2.

1 Definition
Second Language

Before discuss on motivation, let us review the meaning of second language. Oxford Advance Learners Dictionary defines second language as a language that somebody learns to speak well and that they use for work or at school, but that is not the language they learned first. However, second language is different to foreign language. It will become clearer by refer to the comparison below.

People who are living in an English-speaking community/country are learning English as their SECOND language1. "The learner of the second language is surrounded by stimulation, both visual and auditory, in the target language and thus has many motivational and instructional advantages." (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)

As for those who are not living in an English-speaking community/country, they are learning English as a FOREIGN language. "Foreign language learners are surrounded by their own native language and have to go out of their way to find stimulation and input in the target language2. These students typically receive input in the new language only in the classroom and by artificial means, no matter how talented the teacher is." (Oxford & Shearin, 1994

Sparks, R.,& Ganschow,L.(1995). A strong inference approach to causal factors in foreign language learning : A response to MacIntyre. Modern Language Journal, 79, 235-244.
2

Janet S. Niederhauser.1998. Motivating Learners At South Korean Universities.Retrieved April 4,2010 from http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol35/no1/p8.html

Motivation

Motivation is defined as the impetus to create and sustain intentions and goal-seeking acts (Ames & Ames, 1989), is important because it determines the extent of the learner's active involvement and attitude toward learning. In other word, it is an inner drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves one to a particular action3. More specially, humans universally have needs or drive which are more or less innate, yet their intensity is environmentally conditioned. (Brown)4 Motivation is the learners orientation regarding the goal of learning a second language (Crookes and Schmidt 1991). It is very important to understand the nature of student motivation because research shows that motivation plays a major part in students' choices of language learning strategies and the proficiency levels they achieve. However, language instructors often are not aware of the specific motivations of their students. The work is based on the extensive research of the role of attitudes and motivation in second language acquisition by Gardner and Lambert (1972), Dornyei (1998), and others. An eventual theory of second-language teaching should take into account not only scientific knowledge coming from contributing sciences (linguistics, psychology, etc.), but also practical knowledge of language teachers.5

According to the Webster's, to motivate means to provide with a motive, a need or desire that causes a person to act.

Janet S. Niederhauser.1998. Motivating Learners At South Korean Universities.Retrieved April 4,2010 from http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol35/no1/p8.html
4

Brown, H. D. (2007). Principle of Language Learning and Teaching (5th ed.). NY: Pearson Education. 2005. How to motivate out brain. Retrieved April 1,2010 from http://library.thinkquest.org/T0210820/Linda.html

According to Gardner (1985), motivation is concerned with the question, "Why does an organism behave as it does?

2.2 How Motivation Affects Learning and Behavior

2.2.1 Motivation directs behavior toward particular goals. Motivation has several effects on students learning and behavior. As we can see, motivation directs behavior toward particular goals. Social cognitive theorists propose that individuals set goals for themselves and direct their behavior accordingly. Motivation determines the specific goals toward which learners strive (Maehr & Meyer, 1997; Pintrich et al., 1993). Thus, it affects the choices students makefor instance, whether to enroll in physics or studio art, whether to spend an evening completing a challenging homework assignment or playing videogames with friends.6

2.2.2 Motivation increases effort and energy Motivation is also known to lead to increased effort and energy. Motivation increases the amount of effort and energy that learners expend in activities directly related to their needs and goals (Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 1989; Maehr, 1984; Pintrich et al., 1993). It determines whether they pursue a task enthusiastically and wholeheartedly or apathetically and lackadaisically.

Janet S. Niederhauser.1998. Motivating Learners At South Korean Universities.Retrieved April 4,2010 from http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol35/no1/p8.html

2.2.3 Motivation increases initiation persistence in activities. Motivation also increases initiation and persistence in activities. Learners are more likely to begin a task they actually want to do. They are also more likely to continue working at it until theyve completed it, even if they are occasionally interrupted or frustrated in the process (Larson, 2000; Maehr, 1984; Wigfield, 1994). In general, then, motivation increases students time on task, an important factor affecting their learning and achievement (Brophy, 1988; Larson, 2000; Wigfield, 1994)7

2.2.4 Motivation affects cognitive processes

Many people believe that motivation affects cognitive processes. Motivation affects what learners pay attention to and how effectively they process it (Eccles & Wigfield, 1985; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Pugh & Bergin, 2006).8 For instance, motivated learners often make a concerted effort to truly understand classroom materialto learn it meaningfullyand consider how they might use it in their own lives.

Arnold, J. (Ed.). (1999). Affect in language learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Skehan, P. (1991). Individual differences in second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13,275-298.

2.2.5 Motivation determines which consequences are reinforcing and punishing

Motivation determines which consequences are reinforcing and punishing. The more learners are motivated to achieve academic success, the more they will be proud of an A and upset by a low grade. The more learners want to be accepted and respected by peers, the more they will value membership in the in group and be distressed by the ridicule of classmates9. To a teenage boy uninterested in athletics, making or not making the school football team is no big deal, but to a teen whose life revolves around football, making or not making the team may be a consequence of monumental importance.

2.2.6 Motivation often enhances performance

Lastly, motivation often enhances performance. Because of the other effects just identified goal-directed behavior, effort and energy, initiation and persistence, cognitive processing, and the impact of consequencesmotivation often leads to improved performance. As you might guess, then, students who are most motivated to learn and excel in classroom activities tend to be our highest achievers (A. E. Gottfried, 1990; Schiefele, Krapp, & Winteler, 1992; Walberg & Uguroglu, 1980). Conversely, students who have little interest in academic achievement are at high risk for dropping out before they graduate from high school (Hardr & Reeve, 2003; Hymel et al., 1996; Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997).

2003. Motivation is the lead of success. Retrieved April 5, 2010 from http://members.fortunecity.com/nadabs/prophecy.html.

2.2.7 Instrumental motivation This form of motivation is thought to be less likely to lead to success than integrative motivation which occurs when students want to learn a language to become part of a speech community (integrate). An important aspect of this form of language learning is using language for social interaction. This form of motivation is thought to produce success in language learners.10 This is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical or concrete from the study of a second language (Hudson 2000). With instrumental motivation the purpose of language acquisition is more utilitarian, such as meeting the requirements for school or university graduation, applying for a job, requesting higher pay based on language ability, reading technical material, translation work or achieving higher social status. Instrumental motivation is often characteristic of second language acquisition, where little or no social integration of the learner into a community using the target language takes place, or in some instances is even desired. Instrumental motivation underlies the goal to gain some social or economic reward through L2 achievement, thus referring to a more functional reason for language learning.11

10

Linda, P. 1997. Be the winner. Retrieved March 27,2010 from http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed444381.html

11

Gardner, R.C. (2001). Language Learning Motivation: the Student, the Teacher, and the Researcher. Texas Papers

in Foreign Language Education, 6, 1-18.

It has been found that generally students select instrumental reasons more frequently than integrative reasons for the study of language. One area where instrumental motivation can prove to be successful is in the situation where the learner is provided with no opportunity to use the target language and therefore, no chance to interact with members of the target group. Braj Kachru (1977, cited in Brown 2000) points out that in India, where English has become an international language, it is not uncommon for second language learners to be successful with instrumental purposes being the underlying reason for study.12

2.2.8 Integrative Motivation Motivation has been identified as the learner's orientation with regard to the goal of learning a second language (Crookes and Schmidt 1991).13 It is thought that students who are most successful when learning a target language are those who like the people that speak the language, admire the culture and have a desire to become familiar with or even integrate into the society in which the language is used (Falk 1978). When someone becomes a resident in a new community that uses the target language in its social interactions, integrative motivation is a key component in assisting the learner to develop some level of proficiency in the language.14

In an EFL setting such as Japan it is important to consider the actual meaning of the term "integrative." As Benson (1991) suggests, a more appropriate approach to the concept of

12

Drnyei, Z. (1994). Understanding L2 Motivation: On with the Challenge! The Modern Language Journal, 78, 515-523.
13

Crookes, G., & Schmidt R. W. (1991). Motivation:Reopening the research agenda. Language Learning, 41(4), 469-512.
14

Ellis, R. (1997). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford University Press.

integrative motivation in the EFL context would be the idea that it represents the desire of the individual to become bilingual, while at the same time becoming bicultural.15 This occurs through the addition of another language and culture to the learner's own cultural identity. As Japan is predominantly a monocultural society, opportunities to use the target (L2) language in daily verbal exchanges are relatively restricted. There is also limited potential for integrating into the target language community.

2.2.9 Anxiety as motivation According to Oxford (Arnold 1999:59) language anxiety is fear or apprehension that occurs when a learner is expected to perform in the second or foreign language. Further, this specific type of anxiety can be further divided into that which is helpful and that which is harmful. This is understandable, bringing with it as anxiety does, a heightened state of stimulation, a heightened sense of awareness and a close monitoring of ones actions. The case may be as stated anxiety is the strongest negative correlate to language achievement. (Gardner and MacIntyre), Be it that more than simple relationship exists between anxiety and language performance, studies have shown that anxiety corresponding significantly with diminished performance.16 Negative anxiety has potentially adverse effects on grades in language course, proficiency test performance, writing and speaking performance and self-confidence in language learning.

15

Benson, M.J. (1991). Attitudes and motivation towards English : A survey of Japanese freshmen. RELC Journal, 22(1), 34-48.

16

Gardner, R.C. (1982). Language attitudes and language learning. In E. Bouchard Ryan & H. Giles, Attitudes towards language variation (pp. 132-147). Edward Arnold.

Different people will face different types of anxiety. Some anxiety can bring success if they think it in a positive way [Brown and MacIntyre].17 If the learners take the anxiety as a spirit to perform well, they can succeed but if they take it as a weakness, the anxiety might make them to be slow to pick up the language because they dont have the motivation to perform well.

2.2.10 Personal needs for affiliation

Being another type of social motivation, affiliation depends on contact with other human beings. It is an emotional as well as instrumental drive, the fulfillment and manifestation of which is to be found in social support. People recognize very early in life that contact with others helps fulfill stimulation and other needs which are built into our physiology. This goes on throughout our lifetime and affects most if not all areas of our social life in one way or another. One of the most important conditions for linguistic communication, and therefore language learning, is the concept of social sympathy.18 Here, in the negotiation of meaning, sympathy enables the creation of a common point of view and common standards of linguistic usage. When we identify with our interlocutor, communication is enhanced. The reciprocal relationship of affiliation in which we approve of the behavior of others and seek approval for our own behaviors is a characteristic fundamental nature in humans. This is the quality of sympathy, we have a natural propensity "to sympathize with others, and to receive by communication their inclinations and sentiments" (Honderich 1995:380). In other words, qualities that give pleasure to one person can inspire pleasure (and hence approval) in others. So, in a sense the need for affiliation is also the need for

17

MacIntyre, P.D., Clment, R., Drnyei, Z., & Noels, K.A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in an L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82 (4), 545-562
18

Taylor, D.M., Meynard, R., & Rheault, E. (1977). Threat to ethnic identity and second-language learning. In H. Giles, Language, ethnicity and intergroup relations (pp. 99-118). Academic Press.

approval. Affiliation in SLL is conjoined with other social factors such as, dominance/nondominance, assimilation, acculturation, of course preservation, attitude, and intended level of interaction with speakers of the target language.