REMOTE SENSING

INTRODUCTION:Remote sensing is the observation & measurement of objects by the sensor from a distance i.e. instruments or recorders are notin physical contact with objects under investigation.

DEFINATIONS:American Society for Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing [ASPRS] defined remote sensing as the measurement of acquisition of information of some property of an object or phenomenon, by a recording device that is not in physical or intimate contact with the object or the phenomenon under study. It depends upon measuring some kind of energy that is emitted, transmitted or reflected from an object in order to determine certain physical properties of the object. In other words remote sensing is the art & science of deriving information about an object from measurements made at a distance from the object without coming in physical contact with it. In fact the term remote sensing implies techniques that mimic human sensory perception from a distance.

TYPES OF REMOTE SENSING:There are many types of remote sensors: 1. PASSIVE REMOTE SENSORS:Human eye & ear are passive remote sensors. These do not emit energy but simply detect energy that is reflected back to the sensing device. The eye detects energy in the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum while the ear detects sounds, sound energy. Vision is largely dependent on receiving information in the form of images, which are more or less continuous records of the variations in those properties of an object that govern how much light is reflected or emitted by different parts of it. Light intensities coming from an object are projected by the lens in the human eye into the nearly spherical lightsensitive surface, called the RETINA, at the back of the eye. This, in turn, generates signals to the brains visual cortex that decodes them into what we see as a two-dimensional image. So, an image is a nearly continuous records of the properties of an object displayed as varying light intensities in two dimensions Environmental Remote Sensing is another example of it. 2. ACTIVE REMOTE SENSORS:-

Active remote sensors emit energy and then detect the emitted energy that gets reflected back off an object. The photographic camera used with a flash, radar, laser system, sonar used for bathymetric mapping and spaceborne radar systems are examples of active remote sensors. In the context of environmental remote sensing, passive remote sensing systems have been the most widely used but active remote sensing systems such as radar offer significant advantages in that they can penetrate clouds and so dont require clear sky conditions.

DEALS WITH:Remote Sensing deals with the inventory, monitoring and assessment of natural resources through the analysis of data obtained by observations form a remote platform. The observations are synoptic, provide repetitive coverage of large areas and the data is quantifiable. It is currently being used for identification of earth features and natural resources. A. Energy Source of Illumination. B. Radiation and the Atmosphere. C. Terrain Condition. D. Recording of Energy by the Sensor. E. Transmission, Reception and Processing. F. Interpretation and Analysis. G. Application.

PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE SENSING:The underlying basis for most remote sensing systems is of measuring the varying energy levels of a single entity. Variations in energies (expressed in Joules or ergs) are tied to wavelength or frequency. Electromagnetic Radiations (EMR) that varies from high to low energy levels comprises the electromagnetic spectrum. Radiation from specific parts of the EM spectrum contains photons of different wavelengths whose energy levels fall with in a discrete range of values. When any target material is excited by internal posses or by interaction with incoming EM radiation, it will emit energy of varying wavelengths whose radiometric quantizes differ at different wavelengths in a way diagnostic of the material. Photon energy received at detectors is commonly stated in power units such as Watts per square meter per wavelength unit.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS:-

Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy can take many forms such as light, heat or sound and can be transmitted between objects through three processes: conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction requires that the objects be in direct physical contact. Energy is transferred from the high-energy object to the low energy object until both objects are at same energy level. Convection occurs in liquids and gases. Convection is based on currents that distribute energy throughout the volume of liquid or gas. Radiation does not require physical contact or the existence of a liquid or gas. Electric field

Magnetic field Direction

Environmental remote sensing systems focus on electromagnetic energy, which is a dynamic from of energy caused by the oscillation or acceleration of an electrical charge. All objects that have a temperature higher than absolute zero (0` K or -273.16`C) emit electromagnetic energy. The wavelength of the emitted energy is a function of temperature. All satellite borne sensors measure electromagnetic energy or the intensity of electromagnetic waves. EMR refers to all energy that moves with the velocity of light in a harmonic wave pattern. It behaves as rapidly moving and indivisible packets, or photons, which a mass-less particle. A photon is used to emphasize the statistical properties of the EMR. Almost all electromagnetic energy in the earth system, i.e. earth and its atmosphere is produced by the sun and is transmitted through the vacuum of space by radiation. The electromagnetic radiation is generated whenever an electrical charge is accelerated. The sun, earth and other bodies radiate electromagnetic energy of varying wavelengths. A small amount of electromagnetic energy is produced by internal heat and decay of radioactive elements.

Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiations are particularly important for understanding remote sensing. These are the wavelength and frequency. The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance between successive waves crests or trough. Wavelength is measured in meters (m) or some factor of meters such as nanometers (nm, 10-9 meters), micrometers(um, 10-6 meters) or centimeters(cm, 10-2 meters). Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point in one second. In other words, it refers to number of crests of waves of same wavelength that pass by a point in one second. A wave that sends one crest by every second in said to have frequency of one cycle per second or one hertz written as 1Hz.

INTERACTION OF EMR WITH ATMOSPHERE:In order to understand the potential and limitations of remotes sensing, it is necessary to consider what happens to solar electromagnetic radiation on its path from the sun to the satellite. All of the solar radiation passes through space to reach the top of the Earths atmosphere, but not all reaches the Earths surface. The atmosphere scatters, absorbs and reflects a portion of the incoming solar radiation that gets transmitted through the

atmosphere. Finally the atmosphere scatters, absorbs and reflects the electromagnetic radiation that is reflected off the Earths surface back toward the sensor. It means when electromagnetic radiation travels through the atmosphere, it has to pass twice to the atmosphere. This passage alters the speed, frequency, intensity and direction because of scattering or absorption called as attenuation (energy loss) by the constituent particles and gases of the atmosphere. The atmospheric effects on EMR are wavelength selective. This means that certain wavelengths are transmitted easily through the atmosphere while others are reflected, scattered or absorbed by gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, ozone or carbon dioxide, or by water vapour. The parts of the electromagnetic spectrum where specific wavelengths can pass through the atmosphere are called atmospheric windows whereas areas, which are partially or completely blocked for specific wavelengths are called absorption bands or atmospheric blinds. Oxygen and ozone effectively absorb all gamma and X rays while carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour absorb radiation in different segment of the infrared and microwave portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The effect of atmospheric blinds is to limit the range of wavelengths that can be used to identify features or condition on Earths surface.

ATMOSPHERIC SCATTERING:Atmospheric scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact with and causes the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. Scattering redistributes the energy of the incident beam to all directions. There are two types of scattering : 1. SELECTIVE SCATTERING. 2. NONSELECTIVE SCATTERING. SELECTIVE SCATTERING: Rayleigh and Mie scattering are the typical example of selective scattering. Rayleigh scattering occurs in the upper atmosphere above 4.5 km when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of the radiation. These could be particles such as small specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen molecules. Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more than longer wavelengths. Thus ultraviolet and blue wavelengths are scattered more than as green or red which are of longer wavelengths. The amount of energy scattered is smaller than the amount of energy absorbed by the molecules. This type of scattering is the dominant mechanism in the upper atmosphere. The fact that the sky appears blue during the day is because of this phenomenon. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelength (i.e. blue) of visible spectrum are scattered more than the other (longer) visible wavelength. At sunrise and sunset the light has to travel farther through the atmosphere than at midday and the scattering of smaller wavelength is more complete; this leaves a greater proportion of the longer wavelengths to penetrate the atmosphere. Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the radiation.

Dust, pollen smoke and water vapour are common causes and affects longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. NONSELECTIVE SCATTERING: Nonselective scattering occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation and all wavelengths are scattered about equally in all directions. The water droplets, ice fragments and large dust particles cause this. At visible wavelengths, this occurs in nature in thick clouds or in fog. For visible wavelengths, this involves water droplets with radii of the order5-10 um. The effect of nonselective scattering in that fog and clouds appear white as blue, green and red light are scattered almost in equal proportion.

INTERACTION OF EMR WITH THE EARTH SURFACE:On average, 51% of the in-coming solar radiation reaches the earths surface. Of 4% is reflected back into the atmosphere and 47%is absorbed by the earths surface to be reradiated in the form of thermal infrared radiation. In general, surface that good reflector is poor absorber. Thus some surface or objects will reflect much of the in coming radiation while other surface will absorb most of the in-coming radiation . it is these differences in reflectivity that allow us to distinguish different features or conditions in remote sensing imagery . The reflectivity of a surface can be measured for a specific wavelength or for the entire electromagnetic spectrum. The spectral reflectance of an object is the percentage of Emr reflected by the object in a specific wavelength or spectral band. The albedo of an object is its reflectance aggregated over a broader segment of the electromagnetic spectrum [e.g. over the visible portion of the spectrum]or over the entire spectrum .the higher the albedo, the more reflective the surface and the brighter the surface will appear in remotely sensed imagery .

IMAGE RESOLUTION:Resolution can be defined as the ability of an imaging system to record fine details in a distinguishable manner. Resolution is commonly expressed as the most closely spaced line-pairs per unit distance that can be distinguished. A working knowledge of resolution is essential for understanding both practical & conceptual details of rmote sensing. The major characteristics of imaging remote sensing instrument operating in the visible & infrared spectral region are described under the following heads:

Spatial resolution. Radiometric resolution Spectral resolution

Temporal resolution

SPATIAL RESOLUTION:The common sense definition of spatial resolution is often stated as the smallest size of an object that can be picked out from its surrounding objects or features. Sabins (1997) defines spatial resolution as the ability to distinguish between two closely spaced objects on an image and points out that spatial resolution is not the size of the smallest object that can be seen. He also points out that other terms such as delectability, recongizability, signature and texture have a place in the qualitative analysis of images. It is fact ability to recognize and separate closely spaced objects features of specific size on an image or photograph. This ability is the function of remote sensing systems, also termed as the resolving power. The spatial resolution is also equivalent to the pixel size. The spatial resolution is controlled by three variables: 1. The nature of the target features, particularly the size of the feature 2. The distance between the target and the sensing device 3. Some inherent properties of the sensor embodied in the term resolving power. The detectors themselves influence resolution by their inherent Signal to Noise (S/N) capability; this can vary in terms of spectral wavelengths. Present day satellites are generally equipped with Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) as detector. It was developed in the 1970s, and led to the Pushbroom Scanner. A CCD is an extremely small silicon chip, which is light sensitive. When photons strike a CCD, electronic charges develop whose magnitudes are proportional to the intensity of the impinging radiation during a short time interval (exposure time). From 3,000 to more than 10,000 detector element (CCDs) can occupy a linear space less than 15 cm in length. The number of elements per unit length determines the spatial resolution of the instrument. The one disadvantage of current CCD systems is their limitation to visible and NIR intervals of the EM spectrum. The important features of the spatial resolution are as: As spatial resolution increases (i.e. finer- scale data), the amount of the surface included in the scene decreases. As spatial resolution increases, temporal resolution decreases.

There are a number of factors, which control the spatial resolution. The may be summarized as: 1. The spectral bandwidth will produce a strong signal. But note it that a broad range of wavelengths will decreases the spectral resolution (i.e., the ability of the detector to assign the energy recorded to specific wavelength). 2. The instantaneous field of view (IFOV): It is the angular cone of visibility of the sensor (A) and determines the area on the Earths surface which is seen from a given altitude at one particular moment in time (B). The size

of the area viewed is determined by multiplying the IFOV by the distance from the ground to the sensor (C). This area on the ground is called the resolution cell and determines a sensors maximum spatial resolution. For a homogenous feature to be detected, its size generally has to be equal to or larger than the resolution cell. If the feature is smaller than this, it may not be detectable, as the average brightness of all feature in that resolution cell will be recorded. This angle a usually measured in mill radians (mrad). The IFOV and the altitude of the sensor govern the size of the ground resolution cell. A small IFOV of detector is suitable for better spatial resolution possible. 3. Dwell time: It is measure of how long the sensor is focused on a particular ground resolution cell (pixel) and is analogous to shutter speed in that it is the measure of how long the ground resolution cell is exposed. If the ground resolution cell is small, a moving sensor will have a short dwell time relative to larger cells.

SPECTRAL RESOLUTION:Spectral resolution describes the ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength intervals. The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelength ranges for a particular channel or band. As different material on the earth surface exhibit different spectral reflectance & emissivities, these spectral characteristics define the spectral position & spectral sensitivity in order to distinguish materials. Almost all modern remote sensing systems make measurements in more than one band of the Emr spectrum. A multi-spectral sensor breaks intercepted Emr radiation up into a number of spectral bands. Each spectral band represents a specific range of wavelengths. Spectral resolution describes the ability of a sensor. Spectral resolution can be thought of in two ways. Sabins [1997] discusses the first, which is the spectral bandwidth. It would be deal to make 1000s of measurements for single wavelengths, but this is not technically possible. Thus, any real measurement is the weighted average over some range of wavelengths [bandwidth]. The narrower the bandwidth, the better the Spectral resolution. Higher is the resolution; the tighter will be the wavelength ranges per spectral band. Another way to consider Spectral resolution is simply in terms of the number of bands for which measurements are made. In this case, thematic mapper data with measurements in 7 bands clearly has less resolution than hyper spectral AVIRIS data with measurements in 224 bands. Again, data volume is a practical limit, but the basic concept is to make it possible to identify materials based on their spectral reflectance curves.

Temporal resolution:Temporal resolution is the amount of time before the satellite passes back over the same spot on the surface. In other words, it refers to the length of time it takes for a satellite to complete on orbit cycle. The revisit period of a satellite sensor is usually several days. Therefore the absolute temporal resolution of a

remote sensing system to image the exact same area at the same viewing angle a second time is equal to this period. However, because of some degree of overlap in the imaging swaths of adjacent orbits for most satellites and the increase in this overlap with increasing latitude, some area of earth tend to be re-imaged more frequently. Also, some satellite systems are able to point their sensor to image the same area between different satellite passes separated by period from one to five days. Thus, the actual temporal resolution of a sensor depends on a variety of factors, including the satellite/sensor capabilities, the swath overlap and latitude. The ability to collect imagery of the same area of the Earths surface at different periods of time is one of the most important elements for applying remote sensing data. Spectral characteristics of features may change over time. These changes can be detected by collecting and comparing multi-temporal imagery. For example, during the growing season, most species of vegetation are in a continual stage of change and the ability to monitor those minor changes using remote sensing is dependent on when and how frequently these data is collected. The time factor in imaging is also important when: Persistent clouds offer limited clear views of the Earths surface (often in the tropics)

Short-lived phenomenon (floods, oil sticks etc.) need to be imaged. Multi-temporal comparisons are required (e.g. the spread of a forest disease from one year to the next)

The changing appearance of features over time can be used to distinguish it from near-similar feature. Landsat TM has a temporal resolution of 16 days, while AVHRR data is collected once per day. IRS 1C/D PAN has temporal resolution of 5 days.

SPECTRAL SIGNATURES:For any given material, the amount of solar radiation that reflects, absorbs or transmits varies with wavelength. This property of matter is used to identify separate and classify different substances by their spectral signatures (spectral reflectance curves). Spectral, spatial and temporal are the major characteristics of the object, which facilities their discrimination. Signatures are not completely deterministic. The spectral variations are changes in the reflectance of the objects as a function of wavelength. Color of the object is manifestation of spectral variation in reflectance in the visible region. The spatial arrangement of terrain features providing attributes such as size, shape and texture for identification of the object are termed as spatial variations. Temporal variations are the changes of reflectivity with time. They can be diurnal or seasonal. It helps to distinguish the crops, which have similar spectral reflectance but a different growing cycle. For example, at same wavelengths, sand reflects more energy than green vegetation but at other wavelengths it absorbs more (reflects less) than does the vegetation. In principle, we can recognize various kinds of surface material and distinguish them from each other by

these differences in reflectance. The figures 5.26 and 5.27 show the spectral reflectance curves of selected features in vegetated and non-vegetated conditions.

VEGETATION:It has a unique spectral signature, which enables it to be distinguished readily from other types of land cover in an optical/near-infrared image. The reflectance is low in both the blue and red region of the spectrum, due to strong absorption by chlorophyll for photosynthesis and reflection in green wavelengths. Leaves appear greenest when chlorophyll content is at its maximum. A reduction in chlorophyll in the leaves leads to more reflection of the red wavelengths. Thus making the leaves appears red or yellow (yellow is a combination of red and green wavelengths). Another characteristic of the healthy leaves is that their internal structure is an excellent reflector of near-infrared wavelengths. If our eyes were sensitive to near infrared, trees would appear extremely bright to us. In fact, measuring and monitoring the near-IR reflectance is one way for assessing the health of the vegetation. It has a peak at the green region, which gives, rise to the green colour of vegetation. In the near infrared (NIR) region, (45%), the reflectance is much higher than that in the visible band due to the cellular structure in the leaves. Hence, vegetation can be identified by the high NIR but generally low visible reflectance. As vegetation can be identified by stressed, chlorophyll absorption decrease and red reflectance increases, accompanied by decrease in intercellular spaces. This results in decreased reflectance in the near infrared (Fig 5.27).

WATER:The reflectance of clear water is generally low. However, the reflectance is maximum at the blue end of the spectrum and decreases as wavelength increases. Longer wavelength of visible and near infrared radiation is absorbed more by water than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths. If there is suspended sediment (turbidity) present in the upper layers of the water body, then this will allow better reflectivity and a brighter appearance of the water in longer wavelengths. The turbidity increases in the red end of the spectrum, accounting for its brownish appearance. Chlorophyll in algae absorbs more of the blue wavelengths and reflects the green, making the water appear greener in colour. The topography of the water surface (rough, smooth, floating materials etc.) can also lead to complications for water-related interpretation due to potential problems of specular reflection and other influence on colour and brightness. Dissolved gases and many inorganic salts dont manifest any change in the spectral response of water.

SOIL:The reflectance of bare soil generally depends on its composition. Typical soil reflectance curve generally show increasing trend with wavelength in the visible and near

infrared region. Some of the parameters, which influence soil reflectance, are the moisture content, the amount of organic matter, iron oxide, relative percentage of clay, silt and sand and the roughness of soil surface. As the moisture content of soil increases, the reflectance in optical IR region decreases, more significantly at the water absorption bands. In the thermal infrared region moist soil appears dark in comparison to dry soil.

SNOW AND CLOUDS:Snow has a very high reflectance upto 0.80 um and then decreases rapidly. In case of clouds, there is non-selective scattering, which make them appear bright thorough out the range of 0.3 um to 3um. The clouds top and the snow generally have the same temperature and hence it is not easily possible to separate in the thermal infrared region. Because of this phenomenon the two atmospheric windows in the middle infrared region (1.6 and 2.2 um) are important for cloud and snow discrimination.