7.

Key Audibles1 (Leonardo Boccia)

Key Measures and the Virtual Audiosphere By virtual audiosphere we mean here the full technically produced audible dimension for several electronics devices in which multimedia audiovisual creations are produced or transmitted through screens with coupled sound systems, as well as TVs, computers, mobile phones, cinema, mp4, and other equipment. Then we will discuss the use of music in television programs-spectacles from production and post-production editions, in which, in order to attract attention and to entertain a worldwide audience, Key Visuals of world events considered prominent by influential media companies are accompanied by Key Measures of well-known musical motives and genres.2 Generally, the music used for this purpose consists of parts of pop songs widely publicized over the last 60 years, traditional tunes, national anthems, popularly known motifs of classical music and other successful melodies usually of light and fun character from the hegemonic and transnational music industry. Thus, while the Key Visuals in some cases expose tragic events, mishaps, natural disasters, accidents, and scenes of death and war, the music chosen to accompany these events serves to mitigate and veil the visual dimension. Therefore, a new concept emerges here necessary to understanding the virtual audiosphere of television, a concept we call the de-dramatization of visual narratives, i.e., the action in post-production intended to mask the dramatic expression of Key Visuals. These concepts serve to surround the multimedia environment, specifically television, in an attempt to describe the semantic gaps that arise from such audiovisual compositions of Tele-Weltanschauung, through which are described and shown massive and daily world events considered as outstanding. Here, we intend to detail the key concepts of Key Measures, designed and used since 2005 in close international collaboration with Peter Ludes of Jacobs University Bremen. The productive collaboration between a social scientist; an expert in mass communication with a focus on the production of visual narratives in screen media; and a musician with experience in instrumental performance, musical composition and scenic arts resulted in the adoption of a new inter- and transdisciplinary analysis methodology. In the Biosphere, the image-sound relationship and the experiences of seeing-hearing are a constant that does not know long interruption, because silence does not exist, and complete darkness is seldom possible. However, for screen media, audiovisual productions are composed of moving images and Key Visuals (in some cases, still images) cropped to describe world events, and of sounds which accompany them in varied volume intensity; receding or advancing in the virtual audiosphere at the convenience of those who decide the final products to be released (chief editors and/or directors). In the Biosphere, each acoustic experience depends on the space in which a listener is located. In general, the natural audiosphere is composed of noises of different volume intensity, but it is hardly deafening. Meanwhile, in some urban areas noises above the normal level can be found, which cause irreversible hearing damage. For instance, the noise of a jet aircraft taking off and other noises even more intense, without any hearing protection, can instantly pierce the eardrum membrane.3 However, the virtual screen media audiosphere is a relatively complex compound formed by various sounds, melodies, rhythms, sounds, special effects, and speech, produced and edited in different ways in post-production, when the levels of image-sound relations are finely selected, designed and tuned for audio or audiovisual final files. In this context, the intensity depends on the volume of the apparatus used for reproduction and the adjustment of the viewer-listener. Music increasingly stands out as the audio component more used for the virtual screen media audiosphere and especially as accompaniment of visual narrative in television programs-spectacles of world news. However, in most
1

An earlier version of this chapter was originally published in Portuguese in Boccia, L. (Ed.). (2010). Cadernos Ecus, vol. 2. Salvador de Bahia, Brazil: UFBA. 2 See also Ludes, 1993, 2001, 2010; Boccia & Ludes, 2009; and Kramer & Ludes, 2010. 3 For a list of the loudest noises, see http://listverse.com/2007/11/30/top-10-loudest-noises/ (accessed in September 2010).

cases, the music chosen for the TV programs-spectacles has a light and playful character that, at various times, contradicts the visual narrative. The de-dramatization of Key Visuals is an ever more common practice by the most influential TV stations in countries such as Germany, Brazil, China, and the United States. What is remarkable is the increasing use of music in news programs of ARD, ABC, CBS, and NBC during the past years, in contrast to the 60s and 80s of the 20th century. Having been explicitly excluded in the past, background music has become common (Ludes, next chapter). However, as stated by Chion (2001, p. 142), despite the technological innovations that allowed the sound to generate direct and indirect effects on the images in the screen media, the quantitative progress of sound the amount of power, amount of information and simultaneous numbers of soundtracks do not remove the image from its pedestal. The sound is always what makes us to see on screen, what it wants us to see. Therefore, to understand the dense audible mesh that acts directly and indirectly on the images shown daily by influential TV stations, it will be necessary to consistently detail the abovementioned concepts above and the definition of specific terms which emerge from the analysis of those television productions. The de-dramatization of television visuals allows the bloodiest news broadcast to enter the homes of billions of people worldwide daily over lunch or dinner without causing anger or alienation and even less stomach pain, despite the cruelty exposed at various moments. However, de-dramatizing the harsh images of real world events requires the use of specific types and genres of music, which we will discuss. Music follows an extensive rhetorical range of sounding resources to dramatize even dull images marked by violence, but this feature is rarely used in the composition of audiovisual and television news programs that provide entertainment. In this sense, dramatic and musical motifs throughout the more sophisticated repertoire of classical music are not used to accompany television productions for a mass audience. The concept of Key Measures refers directly to the music melodies, rhythms, harmonies selected to accompany and thereby modulate the images of television programs and other audiovisual productions for various screen media equipments. But in this context, the virtual audiosphere is not composed exclusively of music and, hence, to detail the concept of Key Measures, we shall describe the components that form simultaneously or at different levels and movements the virtual audiosphere of screen media. The audiovisual plot consists of the interaction of various visual and audio elements and, as Cook (2004, p. 24) explains: To analyse something as multimedia is to be committed to the idea that there is some kind of perceptual interaction between its various individual components, such as music, speech, moving images, and so on; for without such interaction there is nothing to analyse. However, analyzing exclusively the interaction of musical elements with other audio and visual elements would result in just a quantitative description and comparison of such elements. Therefore, the challenge of the present study is to reveal whether the interaction of the virtual elements of screen media in multimedia compositions results in corresponding sensory and cultural processes that transform, over time, the Tele-Weltanschauung in a light and fun version of real world events, in many cases tragic, which mark and have deeply marked history and contemporary cultures. The Dance of Sounds World events shown by television programs are usually described by spoken texts. To ensure its intelligibility, speech sound the rhetorical tone and inflections of the voice are generally in the foreground. However, as for other components of sound, speech may be part of the original soundtrack of the images (diegesis) and audible in the middle or background, in interaction with other sound and visual components of a multimedia composition. In most cases, speech dominates the foreground, while the journalist narrates or comments on the events, whereas the background and intermediary sound levels are accompanied at specific moments by previously selected music. The music is absorbed by the images and is not heard as such, moreover, it is considered as an integral part of the images themselves or even produced by them. This modulation of the visual sense dominated by speech describing sequentially the events modifies the visual corpus which is being re-ordained by the imposition of the virtual audiosphere of sounds. In a counterpoint that seems logical, the expressive transformation of images intended to show actual events brings simulations and caricatures marked by sound masks. The participants of the transmitted

events dance to various sounds and light melodies; although in some cases there is visual violence in progress. The new audio technologies allow the cleansing of sounds, i.e., the complete withdrawal of frequencies considered noisy, inconvenient, or compromising to the transmission or speech intelligibility. The filtering of such noises refers to the difference between the digital technology of the CD and the analogue and mechanical procedures of its predecessor the LP. However, according to the producers convenience, noises or parts of them may also be maintained and, in some cases, added to the programs audio tracks when, for example, in post-production, the editor forms the virtual audiosphere Gestalt of visuals such as wars, crowd protests, natural disasters, explosions, accidents, and other dramatic events. Original sound recording in open spaces is generally difficult and full of noise. Only an original sound recording in a studio can be free of unwanted noises. However, sounds, noises, and speech of an outdoor environment picked up in video filming can be completely removed and replaced with a new audio track. In some cases, unwanted noises can also be filtered, edited, and used at varying volume levels or in the background. The dimension of the original sound recording would, in theory, give the true identity to the images filmed outdoors. It would include, for instance, the sound of people moving about and the noise produced by wind in the microphone. In this way, the sound sequence of events and emotional impact of the events would be more intense. Such virtual audiosphere can be heard on documentaries in which the original sound was preserved in its entirety or in scenes shot live in an environment without acoustic protection. However, for television programs-spectacles, these sounds are considered, in most cases, disadvantageous, and they are replaced with new soundtracks produced in the studio. From the diegetic sound almost nothing is made use of. Another virtual audiosphere with a new audio dimension covers the naked images restricted to two-dimensionality. Visuals seem to recede and part of the events shown, in essence, becomes invisible. The editors of the soundtracks in post-production can create and save special sound effects to be added to the images. The sounds and timbres can be produced electronically or cut from previous recordings and synthesized by means of sound synthesis software. In post-production, editors can replace the original sounds and noises by sounds created in the studio. This can result, for example, in replacing the noise of a bomb blast with the sound of striking a drum or grave instrumental timbres like those of a contrabass. This is a common practice of visuals sonification recurrent in audio tracks of the yearend review on the Brazilian Globo TV network, which intends to de-dramatize scenes of conflict and tragic events, such as the start of the war in Iraq in March 2003. Special sound effects are widely used in science fiction films to mark the virtual audiosphere with uncommon sounds unheard in nature. This increases stress and strongly attracts the attention of the viewer-listener who is confronted with unknown auditory sensations in an atmosphere full of surprises. The same feature can be used for horror movies, in which synthesized sounds mark the images through a virtual audiosphere full of suspense. This feature is little heard in television programs-spectacles that aim to bring entertainment and de-dramatization to the transmitted scenes, but it is common in Brazilian regional TV programs, where daily tragic murder scenes are shown with unbelievable sensationalism. In this introduction to the elements that compose the sounds of the screen media virtual audiosphere, it is necessary to describe the musical component types and genres of music used to accompany moving images transmitted or reproduced. Sounds are added to the visuals in varying shot rhythms and, sometimes, complementary to describing visual actions with a feature known as MickeyMousing.4 However, while Mickey-Mousing results in fun and dynamic effects for animation films or cartoons, the same feature is characteristic of the visuals of year-end reviews. In these visual sequences extracted from news reports covering the preceding year, this ability to punctuate the images with music or sounds effects transforms the visuals of real events into grotesque and caricatured multimedia composites.

Scoring a segment such that the music punctuates the physical motions on screen. This is a technical term coined in the early days of animation, though the practice of synchronizing actions to the rhythm of the music goes back much earlier. See also http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/MickeyMousing. (Retrieved in September 2010.)

The concept of Key Measures, however, refers to motives and musical parts selected and added in post-production in order to soften and de-dramatize the visual narrative of TV program-spectacles such as year-end reviews, among other TV programs of mass appeal. Moreover, in order to extend the concepts to more sound elements that make up the virtual audiosphere of television, we also adopt terms such as Key Sound, Key Audio, Key Audible, and Audio Backstage. In a broader sense, these terms refer to distinctive back-, middle-, and foregrounds of sound, both in volume intensity and manipulative expression in combination with Key Visuals, beyond other sounds that are not exclusively composed of music, but sound timbres of various origins. The multimedia virtual audiosphere is a complex plot in several ways. To analyze the components of those cultural, sound and visual interactions, we began to define one of the key concepts; one that refers to the accompanying music in multimedia audiovisual compositions. Next, we will define types, formats and genres of music that make up Key Measures. Programs, news and videos transmitted by the screen media consist of sequences of cuts fragments of images, music and sounds completed in post-production processes. In this dynamic production scheduling, the full recording of a continuous action would become too extensive. The short spacetime available to transmit facts and news from the world through multiple media platforms obliges one to focus on what is considered prominent: the goal is agile communication and a quick summary of events, but it is also the result of private interests. Thus, fragments of music and visuals used for these kinds of audiovisual composition are defined herein as Key Measures-Visuals. In this chapter, I will answer the questions that emerge from the musical aesthetic-semantic fragmentation of the audiovisual composition, and I will describe the main types and genres of Key Measures. Defining Key Measures A Key Measure consists of the parts, motives and/or fragments of recorded music accompanying the Key Visuals of programs entertainment, news, and videos that report facts and events to various regions of the world. Distributed on a mass scale by influential transnational media companies, those audiovisual products are transmitted through multiple platforms of screen media in order to elicit attention from the huge worldwide audience. We distinguish a priori two types of Key Measures. The first refers to measures bars of music or songs or short motifs extracted from musical pieces of different genres and eras generally famous musical themes and genres that are easily recognizable to worldwide audiences. These parts of musical pieces are cut and mixed with the Key Visuals, which in turn are cut and edited in post-production as well. The second type mostly used by media companies to reduce excessive costs of musical ensembles and instrumentalists and/or to avoid paying exorbitant royalties to the transnational recording industry is made of sequences and motifs of music, mostly of synthesizers or computer sound card timbres programmed, played, recorded, and edited by composers-arrangers recruited from media companies. Live music or recorded music by ensembles and orchestras for television programs seems to have no such value as they used to have in the past (Klppelholz, 2005; Schtzlein, 2005). The difference between the two types is striking. Key Measures of the first type are extracted from the reservoir of music and songs recorded and delivered by transnational companies, mass-distributed around the world and heard by millions of people on various media equipment and devices. They recall a previous musical experience, awakening memories associated with sensations of the past. By contrast, the second type, which is less widely distributed, is the result of an unpublished composition commissioned by the media company, containing tones, chords, melodies, and rhythms not previously heard in a broader context. It will not recall a specific previous musical experience for the viewer/listener. Thus, these Key Measures remain undefined when related to the first type; in fact, they are not part of renowned songs but the instrumental version of musical motifs and genres, of traditional music and folk songs, or national anthems, among others. Therefore, this second type of Key Measures, in most cases, is characterized by musical clichs that retouch the Key Visuals. Somehow, these musical fragments recede into the background. Even when played at high volume levels they are not easily recognizable and therefore poorly followed. Thus, despite being composed of timbres, rhythms, and harmonies common to most ears, they produce a barely recognizable soundscape. Both types of Key Measures are represented by several musical genres: rock, pop, blues, classical, reggae, and many others. However, in order to summarize the relation between types and genres, the

Key Measures described here are basically grouped into four groups of genres: (1) popular music, including genres of rock, pop, and country music, making up about 70 percent of all record sales; (2) Western classical music, making up about 5 percent of the sales on the world market (Parson, 1992, p. 138); (3) ethnic and traditional music of a specific group or country including Key Measures such as national anthems or songs poorly distributed by the transnational media; and (4) world music, comprising ethnic and traditional music of different countries or groups. The genres of Key Measures of the latter group are often used to brand Key Visuals of a distant or exotic culture, e.g., melodies of Arabic, Chinese, Indian, and African music, among others. Thus, in analyzing the musical content of Key Measures, these four big groups will be used to categorize the most recurrent musical passages in the accompaniment of Key Visuals and, if necessary, a more refined distinction between the genres of each group will be required. Another important category of Key Measures that belongs to the first and/or second type are the vignettes or musical title theme of a program. The vignettes may be parts of renowned musical compositions drawn from the various genres of recorded music or originally composed for a specific program. In both cases, by their periodical repetition, such as title themes of TV news, year-end retrospectives, television series, advertising and publicity, or other entertainment programming, vignettes become familiar. More than that, the vignettes are musical cues that warn viewers/listeners of the start, return or end of a program. As a specific category, they belong to the musical repertoire of a station. All Key Measures are edited in post-production processes: after all parts (footage, audio and graphic elements) have been loaded into an editing digital system, the editor puts together the first rough cut. For instance, In a music video, the editor first lays the music down and then cuts the footage to synchronize with the musical beats ... Throughout editing, the editor also works with the audio tracks: separating them, balancing out levels, and keeping track of where everything is in the computer (Kellison, 2006, p. 152). Thus, after having selected all the audio elements, a mix that consists of music and effects, called M&E, will be created.5 However, not all music that accompanies Key Visuals is considered as Key Measures. For example, music from documentaries and films or diegetic music of recorded footage, or recordings of music played by people who are being filmed are not Key Measures; nor are national anthems played by bands or on loudspeakers at sporting events, civic celebrations and parades, concerts, or recorded shows, at live musical events in concert halls or arenas. We define Key Measures as musical fragments short or relatively short of a planned selection of edited and mixed musical motifs to fill in the gaps in meaning of moving images edited under time constraints and with the purpose of bridging semantic gaps. Key Measures are especially, but not exclusively, those musical excerpts taken from musical themes widely disseminated by the transnational media, such as popular movie and video soundtracks, classic musical works and popular themes recognized as universal, distributed worldwide over the years and easily recognizable by worldwide audiences, such as the Top 40 charts mostly disseminated by global media networks. Occasionally Key Measures can be composed of measures of national anthems, folk songs, music recorded in live concerts, and military hymns, among other well recognizable musical motifs.6 In this sense, Key Measures are often used as clichs to give emphasis to the moving images, retouching what is seen and hinting at what is unseen in the Key Visuals. This type of sound feature is also widely used by the transnational film industry and influential TV networks as incidental music, to add atmosphere to the visual action. Now, the approach of this topic leads to three basic questions: 1. Do musical parts or fragments (Key Measures) used for audiovisual products present aesthetic/semantic characteristics of the original composition? And when they are mixed with different musical genres and visuals, do they become fuzzy sound elements, without a proper sense or any
The M&E mix consists of all music and effects tracks, as well as vocal effects tracks such as screams, whistles and crowd reaction tracks in fact, sounds that cannot be identified as specific to a particular country. The balance of the mix should be as faithful a recreation of the original language version as is economically possible. To assist in making a music and effects track, the final mix is used, itself divided into and recorded as three separate tracks of dialogue, music, and effects (Wyatt & Amyes, 2005, p. 245). 6 This category of Key Measures is characterized by snippets of songs produced with the visuals. They are thus diegetic sounds and musical elements from the original recording of the Key Visuals. In these cases, they are selected Key Measures and not produced by the editors.
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musical meaning? In this case, we cannot talk of music itself, not even of musical aesthetics in a strict sense, but of technical procedures for semantic compensation of the new audiovisual formats. 2. Do Key Measures, which are used for audiovisual compositions, keep essential aesthetic/semantic characteristics, which despite being mixed with different and contradictory musical motifs strongly modify the visuals so that they become the keys to understanding these products? In this case it can be argued that music, though fragmented and discrepant, assumes beyond the semantic compensation for visuals and speech an extremely powerful and manipulative aesthetic role. 3. Are Key Measures produced and mixed in the same or in more audiovisual compositions without a strategic plan to affect the audience, or with well-planned aesthetic-ideological goals? Adorno and Eisler, in their famous book on composition for film, first published in 1947, considered the widely used clich as the music for commercial films, saying that sooner than later people will be able to enjoy the clichs. In the first chapter of the book, the authors wrote: Mass production of motion pictures has led to the elaboration of typical situations, ever-recurring emotional crises, and standardized methods of arousing suspense. They correspond to clich effects in music. But music is often brought into play at the very point where particularly characteristic effects are sought for sake of atmosphere or suspense. The powerful effect intended does not come off, because the listener has been made familiar with the stimulus by innumerable analogous passages (Adorno & Eisler, 2007, pp. 9-10). This function of music clichs or stereotypes is part of what we define here as Key Measures. Often, Key Measures work this way: as an ambiguous sound phenomenon that intensifies the atmosphere of events in moving images, at the same time as it offsets this effect by revealing in advance the meaning of the visual narrative. Nevertheless, the effects of the Key Measures are diverse and can retouch the visuals, dubbing the events shown or caricaturing the Key Visuals of head of states, protesting crowds, natural disasters, accidents or images of wars and conflicts, national and international sporting events. In this role, Key Measures do not neutrally show the content of visual events, but manipulate the original character of the recorded images. This technique is widely used by influential TV networks in Brazil and, to a less audible degree sometimes in very subtle level volume and in the background by many TV networks in Germany, China, and the United States. In other cases, Key Measures act as symbols of a culture. In these cases they are fragments of music that are emblematic of a countrys traditions, used to evince the obvious and at the same time reinforce the idea of a far-away and exotic culture. And yet, Key Measures act as sonorous symbols in general, i.e., as sound elements printed in the audiences collective memory, enhancing sensible intuition and imagination to transpose semantic gaps and to understand the events shown. These sonorous symbols may be the timbres of specific instruments, such as trumpet, drum, horn, cymbal, or guitar, among others, that refer to veiled reminiscences, without any rational meaning, but they are extremely effective on the collective imagination and sensitivity. Scientific Procedures and Technological Advances Observing some scientific procedures adopted in audiovisual composition, it is noted that technological advances have completely revolutionized the analogical systems used throughout the 20th century. For example, the digitization of sound and timbre (Klangfarbe) allowed precise editing even to the smallest details. The problem of synchronizing frames with sound, for example, was solved by the SMPTE7 time code, which provides the perfect mix of soundtracks with visual structural parameters to allow unexpected effects in post-production. Moreover, computer science has made it possible to create extremely malleable sound files, subdivided into infinitesimal calculations and complex algorithms that allow qualitative leaps and therefore high-definition recordings and playback technology. These technological advances favor the growth of multiple media platforms with their respective convergence in various formats for the same audiovisual production. Audiovisual compositions can now be analyzed from a strictly technological
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SMPTE time code is a method of marking tape with continuous readout of time. (...) Now that high quality digital audio systems are available, they are becoming the format of choice for dealing with audio for video. Computer based editing is particularly useful for the arduous task of post production audio sweetening. However, most digital systems have their own timing constraints and don't work well as slaves to video decks. DAT machines that will lock to SMPTE are available, but really expensive. See http://artsites.ucsc.edu/EMS/music/equipment/video/smpte/smpte.html. (Retrieved March 10, 2010.)

and computational perspective, using hardware and software for production and post-production. Thus, the study requires the revision of particular literature in science and technology (cf. Poynton, 2003; Shi & Sun, 2000; Wyatt & Amyes, 2005). MIR (Music Information Retrieval), a special field of research in mathematics, has commanded the attention of scholars interested in recovering musical information extracted from screen media (Mller, 2007). It is an interdisciplinary technique for extracting information from digitized music and studying human interaction with computers, multi-modal interfaces, analysis and perception of music, and sociology and economics of music, among other topics, as well as developing tools for such information retrieval technology. Some references and articles are available on the website of the Max-Planck-Institut fr Informatik.8 Another field of studies that may be taken into account refers to research on the generation of digital sound frequencies and music composition using computers (computer music), different sound syntheses and software that enable the processing and programming of sound signals. Many of the timbres used today by the screen media in general and for films in particular are composed of frequencies produced by devices and procedures (hardware and software) of this kind. The literature on this topic (Mathews, 1969; Mathews & Pierce, 1991; Roads, 1996; Cope, 2000; Boulanger, 2000; Puckette, 2007; Dean, 2009; Hewitt, 2009) turns to programming languages, computational parameters, and mathematical calculations resulting in sound waves and timbres of high sampling rate and resolution, providing very high definition. Audio quality results mainly from the resolution rate developed with the help of sound synthesis software such as Csound. According to Richard Boulanger, Csound9 is a powerful and versatile software synthesis program. Drawing from a toolkit of over 450 signal processing modules, one can use Csound to model virtually any commercial synthesizer or multi-effect processors (2000, p. 5). The high definition of digital sound depends of this smoothing parameter to achieve sound quality compatible with high-definition digital recordings of visuals. Sensitive Observation and Hearing-Imagination For a comprehensive understanding of Key Measures mixed with Key Visuals and the various formats of these musical quotations, we are observing and coding year-end TV news reviews from the most influential TV stations in four countries over the past decade. In this sense, our analysis must take into account the second question of this essay, namely that musical fragments used in audiovisual composition change the meaning of the moving images, becoming a key to understanding the plots of the audiovisual material. It means that music is used as a mediator of meaning. Even if it is reduced to short soundbites, diluted into so many musical fragments and diverse quotations, it preserves its communicative values, which go beyond the limits of individual languages. Thus, if the second question were resolved, a detailed analysis of audiovisual plots and technologically sophisticated products could be carried out, but first it is necessary to watch and listen to these products to arrive at a survey of the empirical data of the technical-technological procedures in a detailed interdisciplinary analysis. In earlier times, renowned philosophers believed that cognitive operations in music were results of hidden arithmetic exercises. The famous statement by Leibniz (1646-1716) that music would be an exercitium arithmeticae occultum nescientis se numerare animi10 was quoted and criticized by Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) in the third book of Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, as follows: which Leibniz called it. Yet he was perfectly right, as he considered only its immediate external significance, its form. But if it were nothing more, the satisfaction which it affords would be like that which we feel when a sum in arithmetic comes out right, and could not be that intense pleasure with which we see the deepest recesses of our nature find utterance (52, 1302-1303).11 According to these ideas, it becomes essential to analyze the recorded audiovisual archives in which music serves not only as a backdrop.12 When Key Measures and their effects/affects are moving to the
See http://www.mpi-inf.mpg.de/~mmueller/index_publications.html. (Retrieved March 10, 2010.) This is a software package that allows various operations of sound synthesis and music composition. 10 A hidden arithmetic exercise of the soul, which does not know that it is counting. 11 ...wofr sie Leibniz ansprach und dennoch ganz Recht hatte, sofern er nur ihre unmittelbare und uere Bedeutung, ihre Schaale, betrachtete. Wre sie jedoch nichts weiter, so mte die Befriedigung, welche sie gewhrt, der hnlich seyn, die wir beim richtigen Aufgehn eines Rechnungsexempels empfinden, und knnte nicht jene innige Freude seyn, mit der wir das tiefste innere unsers Wesens zur Sprache gebracht sehn. 12 This paper is part of a long-term research project that brings together scholars from the School of Humanities and Social Sciences at Jacobs University Bremen and the ECUS research group at Federal University of Bahia. Since 2005, we have
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fore or to the middle ground, intensely modifying the meaning of the visuals, it becomes obvious that communication acquires a deep dimension. It means that sounds surrounding the ambient provoke sensory shifts in the viewer/listener, which seem to belong to the visuals themselves yet result from an audiovisual syncretism. According to Chion (1994), an audiovisual illusion is at the heart of the most important relations between sound and image, what the author called added value: By added value I mean the expressive and informative value with which a sound enriches a given image so as to create the definite impression, in the immediate or remembered experience one has of it, that this information or expression naturally comes from what is seen, and is already contained in the images itself. Added value is what gives the (eminently incorrect) impression that sound is unnecessary, that sound merely duplicates a meaning, which in reality it brings about, either all on its own or by discrepancies between it and the image. (1994, p. 5) In this sense, music and sound effects that accompany moving images are unnoticed or considered as part of the images themselves. Often they are not even heard consciously, because they mingle intensely and the human ear picks up the audible but invisible part of the audiovisual experience. With spherical sensory input, able to receive sound vibrations from all sides, the human ear perceives sonorous frequencies in the range of ten octaves, while the eye can focus at the same time on a tenth of that data range. Audiovision in its complexity becomes the target of new audiovisual compositions, in which the aural dimension is highly valued in production and post-production but little noticed or ignored by audiences. In that underpinning environment it is possible to develop a soundscape that is seemingly insignificant and poorly considered by viewers/listeners. Thus, the culture of seeing/hearing and forming opinions through audiovisual productions broadcast daily in most parts of the world undergoes sweeping changes, which in turn, changes the habits of the world. Now, the screen media have been adapting to small portable high-definition visuals and sound equipment or huge LCD screens coupled with sophisticated sound systems. Through recent technological advances, new trends are also restructuring media formats for screen media with the production of new media content. These mediamorphosis belong to a new reality, or rather an unprecedented new audiovision of the world by means of virtual measures of the screen media: It seems appropriate to explain the particular characteristics of this global mutation, which has no parallel among the historic mutations known to date. A prominent feature of this metamorphosis (although not its only aspect) is the dominant role of the electronic media. In order to visualize this specific aspect, I call the present mutation the mediamorphosis of music. (Blaukopf, 1992, pp. 247248) Technological improvements and the portability of audiovisual devices have further changed the habits of people in different regions of the world. The representation of the contemporary world is now replete with audiovisual archives, and people often have a sense of intimacy with the transmitting equipment with which they consume it. For example, the widespread use of portable devices like mobile phones and the mobile aural bubbles created by headphones result both from the convergence of multiple media platforms and the explicit appeal to media portability and connectivity. However, the intimate experience is separate for each person. The user of headphones, for example, who turns to an individualized audiotopia, listening to music while watching the outside environment, belongs to an aural sensory dimension while moving through places. This new connectivity is transforming the way of seeing-hearing the world and the consumption habits of many people. The audiovision of a sonorous world through personalized soundtracks according to personal choices of genre and musical types interferes with the representation of the external world by reducing its acoustic constraints. The individual audiosphere in which a person moves corresponds to a disguise in real life and the psychophysical distance imposed by natural and/or social factors. But if on one hand the personalized soundscape of the world relieves external discomfort and allows acoustic delight in the qualities of

analyzed the recorded files and news programs transmitted by influential television networks in Germany, Brazil, China, and the United States, encoding files that have a higher incidence of music and sound effects. It was noted, for example, that in the past decade, the American broadcast station CBS has intensified the use of musical parts in the audiovisual composition of news and year-end reviews, while in the same period (1999-2009), NBC reduced the use of musical accompaniment in news and retrospectives. However, for the Brazilian TV stations Globo and Rede Record, the use of music in news and yearend reviews remains a priority, and in some cases, music and sound effects are used throughout the whole program.

recorded music, on the other hand, each person projects onto the environment his/her own audiovisual dimension that is a result of profound isolation. Audiences in a Techno-Globalized World According to Longhurst (2007), the main markets for pop music products are in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The United States and Britain have in turn dominated the production of popular music for sale in the world market (Negus, 1992; see also Burnett, 1996). This reflects directly on the production and distribution of music in each country. In terms of cultural domination, cultural forms are imposed by powerful record and distribution companies associated with media networks. In fact, pop music productions, as well as other genres, from classical music to rock, are predominant over local music culture, and most countries do not have wide distribution power over their own cultural heritage. In addition, Wallis and Malm (1990, pp. 173-178) concluded that in such a globalizing context, patterns of cultural transmission can be classified into four types: cultural exchange, cultural dominance, cultural imperialism, and transculturation. That the international entertainment business may be motivated by imperialist practices is not in question. The results as regards music, however, are usually closer to what Wallis and Malm call transculturation a two-way process whereby elements of international pop/rock are incorporated into local and national musical cultures, and indigenous influences contribute to the development of new transnational styles (Garofalo, 1992, p. 7). In this sense, despite the differences among Key Measures on the most influential TV stations in four countries, there is also the effect of transculturation in the use of Key Measures inspired in music genres delivered by the hegemonic media markets. For example, most of the Key Measures in the 2006 year-end retrospective aired by the German broadcaster ARD consist of passages of public domain works of Western classical music or pop music classics, widely distributed around the world over decades. These include excerpts from the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Antonio Vivaldi, the Beatles, and others whose works, due to the quality of production and mass distribution, are widely heard and recognized in many countries. The 2008 year-end retrospective on the Brazilian Globo TV network features an eclectic and constant music collage throughout the program. It includes excerpts from songs of national culture or national songs in transnational style, various types of pop music, dance, blues, and songs from Amy Winehouse and Madonna, among other stars. Generally, Key Measures differ from Key Visuals for their duration. While Key Visuals have an average length of six to fourteen seconds, Key Measures have an average of four seconds to over one minute. In the ARD 2006 year-end retrospective, for example, Key Measures chain together the Key Visuals for more than a minute. This kind of musical accompaniment, which is also proper to the obituarys segment in which sometimes a single piece of music accompanies the visuals of those who died during the year, seems to become more frequent during the retrospective. The same trend is noticeable in Globos 2008 retrospective; here, the Key Visuals are sequenced with long musical passages for nearly two minutes. Furthermore, to brand the images with incidental tones and rhythms or to caricature the events shown, many sound effects are also added to the moving images. In response to the third question of this essay, it becomes essential to focus on the concept of Key Measures in their diversity of types and terms of use. In addition to the main title music sequences and those that introduce segment breaks and close the retrospectives and the news, the Key Measures also consist of passages or fragments of various musical genres that are short (few seconds), average (just over 10 seconds), and long (up to 2 minutes). Thus, the soundtrack is formed of Key Measures that can be considered as part of a new musical composition. Although limited in their temporal duration and merged with other diverse musical motifs and sometimes contrasting in the sense of style, genre, tempo, tonality, rhythm, etc., these parts or musical fragments add to the moving images the movement of music in an unusual way it is a musical form composed of several parts and shapes. What, then, is the aesthetic or semantic function of these musical quotations? The beginning of the 2006 ARD year-end retrospective, which shows an example of musical collage that attracts attention, can partially respond to this question. The program starts with just over 30 seconds of music taken from the overture to Mozarts Idomeneo re di Creta and shortly thereafter enters the title theme sequence of the retrospective, causing a sudden rupture and estrangement, while also heralding the formal beginning of the program. Thus, the title sequence retrieves the semantic gap

caused by the visuals and at the same time interrupts a series of sensations evoked by the Idomeneo overture. In this case, it is not easy to speak of musical aesthetic in the strict sense, i.e., in the sense of disinterested contemplation (Kant) or as sensible appreciation of musical composition or others, because it would be missing the interest that the work could hold over the listening time. Moreover, in order to raise interest in a musical fragmentation, it should be designed within musical criteria, but in most cases it is not. The Key Measures that provide musical accompaniment for the year-end retrospectives on different TV stations are characterized as the sum of disparate pieces of music selected by commercial and cultural interests or to reaffirm the meaning of images and even to caricature the events shown. Also, Key Measures compete for acoustic space with speech, which mostly lies in the foreground, reporting the events shown by Key Visuals. However, due to recent technological improvements, the malleability of digital formats has improved the musical accompaniment and sound design as well as the visual formatting of these programs. For instance, there is an increase in the length of the Key Measures, which can be represented by musical excerpts, lasting more than one minute. In some cases, free of speech or interruptions as in the obituary segment they regain part of the aesthetic coherence of the original work from which they were extracted. Following gender, color of timbres, rhythm and other sound parameters, Key Measures mark Key Visuals by sound vibration stimuli, which reorganize the meanings of audiovisual narrative. These musical quotations can still aurally stimulate and raise curiosity even if the listener is not watching the screen: the title sequence of a newscast, the sound icon of downloaded files from the Internet, the ringtone of a cell phone, among others. These short motifs or sound icons, title themes, and vignettes mark the Key Measures with specific roles designed to advertise or warn about something that has happened or will happen on the media screen. However, the aesthetic focus of the planned sequences of short musical excerpts and other musical parts to be mixed with moving images offers a larger field of research. I addressed this type of music and sound-design mosaic in two previous essays, namely the Key Measures of Globo Television Networks 2003 year-end retrospective, especially the segment dealing with the Iraq war, entitled Year of War (Boccia, 2005) and the soundtrack analysis of the film Kill Bill Vol. 1 by Quentin Tarantino (Boccia, 2006). In both cases, the soundtrack is composed of musical excerpts taken from different contexts and from soundtracks of other movies. These audiovisual collages result in new soundtracks that play off the previous context to animate new semantic structures modeled with a visual narrative. In both cases, the Key Measures rekindle the viewers/listeners previous musical experiences. However, each musical collage has different goals and, for different reasons, provokes contrasting effects. Tarantinos soundtrack, for example, has a consistency as a sort of tribute to renowned cinema music composers such as Bernhard Herrmann and Ennio Morricone; it is stylistically planned as a musical flashback. This is not the case of Globos soundtrack for their 2003 year-end retrospective, especially in the mentioned segment: The web spun between real images and melodic selections goes from Mozart to the popular songs of Arab and Indian motifs. A coherent narration construed in editing and calculated assembly where there is no improvisation, but the agile sequence of portraits, the fruits of decisions taken in conformance with standardizations and conventions (Boccia, 2005, p. 71). The technical planning and aesthetic decisions that go into the new audiovisual compositions using Key Measures depend on the quality of recordings and the appeal that such musical quotations have for the audiences. Any kind of audience watching the retrospectives can or cannot appreciate the audiovisual collages, which in some cases spark great interest. For instance, year-end retrospectives that show pop music stars or adopt parts of their songs to accompany the events narrated draw the attention of young people. This kind of audience is made of fans who appreciate not only songs and music but whatever stylistically recalls their idols. The great success of clips of pop music stars is due to consumers who, in addition to recordings, buy merchandising products of their idols, such as clothes, toys, posters, cups, lunchboxes, and others. For the pop group New Kids on the Block (1984), for example: Most of the money, as much as 80 percent, came not from record sales or concert tours but from merchandise licensed by the group (Parsons, 1992, p. 137). Abercrombie and Longhurst (1998) highlighted three basic types of audiences: (a) The simple audience such as theatre or sports audience and other events that require high attention; (b) the mass audience those who watch TV and other mass media; (c) the diffuse audience those who

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simultaneously use different forms of media, for example, someone who is watching the news on TV while at the same time sending a text message via mobile phone and listening to music via MP3 player, exhibits the skills of a diffused multitask consumer (in: Laughey, 2007, p. 183). In general, Key Measures of the first type those that are generally famous and easily recognized selected to be chained together come from the reservoir of renowned recordings, e.g., from pop music stars, movie soundtracks, famous themes by Western classical music composers, and recordings that have seen large-scale commercial success. This type of musical selection follows the cultural and commercial interests of copyright revenues (or their exemption, by the use of works in the public domain) and reaffirms the power that these musical motifs have over worldwide audiences, for example, a song by Michael Jackson. Furthermore, it becomes easier to attract the interest of viewers/listeners of all social classes if the music accompanying the images bear a claimed universality, a kind of unanimous aesthetic created by large-scale campaigns to celebritize pop stars with the transnational delivery of products linked to them. Just as the Key Visuals highlight prominent figures in world politics, Key Measures reinforce the value of pop music stars and the musical genres widely distributed on the world market, even if the Key Visuals bear no apparent relation to the music accompanying them. Multimedia mass productions and the constant struggle among influential media companies for a cultural hegemony lead to ethical questions about the effects these screen media representations can cause over time on the worlds population. The contrasting theories about audience behavior and the resulting media effects, especially of audio or visual media, range from concern for the seduction of the innocent (Wertham, 1954) and its disastrous effects on childrens education; to the paranoia of an immanent danger mass panic (Cantril et al., 1947); to the contrasting ideas of collective intelligence (Levi, 1994) and their convergence in a participatory culture (Jenkins, 2008), in which young consumers become active producers of media content and voracious consumers in a word, prosumers. Multiple theoretical approaches discuss the effects of the Internet, mobile phones, sex and violence in the media, consumption and perception of social reality (Bryant & Oliver, 1994, 2009). In this field of contrasting and, to some extent, radical ideas, the thought of Pierre Bourdieu attracts attention. His claims triggered harsh criticism at the time of publication of the book Distinction. Inspired by Kant and other thinkers, the French sociologist discusses the properties of judging art values, taste, and education, incorporating the concept of habitus also developed by Norbert Elias (1939, 2000) in The Civilizing Process. For Bourdieu, taste is manifested in a persons habitus by a set of predispositions that each individual learns to adopt since the first years of life according to their levels of economic and cultural capital. According to Landini (2007): From the concept of habitus, Bourdieu sought to dissolve the theoretical antinomy of individual and society by establishing that the individual, personal and subjective is also social, collective, or, in other words, the habitus is nothing more than a socialized subjectivity. Following this reasoning, Bourdieu argues: It would be useless in this area as elsewhere to seek an explanatory principle of the responses in a factor or in a pure issue of factors: in fact, in the originally synthetic unity of a generating principle, the habitus integrates all the effects of the imposed determinations by the material conditions of the existence (whose effectiveness is increasingly subordinated to the effect of the action of formation and information previously supported as it moves forward in time) (Bourdieu, 2007, p. 410). Throughout this chapter we presented some reflections on the diversity and complexity of Key Measures in audiovisual productions. However, the focus of our observations concerned the types of Key Measures that accompany moving images and the spoken narrative plots of audiovisual media. It is believed that the productions distributed by influential transnational companies seek to elicit the interest of the audiences through Key Visuals and Key Measures selected as prominent from the hegemonic production and distribution of media markets. However, the mass distribution of audiovisual products and recorded music for decades has caused the emergence of national musical genres inspired by the hegemonic productions of the major media markets. Likewise, forms and techniques of multimedia productions display strong similarities and are related to program formats of the most influential TV networks. Some differences, however, emerge by the use of music to accompany spectacular programs, shows, news, and other audiovisual products of the entertainment market. Inter/national Key Measures reveal their own characteristics and in several cases are added to the contents of production by commercial and cultural interests in which widely known musical passages are prioritized.

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Despite the widespread incidence of musical quotations taken from the reservoir of recorded music and mass distributed by the major media markets and transnational Key Measures genres in native languages, national Key Measures are still used to enhance the moving images that portray facts and national cultural aspects. Adding music to Key Visuals can not only bridge the semantic gaps left by visual and speech gaps, but also manipulate and modify the content of images and narratives themselves. Audiovisual syncretism creates the illusion that the music and sonorous parts accompanying moving images belong to our own experience of seeing, which allows the musical insertions to become rarely heard or even not heard by creating a favorable backdrop for manipulation. So for decades, the study of Key Measures was not considered as relevant or aesthetically interesting to attract the attention of music researchers and scholars, a trend that has reversed today due to the qualitative improvements of the audiovisual playback technology. Conclusion In search of answers to decipher the ever growing and more complex media system, its devices, equipment, and convergence of media contents on multiple platforms, several theories suggest contradictory ideas that often arise from disciplinary observations. The expansion of the media system itself is a result of the convergence of various disciplines, and the sciences involved in this intense mediamorphosis are relatively recent. The permanence in this eclectic market, which ranges from the abstract and exact knowledge of computer science to the disinterested contemplation of the aesthetic dimension, depends on a free game of knowledge and imagination, but also a fierce game of competitive participation. In this sense, media company producers remain alert to consumer trends, support and embrace the wishes of the prosumers, and create new products for the different social classes. Thus, the diversity and dynamism of this producer/consumer market of audiovisual compositions cannot be analyzed by single points of observation. The constant reviews of empirical and interdisciplinary studies of the levels of production and consumption are essential to understanding the dynamic issues involved. Inter/national Key Visuals/Measures of audiovisual productions attract scientific and technological study and analysis in constant comparison with aesthetic tastes and semantic functions and their impacts on audiences worldwide. After characterizing the types and terms of use of Key Measures, we tried to answer the three questions that motivated this essay. Music cannot be explained merely by mathematical operations although these are fundamental in the production of complex algorithms in programming parameters and values of sound samples and their synthesis. Another strong point of observation results from the sensitive convergence of imagination, hearing, and understanding. Thus, while the greatest number of empirical data and its codification of form and content are processed, the interdisciplinary comparative method is needed as a methodological counterpoint for understanding the results of analyzing the recorded files. By their ephemeral nature as sound waves, Key Measures are invisible. In a broader metaphorical sense, they are also non-audible that is, they are taken as symbols of a pseudo-universal culture and seem to be part of the moving images themselves. In these immanent messages and, sometimes, in the authoritarian power of production and distribution of symbolic capital, apparently recognized and consumed by the majorities, other musical expressions are silenced. The non-audible aspect of this linking of bars that we call Key Measures is done through an alleged universality of popular subjects, especially supported by transnational media companies. It was noted, for example, that in the year-end retrospectives of the most influential TV stations in four countries, moving images in general and Key Visuals in particular are very commonly accompanied by passages of Western classical music. For instance, the segment dedicated to obituaries, which pays homage to people who died during the year, is often retouched by themes of classical music in musical sequences that last longer than one minute. Yet the preponderant incidence of pieces of pop music, especially songs by the hottest idols of the music industry and the transnational media market, needs to be mentioned. This relates to the populist nature of the screen media and mass art in general, which aims to be direct and easily absorbed by most consumers. This trend of popularizing the communication may be reversed in the future or remain a reductive feature of the screen media. Perhaps in the near future it will be possible to produce audiovisual content without the need for restrictive simplifications.

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However, if on the one hand, the moments of disinterested contemplation and the consequent feeling of aesthetic pleasure produced by the screen media are still precarious, if not rare; on the other hand, music and Key Measures offer an invisible and effective compensation to bridge the semantic gaps left by Key Visuals and spoken narrative.

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