: y = x, y = x + 5, y = x + 5, y = x 4, y = x 4 167
Function Transformations and their Graphs Stretching and Compression 9 Denition For a well dened function y = f (x), we have 1. The graph of y = a f (x) is stretched away from x-axis if a > 1 2. The graph of y = a f (x) is compressed towards x-axis if a < 1 5.40 Example Graph the function y = |x| and sketch the graph of the scaled functions 1. y = 2|x| 2. y = |x| 5.41 Example Graph the function y = f (x) = x and sketch the graphs of the scaled functions 1. y = 4 x 2. y =
1 x 2 y = 2|x| y =4 x 1 4
y=
1 |x| 4
y=
1 x 2
Figure 5.42: y = |x|, y = 2|x|, y = |x|
1 4
Figure 5.43: y = x, y = 4 x, y =
1 x 2
Reections The graph of a function y = f (x) can be reected vertically and horizontally. We start with the reection of a point P(x, y): 1. The point V (x,y) is called the vertical reection or simply the reection of P across x-axis. For example The points P(2,3) and V (2,3) are vertical reections. 2. The point H (x, y) is called the horizontal reection or simply the reection of P across x-axis. For example The points P(2,3) and H (2,3) are horizontal reections.
Figure 5.44: The point P and its reections The reections of a function follow the same constructions. 168
Chapter 5 1. The graph of y = f (x) is the vertical reection (with respect to x-axis) of the graph of y = f (x). 2. The graph of y = f (x) is the horizontal reection (with respect to y-axis) of the graph of y = f (x). 5.42 Example Graph the function y = f (x) = x and sketch the graphs of the following functions 1. y = x 2. y = x
y=
y=
y = x
Figure 5.45: y = x, y = x, y = x Combining shifts and reections For a given graph of a function y = f (x), the graph of y = f (x h) + k is 1. a vertical shift of k units and 2. a horizontal shift of h units of the graph of y = f (x). The graph of y = f (x h) + k is a vertical shift of k units, a horizontal shift of h units, and a reection of the graph of y = f (x). 5.43 Example Assume the graph of y = f (x) is given. Identify the translations and reections that can be applied to y = f (x) to graph the following functions: 1. y = f (x) + 4 2. y = f (x 4) 3. y = f (x) 6 4. y = f (x + 6) 5. y = f (x) + 5 6. y = f (x 5) 7 7. y = f (x + 1) 3 8. y = 3 f (x 2) + 8 Solution: 1. y = f (x) + 4: 4 units up
5. y = f (x) + 5: 5 units up and a vertical reection 169
4. y = f (x + 6): 6 units to the left
3. y = f (x) 6: 6 units down
2. y = f (x 4): 4 units to the right
Function Transformations and their Graphs 6. y = f (x 5) 7: 7 units down, 5 units to the right, and a vertical reection
8. y = 3 f (x 2) + 8: 8 units up, 2 units to the right, and a vertical stretching
7. y = f (x + 1) 3: 3 units down, 1 units to the left, and a vertical reection
5.44 Example The graphs of y = f (x) and y = g (x) are given in the gures. Find an expression for the function g (x).
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
f = x2
0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0
f = x2 g
0 1 2 3 4 5
f = x2
5 4 3 2 1
Figure 5.46: a
Figure 5.47: b
Figure 5.48: c
Solution:
The formulas of the function g are:
3. Figure c: g (x) = (x 3)2 2
2. Figure b: g (x) = (x + 3)2 + 1
1. Figure a: g (x) = (x 2)2 + 1
5.45 Example The graphs of y = f (x) and y = g (x) are given in the gures. Find an expression for the function g (x).
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
g f = |x|
f = x3
0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0
f =
0 1 2
g
1 2 3 4 5
3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.49: a
Figure 5.50: b
Figure 5.51: c
Solution:
1. Figure a: g (x) = x 3 + 2
2. Figure b: g (x) = x + 3 2 3. Figure c: g (x) = |x 2| + 5
170
Chapter 5 5.46 Example The graph of the function y = f (x) is given. Match the following functions to the graphs in the gure. 1. y = f (x 2) 3 2. y = f (x) + 4 3. y = f (x + 4) + 2 4. y = f (x + 2.5) 2.5
5 4 3 2 1
(a)
(b)
f
0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(c)
(d )
Figure 5.52: Functions Matching
Solution: 1. y = f (x 2) 3: (d)
4. y = f (x + 2.5) 2.5: (b)
3. y = f (x + 4) + 2: (c)
2. y = f (x) + 4: (a)
171
Function Transformations and their Graphs
5.4.3 Homework: Function Transformations

Identify the function y = f (x) and list the transformations in each function. 5.4.1 f (x) = (x 3)2 + 5 5.4.2 f (x) = (x + 4)3 5.4.3 f (x) = |x 5| 3 5.4.4 f (x) = x 2 4 Write the equation of the graph after the requested transformations. 5.4.5 The graph of y = |x| is shifted two units downward. 5.4.6 The graph of y = |x| is shifted ve units to the left and one unit upward. 5.4.7 The graph of y = x 3 is shifted three units to the right and three unit upward. 5.4.8 The graph of is shifted four units downward and is reected with respect x-axis. 5.4.9 The graph of y = x is shifted two units upward, seven units to the right and is reected with respect xaxis. Use transformations of the function y = x 3 to graph the following functions. 5.4.10 f (x) = (x + 6)3 3 5.4.11 f (x) = x 3 + 2
y = x3
5.4.12 f (x) = (x + 1)3 3 5.4.13 f (x) = 0.5x 3 5.4.14 f (x) = 2x 3 + 8 Use transformations of the function y = |x| to graph the following functions. 5.4.15 f (x) = |x 2| 5.4.16 f (x) = |x + 3| + 4 5.4.17 f (x) = |x| + 5 5.4.18 f (x) = |x 6| + 2 5.4.19 f (x) = 3|x| 5.4.20 f (x) = |x| 1 Use transformations of the function y = x to graph the following functions. 5.4.21 f (x) = x 5.4.22 f (x) = 4 + x 5.4.23 f (x) = x 6 + 3 5.4.24 f (x) = x + 2 + 2 5.4.25 f (x) = x 3 4 5.4.26 f (x) = 4 x
1 4
172
Chapter 5
5.5
The Algebra of Functions and Composition
Numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided to produce new numbers. Functions can also be combined using arithmetic operations to produce new functions. In addition, there is a new way of combining functions called composition will be introduced in this section. Questions related to the domains of the resulting functions will be discussed.
5.5.1 The Algebra of Functions

In this section, we introduce some of the common techniques of construction functions and combining them. The standard algebraic operations are well dened for functions as long as there are common elements between their domains. These operations are the sums, differences, products, quotients and roots of functions. For any two functions f (x) dened on a domain D f and g (x) dened on a domain D g , such that the intersection of these domains is not empty; that is D f D g = , we dene the four arithmetic operations on the functions f , g for any common point in their domains, that is for any x D f D g : Sum of functions: ( f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) Difference of functions: ( f g )(x) = f (x) g (x) Product of functions: ( f g )(x) = f (x) g (x) Quotient of functions:
f f (x) given that g (x) = 0 (x) = g g (x)
5.47 Example Let f (x) = 2x + 4 and g (x) = x 2 2x . Find the following functions and their domains. 1. f + g 2. f g 3. f g 4.
f g
Solution: 1. ( f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = 2x + 4 + x 2 2x = x 2 + 4. Domain is the set of all real numbers R 2. ( f g )(x) = f (x) g (x) = 2x + 4 (x 2 2x) = x 2 + 4x + 4. Domain is R 3. ( f g )(x) = f (x)g (x) = (2x + 4)(x 2 2x) = 2x 3 8x . Domain is R 4.
2x + 4 f (x) f = . Domain is x = 0,2 (x) = g g (x) x(x 2)
5.48 Example Let f (x) = x 5 and g (x) = x 2 + x . Find the following values. 1. ( f + g )(3) 2. (2 f g )(1) 3. ( f g )(2) 4. ( )(a) Solution: 1. ( f + g )(3) = f (3) + g (3) = 3 5 + 32 + 3 = 10
f g
2. (2 f g )(1) = 2 f (1) g (1) = 2(1 5) ((1)2 1) = 12 173
The Algebra of Functions and Composition 3. ( f g )(2) = f (2) g (2) = (2 5)(22 + 2) = 18 4. ( )(a) =
f g f (a) a 5 = g (a) a 2 + a
5.49 Example Let f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = . Find the following functions and their domains. 1. f + g 2. f g 3. f g 4.
f g
2 x
Solution:
2 x 2 2 2. ( f g )(x) = f (x) g (x) = x . Domain {x = 0} x 2 2 3. ( f g )(x) = f (x)g (x) = (x )( ) = 2x . Domain {x = 0}. This is because ( f g )(0) is undened. x f (x) x 2 x 3 f (x) = 4. = . Domain {x = 0} = 2 g g (x) 2 x
1. ( f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = x 2 + . Domain {x = 0}
5.5.2
Difference Quotients
f (a + h) f (a) are called difference quotients. These quotients are very h important in calculus, since they represent the average change of the function f between the points a + h and a and they lead to the denition of derivative.
10 Denition Ratios of the form
5.50 Example Find the difference quotient Solution:
f (a + h) f (a) for f (x) = 3x + 5 h
We divide the work into the following steps
3. f (a + h) f (a) = 3(a + h) + 5 = 3a + 3h + 5 3a 5 = 3h 4.
f (a + h) f (a) 3h = =3 h h
2. f (a + h) = 3(a + h) + 5 = 3a + 3h + 5
1. f (a) = 3a + 5
5.51 Example Find the difference quotient Solution: We follow the steps
f (a + h) f (a) for f (x) = 7x 2 h
1. f (a) = 7a 2
3. f (a + h) f (a) = 7a 7h 2 (7a 2) = 7a 7h 2 + 7a + 2 = 7h 4.
f (a + h) f (a) 7h = = 7 h h
2. f (a + h) = 7(a + h) 2 = 7a 7h 2
5.52 Example Find the difference quotient
f (a + h) f (a) for f (x) = x 2 h
174
Chapter 5 Solution: 1. f (a) = a 2
3. f (a + h) f (a) = a 2 + 2ah + h 2 a 2 = 2ah + h 2 = (2a + h)h 4.

f (a + h) f (a) (2a + h)h = = 2a + h h h
2. f (a + h) = (a + h)2 = a 2 + 2ah + h 2
5.53 Example Find Solution: 1. f (a) =

1 a
f (a + h) f (a) 1 for f (x) = h x
2. f (a + h) =
1 a +h
3. f (a + h) f (a) =
h h 1 1 f (a + h) f (a) a(a + h) = = = 4. h h a(a + h) h a(a + h)
1 a (a + h) h 1 = = a +h a a(a + h) a(a + h)
5.54 Example Find the difference quotient Solution: We follow the steps
f (x + h) f (x) for f (x) = 3 + 6x h
1. f (x + h) = 3 + 6(x + h) = 3 + 6x + 6h 2. f (x + h) f (x) = 3 + 6x + 6h (3 + 6x) = 3 + 6x + 6h 3 6x = 6h 3.

f (x + h) f (x) 6h = =6 h h
5.5.3
Composition of Functions
The composition of functions is a central idea in higher mathematics. This concept allows us to simplify the calculations on complicated expression with patterns and allows us to perform the operations in sequential process. First, we will introduce several illustrations and examples of the advantage of this concept, then we present the formal denition and nally we present additional examples and problems of composition of functions. 5.55 Example The function
f (x) = x2 + 1 1 + (x 2 + 1)3
has the repeated pattern x 2 + 1, thus by introducing a new function g (x) = x 2 + 1 and substituting it in the function f , we obtain a new function which is simpler to work with:
f (g ) = g 1+g3
5.56 Example The BP Gulf oil spill is the worst environmental disaster in US history. Assume the oil spill moves in circular motion on the water surface with a constant speed of 0.8 meters/min. How large is the oil spill in one hour, in one day? 175
The Algebra of Functions and Composition Solution: The area of the circular spill is given by the formula A = r 2 and the spread of the oil spill is given by the distance formula r = 0.8t for t in minutes. The distance is the radius of the circle. In this problem, we have two functions A = A(r ) depending on radius, and r = r (t) depending on time. Thus, after one hour we have r = 1.2 60 = 48 meters, and A = (48)2 7235 square meters. After one hour, r = 0.8 60 60 1000 = 2.88 km with spill area A = (10.8)2 26 square kilometres. The radius of spill after a day, r = 69 km with spill area A = (692 ) 14.900 square kilometres. 5.57 Example A stone is dropped into a calm pond, causing ripples in the form of concentric circles. A gure of circular illusion of moving circles is given below. The radius (in feet) of the outer ripple (circle) is given by r (t) = 0.6t , where t is time in seconds after the stone strikes the water. The area of the circle is given by the function A(r ) = r 2 . 1. Find the area of the circle after 5 seconds. 2. Find and interpret the area as a function of t : A(r (t)). Solution: 1. At 5 seconds the radius is r =).6 = 3 meters, and the area of the circle with radius 3 is A = 32 28.3 square meters. 2. To compute the area as a function of time is to make the substitution:
A(t) = A(r (t)) = r 2 (t) = (0.6t)2 = 0.36t 2
Figure 5.53: Circular Illusion
5.58 Example Assume

f (x) = 3x 2
and
g (x) = 5x + 1
Compute the following values by substitution: 1. f (2) 2. f (a) 3. f (4a) 4. g (1) 176
Chapter 5 5. f (g ) 6. f (g (1)) 7. g ( f ) Solution: 1. f (2) = 3(2) 2 = 6 2 = 4
3. f (4a + 2) = 3(4a + 2) 2 = 12a + 6 2 = 12a + 4 5. f (g ) = 3g 2 4. g (1) = 5(1) + 1 = 6
2. f (a) = 3a 2
7. g ( f ) = 5 f + 1
6. f (g (1)) = 3g (1) 2 = 3 6 2 = 18 2 = 16
The substitution (or feeding) of a function into another function is called composition of functions. 11 Denition Assume f and g are two functions such that the domain of f contains the range of g . The composition of f and g is a new function denoted by f g , and it is dened by
f g = ( f g )(x) = f (g (x))
The function f g is read 1. f circle g or 2. f of g or 3. f composed with g . 5.59 Example Assume f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = 3x + 2 1. evaluate g (3) 2. evaluate ( f g )(3) 3. evaluate f (2) 4. evaluate (g f )(2) 5. Find a formula for the composition f g 6. Find a formula for the composition g f Solution: 1. g (3) = 3(3) + 2 = 9 + 2 = 7 3. f (2) = (2)2 = 4 2. ( f g )(3) = f (g (3)) = f (7) = (7)2 = 49
4. (g f )(2) = g ( f (2)) = g (4) = 3(4) + 2 = 12 + 2 = 14 6. g f = (g f )(x) = g ( f (x)) = g (x 2 ) = 3x 2 + 2
5. f g = ( f g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (3x + 2) = (3x + 2)2 = 9x 2 + 12x + 4
5.60 Example Assume f (x) = x and g (x) = x 2 9. Find formulas for f g and g f . Use these formulas to evaluate ( f g )(5) and (g f )(100). Solution: 177
The Algebra of Functions and Composition 1. ( f g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (x 2 9) = x 2 9
3. ( f g )(5) = f (g (5)) = 52 9 = 25 9 = 4 4. (g f )(100) = g ( f (100)) = 100 9 = 91

g (x) =
2. (g f )(x) = g ( f (x)) = g ( x) = ( x)2 9 = x 9
5.61 Example Assume f (x) = x 2 4, 1. ( f g )(5) 2. ( f h)(4) 3. (h f )(4) 4. ( f f )(0) 5. ( f g h)(2) 6. ( f g f )(0) Solution:
2 , x
h(x) = 5x , evaluate the following expressions
2 4 96 2 4 = 5 5 25 25 2 2. ( f h)(4) = f (h(4)) = f (5 4) = f (20) = (20) 4 = 400 4 = 396
1. ( f g )(5) = f (g (5)) = f ( ) = ( )2 4 =
3. (h f )(4) = h( f (4)) = h(42 4) = h(12) = 5 12 = 60
2 1 1 99 ) = f ( ) = 4 = 10 5 25 25 2 1 1 15 6. ( f g f )(0) = f (g ( f (0))) = f (g (4)) = f ( ) = f ( ) = 4 = 4 2 4 4
4. ( f f )(0) = f ( f (0)) = f (02 4) = f (4) = (4)2 4 = 16 4 = 12
5. ( f g h)(2) = f (g (h(2))) = f (g (10)) = f (
5.62 Example Assume f (x) = 1. ( f g )(x) 2. (g h)(x) 3. (h f )(x) 4. ( f g h)(x) 5. (h h)(x) 6. (h h h)(x) Solution:
x , x +2
g (x) = x 1,
h(x) =
1 , nd formulas for the following compositions x
1. ( f g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (x 1) = 2. 3.
4.
5.
x 1 x 1 = x 1+2 x +1 1 1x 1 (g h)(x) = g (h(x)) = g ( ) = 1 = x x x x x +2 (h f )(x) = h((x)) = h( )= x +2 x 1x 1x 1x x 1x 1x x = x = )= = ( f g h)(x) = f (g (h(x)) = f ( 1x 1+x x x 1+x 1+x +2 x x 1 (h h)(x) = h(h(x)) = h( ) = x x
178
Chapter 5 6. (h h h)(x) = h(h(h(x)) = h(x) =

1 x
5.63 Example Express the following functions as a composition of two functions in the form f g . 1. u = (x + 7)4 2. u = 2x + 3 3. u =
x4 1 + x4
Solution: 1. u = (x + 7)4 , g (x) = x + 7, f (x) = x 4 , u = f g . 3. u =

x x4 , u = f g. , g (x) = x 4 , f (x) = 1+x 1 + x4
2. u = 2x + 3, g (x) = 2x + 3, f (x) = x , u = f g .
179
The Algebra of Functions and Composition
5.5.4 Homework: Algebra of Functions and Compositions

Find f + g , f g , f g , f /g and specify the domain. 5.5.1 f (x) = 2x + 3, g (x) = 2x 3 5.5.2 f (x) = x 2 x, g (x) = x 2 6 5.5.3 f (x) = x + 1, g (x) = x 5.5.4 f (x) = x 2 + 5x 6, g (x) = 5x x 2 6 Find ( f g )(x) and (g f )(x) 5.5.5 f (x) = 3x + 3, g (x) = 2x 5.5.6
f (x) = x 2 + 1, g (x) = x 2 + 1 g )(3)
5.5.11 Given f (x) = 3x +1, g (x) = x 2 2, nd ( f g )(1),( f
5.5.12 Given f (x) =
1 , g (x) = 3x 1, nd ( f g )(2),( f g )(1) x
f )(4)
5.5.13 Given f (x) = |x 2|, g (x) = x 2, nd ( f g )(4),(g
5.5.14 Given f (x) = 2x 2 3, nd 1. f (0) 2. f (x + h) 3.

f (x + h) f (x) h
5.5.7 f (x) = 2x + 4, g (x) = x 4 5.5.8 f (x) = x + 4, g (x) = x 2 1 5.5.9 f (x) =

1 , g (x) = 2x + 5 x 1 1 , g (x) = 2 x x
5.5.15 Given f (x) = 3x 6, nd 1. f (h) 2. f (a) 3.

f (a) f (h) a h 2 f (x + h) f (x) , nd x h
5.5.10 f (x) =
5.5.16 Given f (x) =
180
Chapter 5
5.6
Inverse Functions
The concept of inverse process indicates the reversal process. For example, the inverse of addition is subtraction, the inverse of multiplication is division, the inverse of clockwise rotation is anticlockwise rotation. In mathematics, it is important to dene the inverse of every operation. This includes the concept of functions. The function is a rule relating an input to an output, the inverse function is also a rule relating the output to the input. The following examples illustrate the concept of the inverse functions. 1. The process of buying and item. The input is paying money, say $10 for an item A (output). The inverse process is returning the item A and getting the initial refund for $10. 2. The price of gasoline is $4 per gallon. The cost of x gallons is given by the function C = 4x . So 10 gallons cost $40. The inverse problem is how many gallons can one buy for $30?. So the inverse function is x = C /4 or x = 30/4 = 7.5 gallons. 3. Let the function f be dened by the set of ordered pairs: f = {(1,3),(2,5),(3,7),(4,9)}, then its inverse is another function g that reverses the rule and it is dened by the pairs: g = {(3,1),(5,2),(7,3),(9,4)}. However, the function h dened by h = {(1,3),(2,3),(5,1)} does not have an inverse function because the reversal set H = {(3,1),(3,2),(1,5)} has an input 3 with two different outputs 1 and 2 so the relation H is not a function. From the previous examples, we observe that not every function has an inverse and that nding the inverse requires a procedure.
5.6.1
One-to-one Functions
12 Denition A function f is called one-to-one if for each number in the range (output) there is only number in the domain (input). That is for every y in the range there is only one x such that f (x) = y . For example, 1. The function f = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)} is a one-to-one function, each output appears only once. 2. The function g = {(1,1),(2,1),(3,1),(4,4)} is not a one-to-one function, because the output 1 appears more than once. 3. The function f (x) = x 2 is not a one-to-one function, because the output 16 correspond to two inputs: x 2 = 16 has two solutions x = 4,4. Graphically, we have the so called horizontal line test: 13 Denition A function f is one-to-one if no horizontal line intersects the graph of the function at more than one point.
181
Inverse Functions Applying the horizontal line test to the graphs below, we conclude that the graph in gure a is a on-to-one function, but the graphs of gures b and c are not one=to-one functions since they fail the horizontal test.
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.54: a
Figure 5.55: b
Figure 5.56: c
5.64 Example Use the horizontal line test to determine whether the following graphs are graphs of a one-to-one functions.
Figure 5.57: a
Figure 5.58: b
Figure 5.59: c
Solution:
1. Figure a: not a one-to-one function 2. Figure b: one-to-one function 3. Figure c: not a one-to-one function
5.6.2 Inverse Functions

The inverse of a function f (x) is the function that reverses the rule of assignment and it is denoted by values and by interchanging the x- and y- coordinates to obtain a table for the inverse function:
f 1 (x). For example, the inverse of f (x) = 2x is the function f 1 (x) = 1 x . Given a table of few function 2
182
Chapter 5
x -2 0 1 3
f (x) = 2x
-4 0 2 6
x -4 0 2 6
f 1 (x) =
1 x 2
-2 0 1 3
It is simple to check that for any input x , we have the compositions f f 1 (x) = x and f 1 f (x) = x . Based on this observation we dene the inverse function as follows: 14 Denition Suppose f (x) is a one-to-one function. The function f 1 (x) is the inverse function of f , if f f 1 (x) = x for every x in the domain of f 1 and f 1 f (x) = x for every x in the domain of f .
and expressions. For example 41 =
Note that exponent 1 of any function denotes the inverse function, unlike the exponents of numbers
1 1 but the inverse f 1 = . 4 f
Finding the inverse function 1. If the function is given by a set of ordered pairs of numbers, then interchange the the x- and y- coordinates to obtain a set for the inverse function. For example, the inverse function of f = {(2,3),(3,4),(4,0)} is the function f 1 = {(3,2),(4,3),(0,4)}. 2. If the function is given by a formula such as f (x) = 2x + 4 , then we follow the steps (a) Substitute f (x) by y , that is y = f (x) (b) Interchange x and y, that is x = f (y) (c) Solve for y in terms of x (d) Substitute f 1 for y 5.65 Example Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 2x + 4. Solution: 1. Substitute f (x) by y : y = 2x + 4 2. Interchange x and y: x = 2y + 4 183
Inverse Functions 3. Solve for y in terms of x :

x = 2y + 4
x 4 =y 2 x 4 y= 2
x 4 = 2y
4. Substitute f 1 for y : f 1 =
x 4 2
5.66 Example Find the inverse of the function f (x) = x 3 . Solution: We follow the standard steps:
y = x3
x = y3 x=y y= =
3
x x
5.67 Example Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 1 6x . Solution: We follow the standard steps:
y = 1 6x
x 1 =y 6
x 1 = 6y
x = 1 6y
x 1 6 x 1 1 f = 6 y =
5.68 Example Find the inverse of the function f (x) = x + 4. Solution: We follow the standard steps:
y= x=
2
x +4 y +4
x 4 = y
x = y +4 y = x2 4
f 1 = x 2 4
5.69 Example Find the inverse of the function f (x) = x 3 10. 184
1 8
Chapter 5 Solution: We follow the steps:

1 3 x 10 8 1 x = y 3 10 8 1 x + 10 = y 3 8 8(x + 10) = y 3 y= 2 x + 10 = y
3
f 1 = 2 x + 10
y = 2 x + 10
3
Graphical representation of inverse functions In the gure below, we plot the function f (x) = x +1 in black and its inverse function f 1 (x) = 2(x 1) 2 in red.
1
Figure 5.60: Function and its inverse We note that the graphs of f and its inverse f 1 are symmetric with respect to the line y = x . In general every point (a,b) on a one-to-one function, corresponds to a point (b, a) on its inverse. These points are symmetric with respect to the line y = x . Thus, the graph of the inverse function f 1 can be obtained from the graph of the function f . As illustrated in the gures
Figure 5.61: Function and its inverse
185
Inverse Functions
5.6.3 Homework: Inverse Functions

Determine the inverse of the following functions 5.6.1 F = {(1,0),(2,3),(3, 8), (4, 15)} 5.6.2 G = {(1, a),(0,b),(1, c))} 5.6.3 f (x) = 4x 5.6.4 f (x) = 3x 2 5.6.5 f (x) = x 5.6.6 f (x) =
1 3 x 27
5.6.9 f (x) =
2 x 1 3x 2
5.6.10 f (x) =
5.6.11 f (x) = x 2 +16 where the domain of f equals (0,) Graph the following functions, then sketch the graph of its inverse using the symmetry property. 5.6.12 f (x) = 2x 4 5.6.13 f (x) = 3x + 6 5.6.14 f (x) = x + 3 5.6.15 f (x) = x 4
5.6.7 f (x) = x 4 5.6.8 f (x) = x + 10

3 5
186
Chapter 5
5.7
Exercises
Determine the domain of the functions 1. f (x) = x 3 x + 1 2. g (x) = 3. f (x) =

2 x 2 4x + 3 x +2 2x + 9
4. f (x) = x + 4 5. h(x) = x 2 25 Evaluate the following Given f (x) = x 2 2x 3 and g (x) = 6. f (3) and g (3) 7. f (u) and g (3u) 8. f (t + s) and g (s 2 t 2 ) and g (3x + 3) 9. ( f g )(x) and (g / f )(x) 10. Given f (x) = x 2 x 4 and g (x) = x + 2. Find a. ( f g )(x), b. (g f )(x) Graph the functions 11. f (x) = 3 + x 2 + 5 12. g (x) = 3 2 | x 4 | and h(x) = 3 + 2 | x 4 | on the same system 13. f (x) = x 2 + 4x 7 and nd its vertex and axis of symmetry 14. y = x 2 5x + 3, on the interval (1,6) 15. y = x 3 + x 1, on the interval (3,3) 16. y = x 4 7x 2 + 3x 12, on the interval (3,4) 17. y = x 100 x 2 , on the interval (2,8) 18. f (x) = x 25 x 2 , on the interval (0,6) and show that f (3) = f (4) 19. A golf ball is hit into the air. The height h in feet is given by h(t) = 16t 2 + 96t , where t is time in
3 x 3
seconds. 1. Find the time at which the ball reached its maximum height. 2. Find the maximum height. 3. After how many seconds did the ball hit the eld. Assuming the eld to be at. 187
Exercises
20. Let the function f dened by f (x) = ax 2 1. Find the value a , given that f ( f ( 1) = 1 Answer:
a(a 1)2 1 = 1, a 3 2a 2 + a 1 1 = 0, a 2 (a 2) + (a 2) = 0, a = 2. 2(x + 3) 21. If f (2x) = . Find 3 f (x). 3
Answer: f (2x) =
x 2x + 2 so f (x) = + 2 and 3 f (x) = x + 6 3 3
188
System of Linear Equations
OBJECTIVES The Graphing Method Substitution Method Addition Method A puzzle problem A woman has two daughters. The daughters are twins and they have the same height. The height of the woman and one daughter is 9 feet. The total height of the three women is 12 feet. What are the heights of the woman and her daughters? Solution: Assume the height of the woman is w and the height of a daughter is d then we have the relations: w + d = 9 and w + 2d = 12 we observe that an extra d in the second equation increases the right side by 3 so d must be 3 and then w = 6 Now instead suppose we have the combination
w + 2d w +d =9 = 12
in this case d = 3 and w = 6 feet. This system of equations can be rewritten in terms of the variables x = w and y = d :
x + 2y x+y =9 = 12
6.1 Example Check that x = 5 and y = 3 solve the equations

3x + 5y x+y =8 = 30
We are interested in solving a pair of equations simultaneously. such as the system of two linear equations.
2x y x + 2y =4 =3
There are many ways of solving system of linear equations. In this section, we present three methods of solving system of equations: Graphical method: using graphing calculators. Algebraic method I: Substitution method. Algebraic method II: Elimination (Addition) method.
6.1
The Graphing method
1. Graph each line. 2. Find the coordinates of the intersection point. These coordinates are the solution. 3. If the graphs are parallel, then the system has no solution. 189
The Graphing method 4. If the graphs are identical, then there are innite many solutions. Every point on the line is solution to both equations. 5. Check your solution 6.2 Example Solve the system of equations using graphing calculator Solution: 1. Solve each equation for y :
y y = (x + 4)/2 = 2x 3 x + 2y =4
2x y
=3
2. Graph the lines: Y 1 = (X + 4)/2 and Y 2 = 2X 3 4. press Enter three times
3. Press 2nd, CALC, select from the menu 5: intersect 5. copy the coordinates of the intersection point: X = 2,Y = 1
4
x + 2y = 4
3 2 1
1 1 2 3 4
2x y = 3
Figure 6.1: Graphic solution of the system of equations
6.3 Example Solve the system by graphing method Solution: 1. Solve each equation for y :
y y = x + 3 = (x + 3)/2
x 2y
x+y
=3
= 3
2. Graph the lines: Y 1 = X + 3 and Y 2 = (X + 3)/2 4. press Enter three times
3. Press 2nd, CALC, select from the menu 5: intersect 5. copy the coordinates of the intersection point: X = 1,Y = 2
190
Chapter 6 6. check that the coordinates of the intersection point (1,2) satisfy both equation.
4 3 2
x 2y = 3
4 3 2
x+y =3
1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
Figure 6.2: Graphic solution
6.4 Example Solve the system by graphing method
6x 2y y
= 3x + 1 y y = (6x 4)/2 = 3x + 1
=4
Solution:
To graph the lines, we solve both for the variable y :
The two lines are parallel so they do not have any common point. The system of equation does not have a solution. System of equations that does not have a solution is called inconsistent system of equations.
4 3 2 1
6x 2y = 4
1 2 3 4
1 1 2
y = 3x + 1
3 4
Figure 6.3: Parallel Lines
6.5 Example Solve the system by graphing
4x + 2y y
=4
= 2x + 2
191
The Graphing method Solution: The two lines are the same line. Thus, there are innitely many solutions. Every point on one line satises the other line.
4 3 2 1
1 1 2 3 4
Figure 6.4: Same Line
6.6 Example Solve the system by graphing Solution:
4x + 6y
2x + 3y
= 24
=6
If possible.
The lines are parallel. There is no solution to this system of equations.

= 1 2 If possible. =3
5x + y 6.7 Example Solve the system by graphing 2 1 2x y 2
Solution:
Graph the two lines:
The solution is the intersection point (1,2).
5 1 = x+ 2 2 = 4x 6
4 3 2 1
4 3 2 1 2 3 4
Figure 6.5: Intersecting Lines
192
Chapter 6
6.2
The Substitution Method
1. Solve on equation for one variable (preferably with coefcient 1). 2. Substitute the resulting expression into the other equation and solve it. 3. Find the other value of the variable from any equation. 4. State and check the solution. 6.8 Example Solve the system of linear equations by substitution method Solution: 1. Solve the rst equation for y : y = 1 + 6x 2. Substitute in the second equation: 5x + (1 + 6x) = 12. Solve for x : x = 1. 3. Substitute back in any equation to nd y : y = 1 + 6(1) = 7. 4. The solution is x = 1, y = 7, or written as a point (1,7). 6.9 Example Solve the system of linear equations by substitution method Solution: 1. Solve the second equation for y : y = 4x 2. 2. Substitute in the rst equation: 3x + 2(4x 2) = 1 or 3x 8x 4 = 1. Solve for x : x = 1. 3. Substitute back in any equation to nd y : y = 4(1) 2 = 6. 4. The solution is (1,6)
x 4y = 6 3x + 2y = 1 6x + y = 1
5x + y = 12
4x + y = 2
6.10 Example Solve the system by substitution Solution: 1. Solve the rst equation for x : x = 4y + 6.
2x + y = 6
2. Substitute in the second equation: 2(4y + 6) + y = 6 or 8y + 12 + y = 6. Solve for y : y = 2. 3. Substitute back in any equation to nd x : x = 4(2) + 6 = 2. 4. The solution is (2,2)
4x + y = 13
6.11 Example Solve the system substitution Solution:
2x + 3y = 17
1. Solve the rst equation for y : y = 4x + 13. 2. Substitute in the second equation: 2x + 3(4x + 13) = 17 or 14x + 39 = 17. Solve for x : x = 4. 3. Substitute back in any equation to nd y : y = 4(4) + 13 = 3. 4. The solution is (4,3) 193
The Addition Method
6.3
The Addition Method
The addition method is also referred to as the elimination method. The procedure of this method is based on the following steps. 1. Write both equations in general form Ax + B y = C . 2. Multiply the terms of one or both so the coefcients differ only in sign. 3. Add the equations and solve for one variable. 4. Substitute the value in either equation and nd the other variable. 5. State the solution and check your solution. 6.12 Example Solve the system by Addition Method Solution: 1. Add both equations to get 2x = 16, solve for x : x = 8. 3. The solution is x = 8, y = 2
xy =6
x+y
= 10
2. Substitute in the second equation: 8 + y = 10. Solve for y : y = 2.
6.13 Example Solve the system by Addition Method Solution: 1. Multiply the second equation by 2 to get:
2x + 3y
4x + y
= 13
= 17
3. Substitute in the rst equation: 4x 3 = 13. Solve for x : x = 4. 4. The solution is x = 4, y = 3
2. Add both equations to get 7y = 21, solve for y : y = 3.
4x + 6y
4x + y
= 13
= 34
6.14 Example Solve the system Solution:
4x = 3(2 + y)
3(x 10) = 2y
1. Rewrite both equations in standard form:
4x 3y = 6
3x + 2y = 30 8x 6y 9x + 6y = 12 = 90
2. Multiply the rst equation by 2 and the second equation by 3 to get: 3. Add both equations to get 17x = 102, solve for x : x = 6.
4. Substitute in the second equation: 18 + 2y = 30. Solve for y : y = 6. 5. The solution is x = 6, y = 6
6.15 Example Solve the system Solution:
8x 4y = 7
y = 2x + 4
Substitute the rst equation in the second to get: 8x 4(2x + 4) = 7, simplify 8x 8x 16 = 7 or 16 = 7 which is contradiction. That is the system is inconsistent (No solution). 194
Chapter 6
4x + 6y = 12
6.16 Example Solve the system
2x 3y = 6
Solution: Multiply the second equation by 2 and add to the rst to get 0 = 0 which is an identity. That is there are innitely many solutions. Geometrically, the two lines are the same line.
5x y = 9
6.17 Example Solve by any method Solution:
x + 2y = 7
We suggest addition method:

10x 2y x + 2y =9
1. Multiply the rst equation by 2 to get:
= 7
2. Add both equations to get 11x = 2, solve for x : y = 2/11. 4. The solution is x = 2/11, y = 79/22
3. Substitute in the second equation: 2/11 + 2y = 7. Solve for y : y = 79/22.
6.18 Example Solve by any method Solution:
4x + y = 17
2x y = 7
We suggest addition method:
2. Substitute in the second equation: 4(12) + y = 17. Solve for y : y = 31. 3. The solution is x = 12, y = 31
1. Add both equations to get 6x = 24, solve for x : x = 12.
6.19 Example Solve by any method
3x 8 = 0
x 5y 10 = 0
x y + =1 2 6.20 Example Solve by any method x 6 y =2 3 2
Solution:
1. We multiply the equations by common multiples so all coefcient become integers: 2. Multiply the rst equation by 3 to get:
9x + 3y = 18
2x 3y = 12
3x + y = 6
2x 3y = 12
5. The solution is x = 30/11, y = 24/11
4. Substitute in the rst equation: y = 6 90/11. Solve for y : y = 24/11.
3. Add both equations to get 11x = 30, solve for x : x = 30/11.
195
The Addition Method 6.21 Example The sum of two numbers is 53 and their difference is 19. Find the numbers. Solution: 1. We assume the numbers to be x and y . They satisfy the following linear system of equations:
x y = 19 x + y = 53
4. The solution is x = 36, y = 57
3. Substitute in the rst equation: 36 + y = 53. Solve for y : y = 17.
2. Add both equations to get 2x = 72, solve for x : x = 36.
6.22 Example The income from a student production was $ 10,000. The price of a student ticket was $ 3, and non student tickets were sold at $ 5 each. Three thousand tickets were sold. How many tickets of each kind were sold?
3x + 5y = 10000 x + y = 3000
Solution:
Solve
x=2500, y=500
196
Chapter 6
6.3.1 Homework: System of Equations

Solve the system of equations graphically 6.3.1
3x y x+y = 11 =1
6.3.9
5x 2y y =8
= 5x + 7
6.3.2
4x + 6y 2x 3y = 12 =6
Solve the system by addition method 6.3.10

2x + 3y = 5
6.3.3
5x y y =5 =5
7x 3y
= 4
6.3.11
3x + 5y =2
6.3.4
1x 1 y 2 4 2x y
= 4 =7
7x 3y
= 1
6.3.12
2x + 1 y 3 3 4x 2y
Solve the system by substitution method 6.3.5

2x + 3y y = 15 = x +2
= 2 =3
Solve the system by either method 6.3.13
6.3.6
3x + 5y x + 4y = 20 =6
y 7x + y
6.3.7
y
= 1
= 5x + 2
6.3.8
6x 7y 2x 3y y
1 x +3 2 =9 =
6.3.14
x 2y = 10
3x + 6y =5 2 1 = x 3 3
= 10
6.3.15 The sum of two numbers is 54, and their difference is 20. Find the numbers.
197
Answers and Hints
1.1.1
5 6 3 5
1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.8
1 9 25 49 10 9a 2x 4 3 1 2y 3b 5 2 x +2 x 4 x 2 x +4 b b 6 x +2 3(x + 3) 4a 3
1.1.2
1.1.3 24a 2 1.1.4 a + b 1.1.5

4x 3y 2
1.1.6 8t 4 1.1.7 1.1.8 1.1.9 1.1.10 1.1.11 1.1.12

x 3 x x xy 3x 2 2x 1 4x 2 2 x +1 5n + 2 2 n 8 n 6
1.2.9 1.2.10
1.2.11 a + 2b 1.2.12 1.2.13 1.2.14 1.2.15
1.1.13 1 1.1.14 1 1.1.15 1.1.16 1.1.17

x 1 2 y 2 + x y + x2 y +x x 2 + 3x + 9 x +3
1.2.16 1 1.2.17 1.2.18 1.2.19 1.2.20 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3

1 2 s t 2x y 3(x + 3) 2t 2 + 9t 6t + 9 x +3 x 1 u 2 3u + 2 u +3 1 4
1.1.18 x + 1
1 1.1.19 3x + 1 1 1.1.20 2 1 1.2.1 2
1.3.4 1 1.3.5
1 x 2
1.2.2
5 3
1.2.3 a 2
1.3.6 1
198
Appendix A
1.3.7
u 1 u +1 11 10 a 2 + b2 + c 2 abc
1.3.30
1.3.8
1.4.1 2x 1.4.2
8b ac
2 1.3.9 15 3 1.3.10 4
1.4.3 m 1.4.4
2x 2 + 10x 5x 25 63 50 2a 1 2 y2 3y 2 x +2 x ab 2a 2 3n 7 5n 13 y 5x 10 5x + 7 y x y +x 2a 3b
1.3.11
7x + 7 12
1.4.5 2 1.4.6 1.4.7 1.4.8 1.4.9 1.4.10 1.4.11 1.4.12 1.4.13 1.4.14
4x 11 1.3.12 10 17 1.3.13 40x
1.3.14 1.3.15
8x + 9 30x 2 86n + 9 18n 2 5x 9
1.3.16
x 2 3x
1 1.3.17 7x + 1
1.3.18 1.3.19
b2 b
b2 4
y 2 2x y + x 2 y +x xy
x y x2 + x
1 x2 + x 2 1 ht 1 x+y x +3 x +2 x 2 2x 3 x 2 + 2x 3
1.3.20
1.4.15 1 1.4.16 1.4.17 1.4.18 1.4.19
3 1.3.21 3 2x
1.3.22 1.3.23 1.3.24 1.3.25 1.3.26 1.3.27 1.3.28
2x 2 + 5x
2x + 2
7n 12 5(n + 4)(n 4) 5x (x 2 + 1)(x + 1) 2x (x 1)(x + 1)2 2 (x 2)(x 3) 13x 3 5(x 1) 4x + 2 x2 1 4x 3 8x
1.4.20 1 1.4.21 1.4.22 1.5.1

a +1 a 1 16 a 17 3
1.5.3 3 1.5.4 1.5.5

58 21
1.3.29
x 4 5x 2 + 4
7 11
199
Answers and Hints

1.5.6
11 5
2.1.14 9 2.1.15 a 4 2.1.16 2.1.17 2.1.18

x4 y2 15 x2 y 6 1 a8
1.5.7 None 1.5.8

3 2
1.5.9 2,6 1.5.10

2 3
1.5.11 3,5
1 1.5.12 ,2 2
2.1.19 a 4 b 10 2.1.20 0 2.1.21 2x y 2.1.22 2 2.1.23 2.1.24

y x
1.5.13 1,1 1.5.14

5 9
1.5.15 4 1.5.16 6,5

3 3 7i 1.5.17 4
a 12 b 16 x +2 x3
2.2.1 9 2.2.2 3 2.2.3 81 2.2.4 3 2 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7

22/4 3/2 3
1.5.18
7 33 2
1.5.19 3 1.5.20 2 1.5.21 11/3 1.6 x = 8 2.1.1 72 2.1.2 59 2.1.3 49

81 2.1.4 16
2.2.8 14 3 2.2.11 3x 2 y 3 2.2.12 2a 2 b 2.2.13

5x 4 4y 2
2.1.5 32x 5 y 1 5 2.1.6 ab 3

8 2.1.7 bc 11
2.2.14 5 3 2.2.15 6x 2 3 2.2.16 2a 4 b 6 7 2.2.17 2x y 2 2 2.2.18 x y 2 x y z 2.2.19 x y z 2 2.2.20 2y z 2.2.21

x2 3y 2
4 3
2.1.8 27x 6 y 3 2.1.9 2.1.10

1 121 1 4000
y 2z 2
3x 2 z 2 5x
2.1.11 8/9 2.1.12 64 2.1.13 3/2
2.2.22 10x
200
Appendix A
2.2.23 12a 2.2.24 3ab 2 5 2.2.25 2x 2.2.26 10x 3 2x 2.2.27 6x y 2 3 y 2.2.28 2y 7x 2.3.1 7 3 2.3.2 2 6 2.3.3 11 3 2 2.3.4 18 3 3 2.3.5 3a 2 b 4 6a 2.3.6 4y 3 5x y 2.3.7 2.3.8 2
5 4
3
2.4.11 10abc 2.4.12 1 6x 2.4.13 x 10 x + 25 2.4.14 3x 3x 6 2.4.15 x 4y 2 2.4.16 3a 3b 2.4.17 x 1 2.4.18 a 2 a 2.4.19 3x + 6 3x + 9 2.4.20 5x 10 x y + 5y 2.4.21 8 + 2 7 2.4.22 4 2 4x x 2 2.5.1 2.5.2
2 2 3 x 3 x+y 2 2 a +4 3 21
4x 2
2.5.3 2.3.9 14b a 13a b 2.3.10 4x 6x 2.3.11

15x 2 y
3
2.5.4
3x y
2.3.12 7x y
2x 2 6x 2 y
2.5.5
3
2y
2.5.6
2.3.13 10x 4x 2 3 2 2.3.14 8x 10x 2.3.15 2xx

2x + 3x 2
2.5.7 3 2 2.5.8 2.5.9

5+2 3 2
2.3.16 7x 2 10x + 2x 2 5x 2.3.17 10x 3 2.3.18 6 5a 2.3.19 14 3 a 2.3.20 5 6a 2.4.1 30 2 2.4.2 60 2.4.3
6 + 21
3
2.5.10 7 4 3 2.5.11 5 3 + 3 5 + 15 + 3 2.5.12 2.5.13 2.5.14 2.5.15

x y
2a + 1 5( 2x + 5 2x 25
3
2 2 5t 2 5t
2.5.16
3
2.4.4 12 2 6 2.4.5 40 6 2.4.6 1 8 30 2.4.10 5a 5 ab 2.5.17 2.5.18
2x 2x x 4
2.5.19 10 3 10
201
Answers and Hints

2.5.20 2.6.1 2 2.6.2 5 2.6.3 8 2.6.4 No solution. 2.6.5 4 2.6.6 34 2.6.7 9/4 2.6.8 3 2.6.9 1 2.6.10 1 2.6.11 2,3 2.6.12 1 2.6.14 4 2.6.16 1,6 2.6.17 8,16 2.6.18 9 2.6.19 1,13 2.6.20 1,9/4 2.6.21 No solution. 2.7.1 3 2.7.2 1/7 2.7.3 16 2.7.4 1/125 2.7.5 27 2.7.6 64 2.7.7 10 2.7.8 81/16 2.7.9 2 2.7.10 2.7.11 2.7.12
4
4 x 4
2.7.14 (a 2 b 2 )1/2 2.7.15 (6x 2 y 3 )1/6 2.7.16 3x 2 2.7.17 6x 2 y 3 2.7.18 x + 64 2.7.19 1/6 2.7.20 4 2.7.21 2 2.7.22 2x 5/6 2.8.1 (3.5)(10)6 2.8.2 (7.803021)(10)3 2.8.3 (3.5)(10)4 2.8.4 (5.37)(10)7 2.8.5 2670 2.8.6 50.9 2.8.7 0.000300601 2.8.8 0.000300601 2.9 (1)9 + 18 = 0 2.9
9x 2 + 16x 2 5 = x 9 16 12 2
1 1 1 2.9 ( ) 4 = ( 2 )1/4 = (22 )1/4) = 21/2 = 4 2
2.9 ( )1 = ( 2.9 = x 7/8 2.9 6(66 ) = 67 2.9 = 515 2.9 =

230 + 220 212 + 222
1 4
1 3
1 1 ) = 12 12
28 = 16
2.9 = 3613 2.9 m =

m 2 , m m 2 = m 2 thus m = 1m x 2 1) = 1 . 10 2
2.9 Multiply by the denominator to get 1 + 1 = 20(x

3x (4a + 5b)2 x2 + y 2 x 2 1) That is (x x 2 1)(x + x 2 1) = 10.
Observe that (x
x 2 1) + 1 + 10 = 10.1. Substitute x 2 for x to get (x + x 2 1) = 10 2 = 2(10.1/2)2 = 51.005. 2x
x 2 1) = 1 so they are reciprocals thus (x +
Add both expressions 2x = (x
2.7.13 4(x 2 + y 2 )1/3
3.1.1 4 3i
202
Appendix A
3.1.2 2 5i 3.1.3 10 10i 3.1.4 8i 3.1.5 i 22 3.1.7 9 + 8i 3.1.8 8 + 6i 3.1.9 17 16i 3.1.10 5 4i 3.1.11 41 13i 3.1.12 12 + 18i 3.1.13 5 3.1.14 25 3.1.15 5 12i 3.1.16 5i
3 3.1.17 i 2
3.2.12 15/3 3.2.13 (2 + 4i )/3 3.2.14 2i ,2i 3.2.15

1 5 2
3.2.16 2 3.2.17 2 3i 3.2.18 4,2 3.2.19 3 + i ,3 i 3.2.20 1/3,1/3 3.2.21 8 2 3.2.22 2 21 3.3.1 6,3 3.3.2 5,1/3 3.3.3 2 5 3.3.4 x = 4 2 3 3.3.5 x = 1/2 17/2 3.3.6 x = 3/2 5/2 3.3.7 4 i 3.3.8 1 i 11 3.3.9
7 53 2
3.1.18
1 2 i 3 3
3.1.19 2 + 4i 3.1.20 3.1.21

20 16 12 (3i + 4) = i 25 5 5 3 2i
3.1.22 15/34 + 9/34i 3.1.23 1 3.1.24 i 3.2.1 5,4 3.2.2 3/2,1/6 3.2.3 0,4k 3.2.4 0,25 3.2.5 3,3/2 3.2.6 1/2,1/5 3.2.7 4/3,5/4 3.2.8 0,5,5 3.2.9 0,1,3 3.2.10 6 3.2.11 2 11
3.3.10 1,7 3.3.11 2/3,9/2 3.3.12 5 + 3 2 3.3.13

2 10 2
3.3.14 x = 1 2 2 3.3.15 x = 1/2 2/2 3.3.16 x = 4 6 3.3.17 x = 1 3/3 3.3.18 x = 5/2 3 5/2 3.4.1 1/2 3.4.2
2 10 3
3.4.3 3 2 3 3.4.4 6,10
203
Answers and Hints

1 33 4
3.4.5
3.6.4 (3,1) 3.6.5 5 < x < 6 3.6.6 3 < x < 3 3.6.7 4 x 4 3.6.8 All real numbers
3 91i 3.4.6 10
3.4.7
1 65 8
15i 3.4.8 5
3.6.9 x < 2, or x > 5/2 3.6.10 6 x 0 3.6.11 1 < x < 5 3.6.12 2 < x < 2. 3.6.13 0 < x < 2 3.6.14 0 < x < 1/2 3.6.15 x < 4, x > 2 3.6.16 x 10/3, or x > 0 3.6.17 x < 6, or x > 1 3.6.18 x 9, or x 6 3.6.19 y > 1 3.6.20 5 < x < 1/5 or x > 1 3.6.21 x 0 3.6.22 x < 0, or x > 6 3.6.23 x < 0 3.6.24 x > 3, or 3 < x 1 4.1.1 d = 4.1.2 d = 4.1.3 d =
(1 3)2 + (0 1)2 = 5 36 + 49 = 85
3.4.9 3.4.10
5 13 2 2 133 3
3.4.11 2,10/7 3.4.12 4 14 3.4.13 6 2 10 3.4.14 3.4.15 3.4.16 3.4.17

1 2 2 2 2 14 13 1 3i 2 1 7i 2
3.4.18 0,10
1 31i 3.4.19 4
3.4.20 3 19 3.4.21 2 7 3.5.1 2,i 3 3.5.2 5 3.5.3 0,6 3.5.4 27,8 3.5.6 2,2i 3.5.7 3, 10i 3.5.8 T w o 3.5.9 None 3.5.10 T w o 3.6.1 x 3, or x 7/2 3.6.2 4 < x < 2 3.6.3 5 x 0
(8 + 2)2 + (2 5)2 = (1)2 + (1)2 = 2
4.1.4 (1,1) 4.1.5 (2,0) 4.1.6 (4,3) 4.1.7 (x + 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 9 4.1.8 (x 5)2 + (y + 4)2 = 18 4.1.9 x 2 + y 2 = 64 4.1.10 x 2 + y 2 = 12 4.1.11 (x + 6)2 + (y 6)2 = 36 4.1.12 (0,0),r = 7 4.1.13 (0,0),r = 4
204
Appendix A
4.1.14 (1,0),r = 3 4.1.15 (3,0),r = 3 4.1.16 (4,7),r = 1 4.1.17 (3,4),r = 4 5 4.1.18 (0,6),r = 6 4.1.19 (0,0),r = 5 4.1.20 (2,0),r = 2 5.1.1 Not a function 5.1.2 Function 5.1.3 Function 5.1.4 Not a function 5.1.5 1. h(2) = 0 5.1.16 x = 2/5 5.1.17 x = 2,1/3 5.1.18 D = {0,1,2,3} 5.1.19 Set of natural numbers N 5.1.20 All real numbers 5.2.12 (0,5), x = 0 5.2.13 (4,2), x = 4 5.2.14 (3,9), x = 3 5.2.15 (5,5/6), x = 5 5.2.16 (1,4), x = 1 5.2.17 (6,7), x = 6 5.2.18 (2,0), x = 2 5.3.1 y = (x 2)2 4 5.3.2 y = (x + 1)2 1
2 3
2. h(3) = 1/2
1 3 1 3
3. h( ) = 5/9 4. h(a) = a 5.1.6
5.3.3 y = (x 3)2 5.3.4 y = (x + 7)2 + 1 5.3.5 f (x) = (x + 5/2)2 + 17/4 5.3.6 f (x) = 2(x + 2)2 13 5.3.7 f (x) = 3(x + 5)2 + 5 5.3.8 V = (0,4), x = 0, 5.3.9 V = (0,1), x = 0, 5.3.10 V = (0,9), x = 0, 5.3.11 V = (1,2), x = 1,
i nt er cep t s : (0,4),(2,0),(2, 0) i nt er cep t s : (0,1) i nt er cep t s : (0,9),(3,0),(3,0) i nt er cep t s : (0,3) i nt er cep t s : (0,25),(5,0) i nt er cep t s : (0,12),(6,0),(2, 0)
2. f (a + 3) = 3a 8 5.1.7
1. f (a) = 3a + 1
3. f (a + h) = 3a 3h + 1 1. f (a) = a 2 5a
3. f (a + h) = (a + h)2 5(a + h) 5.1.8 1. 2. f (3) = 0

f (a) = a 2 + 6a + 9
2. f (a 1) = a 2 7a + 6
3. f (a 3) = a 2 12a + 36 4. f (3x) = 9x 2 18x + 9 5. f (x 2 ) = x 4 6x 2 + 9
5.3.12 V = (5,0), x = 5, 5.3.13 V = (4,4), x = 4, 5.3.14 (1,0), x = 1,

5,0)
5.1.9
2. f (2 + 5) = 21
1. f (2) + f (5) = 38
i nt er cep t s : (0,3),(1,0) i nt er cep t s : (0,1),(2 + 5,0),(2
3. f (a) + 3 = a 2 + 5a
5.3.15 V = (2,5), x = 2, 5.3.16 V = (0,6), x = 0
5. 4f (x) = 4x 2 + 20x 12 5.1.10 x 0 5.1.11 x = 0 5.1.12 All real numbers 5.1.13 x 9/4 5.1.14 All real numbers 5.1.15 x 2
4. f (x) f (3) = x 2 + 5x 24
5.3.17 V = (5/2,25/4), x = 5/2, 5.3.18 V = (4,1), x = 4,
i nt er cep t s : (0,0),(5,0)
i nt er cep t s : (0,15),(5,0),(3, 0)
5.4.1 y = x 2 , 3 units to the right, 5 units upward 5.4.2 y = x 3 , 4 units to the left, reection 5.4.3 y = |x|, 5 units to the right, 3 units downward 5.4.4 y = reection
x , 2 units to the right, 4 units downward,
205
Answers and Hints

5.4.5 y = |x| 2 5.4.6 y = |x + 5| + 1 5.4.7
y = (x 3)3 + 3
5.6.3 f 1 = x 5.6.4 f 1 =
x +2 3
1 4
5.4.8 y = x 3 4 5.4.9 y = x 7 + 2 5.5.1 f + g = 4x, f g = 6, f g = 4x 2 9, f /g = 5.5.2 2x 2 x 6,x + 6, x 4 x 3 6x 2 6x,

(x 2 x)/(x 2 6) 2x + 3 2x 3
5.6.5 f 1 = x 5.6.6 f 1 = 3 3 x 5.6.7 f 1 = (x + 4)2 5.6.8 f 1 = (x 10) 5.6.9 f 1 =

2 x 2x + 1 3x 5 3
5.5.3
x + 1 + x, x + 1 x, x + 1/ x
5.5.4 2x 2 + 10x 12,0,(x + 5x 6)2 ,1 5.5.5 f g (x) = 6x + 3, g f (x) = 6x 6 5.5.6 f g = (x 2 + 1)2 + 1, g f = (x 2 + 1)2 + 1 5.5.7
x 4 + 4, 2x
5.6.10 f 1 =
5.6.11 f 1 = x 16 6.3.1 x = 3, y = 2 6.3.2 Innite many solutions 6.3.3 x = 2, y = 5 6.3.4 No solution 6.3.5 x = 9/5, y = 19/5 6.3.6 x = 50/7, y = 2/7 6.3.7 x = 12, y = 9 6.3.8 x = 3, y = 1/3 6.3.9 x = 22/5, y = 15 6.3.10 x = 1, y = 1 6.3.11 x = 1/44, y = 17/44 6.3.12 x = 9/8, y = 15/4 6.3.13 x = 3/2, y = 19/2 6.3.14 No solution 6.3.15 x = 37, y = 17
5.5.8 x 2 + 3, x 2 + 8x + 15 5.5.9 1/(2x + 3),2/x + 5 5.5.10 f g = x 2 , g f = x 2 5.5.11 f g (1) = 2, g f (3) = 98 5.5.12 f g (2) = 1/5, g f (1) = 2 5.5.13 f g (4) = 8, g f (4) = 4 5.5.14 2. f (x + h) = 2x 2 + 2xh + 2h 2 3 3.
f (x + h) f (x) = 2(x + h) h
1. f (0) = 3
5.5.15
2. f (a) = 3a 6 3.
1. f (h) = 3h 6
f (a) f (h) =3 a h
5.5.16 2/x(x + h) 5.6.1 F 1 = {(0,1),(3,2),(8,3),(15, 4)} 5.6.2 G 1 = {(a,1),(b,0),(c,1))}
206

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September 6, 2011 Version

A Answers and Hints 199 Answers and Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Basic Denitions and Principles of Fractions

to the end of the trail. How long is the trail? Explain.

3 5 of a mile, he found that he was only of the way 4 8

Solution: 1. 2 is closest to the sum

solve this equation for L =

2 Denition We say two fractions

Basic Principle of Fractions

This cancellation law can be expressed in terms of division:

(x + 1)(x 1)2 so the multiplier is (x 1). Thus we have

Compare the denominators: the rst is x 2 1 = (x + 1)(x 1) and the second is

1.6 Example Build up the fractions. 1. 2. 3.

1.7 Example Use cancellation law to reduce the following fractions. 1. 2.

1.8 Example Reduce the fractions to the lowest terms. 1. 2. 3. 4.

28x 3 y 2 z 14x 4 y z 2 4x 2 4x 16(x 1)

4x(x 1) x 4x 2 4x = = 16(x 1) 16(x 1) 4

1.9 Example Simplify the fractions. 1. 2.

Basic Denitions and Principles of Fractions Solution: 1.

the correct answer is 2, but

The following fractions are equivalent:

Simplifying Rational Expressions

are rational expressions. However, the fractions

are not rational expressions, why?.

makes sense for all real numbers except x = 7.

Factor numerator and denominator if possible, then cancel common factors

9x 3 + 18x 2 + 3x 3x(3x 2 + 6x + 1) = = 3x 2 + 6x + 1 3x 3x 6x 2 6z 2 6(x 2 z 2 ) 2. = = x2 z 2 6 6 4 28ab 3 = 2 3. 3b3 7a a x 2 7x + 12 (x 3)(x 4) 4. = = x 3 x 4 x 4

1.13 Example Simplify the rational expressions. 1. 2.

Basic Denitions and Principles of Fractions 3. 4. 5. 6.

Factor and cancel the common factors

20x y 4 5x y(4) = = 15x y 2 5x y(3y) 3y

18a 2 b 5 3b 2 = 12a 4 b 3 2a 2 (x 2)2 (x 2)2 x 2 = 5. = 2 4 (x 2)(x + 2) x + 2 x 2x 3 2x 3 10x 2 = 2x 3 2x 2 (x 5) =

27u 3 9u 27u 3 = = 4 15u 2 2 (3u 2 5) 9u 3u 3u 2 5 x 2y x 2y 1 = 3. 2 = x 4y 2 (x 2y)(x + 2y) x + 2y

The opposite of a quantity

1.14 Example Simplify the rational expressions. 1. 2. 3. 4.

(x 2 + 2x)(x 2 + 2x 3) (x 2 + x 2)(x 2 + 3x)

9x 2 + 24x + 16 6x 3y + 9z 12x + 6y 18z

(x 2 + 2x)(x 2 + 2x 3) x(x + 2)(x + 3)(x 1) = =1 (x 2 + x 2)(x 2 + 3x) (x + 2)(x 1)x(x + 3)

1.15 Example Simplify the rational expressions. 1. 2. 3.

Basic Denitions and Principles of Fractions

1.1.6 Homework: Simplifying Rational Expressions

Reduce the following fractions to lowest terms.

Simplify the rational expressions.

x 3 27 (x 4)x 5 (x 5) x 3 (3x 8)x 3 5x 5 1

Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions

OBJECTIVES Multiplying and dividing rational expressions Mixed Operations

1.2.1 Multiplication of Rational Expressions

1.16 Example Perform the multiplications.

1.17 Example Perform the multiplications. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions

1.19 Example Multiply Solution:

4a 2 1 (2a 1)(2a + 1) (3a) 2a + 1 3a = = 2ab b 3ab 9a 2 9a 2 b(2a 1)

1.20 Example Multiply and simplify.

x(x 2) 3 x(x 1) 2 x 2 x(x + 2) + 1 x 2 x 6 x 2 + x 6 (x 3)(x + 2) (x + 3)(x 2) =1 = (x 2)(x + 2) (x + 3)(x 3) x2 4 x2 9

7 Denition Reciprocal: The reciprocal of a number x = 0 is

1.21 Example Find the reciprocals of the following terms 3,

Chapter 1 The reciprocals are

Division of Rational Expressions

8 Denition The division of two fractions second fraction (divisor) that is

1.24 Example Perform the operations. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions

1.25 Example Perform the divisions. 1. 2. 3.