1.

Methods
ExperimentalManipulating the independent variable to determine if changes in it cause changes in the dependent variable. Designing an Experiment: 1. Create a THEORY ex.) Low self-esteem feeds depression 2. Use theory to come up with a HYPOTHESIS ex.) People with low
self-esteem will score higher on a depression scale

3. Perform research and make observations ex.) Administer tests of self

esteem and depression. See if a low score on one predicts a high score on the other

4. Create an OPERATIONAL DEFINITION-a statement of the procedures used to define research variables-to allow others to REPLICATE the experiment ex.) Hunger might be defined as hours without 5. If others use the operational definition and re-create a study with different participants and materials and get similar results, then our confidence in the findings RELIABILITY GROWS
eating or generosity may be defined as money contributed

1. Problem statement theory constructs operational definitions variables hypotheses. 2. The research question (hypothesis) is often stated as the alternative hypothesis to the null hypothesis, that is used to interpret differences in the empirical data. 3. Random sampling of subjects from population (insures sample is representative of population). 4. Random assignment of subjects to treatment and control (comparison) groups (insures equivalency of groups; ie., unknown variables that may influence outcome are equally distributed across groups). 5. Extraneous variables are controlled by 3 & 4 and other procedures if needed. 6. After treatment, performance of subjects (dependent variable) in both groups is compared.

Advantages: Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be established It allows for precise control of variables Experiments can be replicated Placebo effect vs. actual medicine Disadvantages: Artificial- The experiment is not typical of real life situations because its conducted in a lab Ethics- 1. Consent 2. Debrief all participants (after experiment, provide
them with as much information as possible about it) 3. Least harm 4. They can quit if they want 5. Keep it confidential

Analysis: Compare the mean of the experimental groups results to the mean of the control groups results STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE- how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Case Study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles Advantages: Suggests directions for further study In depth Used to form hypothesis Disadvantages: Can be misleading if the individual being studied is ATYPICAL NO CAUSE AND EFFECT UNREPRESENTATIVE information can lead to mistaken judgments and false conclusions

Survey
Looking at MANY CASES in LESS DEPTH when wanting to estimate, from a REPRESENTATIVE sample of people, the attitudes or reported behaviors of a WHOLE POPULATION Correlation research Advantages: Quick, cheap, and easy Disadvantages: DEMAND CHARACTERISTIC- can change the outcome of an experiment because when participants discover what the experimenter expects to find, they will often change their behavior to conform to the experimenters expectations. SOCIAL DESIRABILITY- they give answers that are socially accepted rather than true answers The WORDING and FRAMING of questions can impact the response NO CAUSE AND EFFECT Analyze: Correlation and scatter plots

Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation - does NOT EXPLAIN behavior, it DESCRIBES it Advantages: Allows you to observe a subject in its natural environment Generate HYPOTHESIS Disadvantages: Difficult to determine the exact cause of behavior

Cannot control for outside variables People may behave differently if they know they are being watched Observers may draw different conclusions from the same observable behavior DEMAND CHARACTERISTIC NO CAUSE AND EFFECT

Statistical Analysis
SURVEYS and NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS show CORRELATION- one trait or behavior is related to another CORRELATION COEFFICIENT helps us figure out how closely two things vary together and thus how well one predicts the other CORRELATION = SCATTERPLOTS

2. Neurotransmitters/Hormonal Communication

When an action potential reaches the terminals at an AXONS end, it triggers the release of CHEMICAL MESSENGERS called NEUROTRANSMITTERS -The neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites of the receiving neuron - It unlocks tiny channels at the site and electrically charged atoms flow in, exciting or inhibiting the receiving neurons readiness to fire - Then REUPTAKE occurs- the sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitter Acetylcholine- Muscle action, learning, memory V Alzheimers Dopamine- Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion ^ Schizophrenia V Parkinsons Serotonin- Mood, hunger, sleep, arousal. V depression Norepinephrine- alertness, arousal V depression GABA- inhibitory neurotransmitter V seizures, tremors, insomnia Glutamate- excitatory neurotransmitter, memory ^ overstimulate brain producing migraines or seizures Endorphins- natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Hormone Communication: The ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS GLANDS secrete hormones which travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues including the brain Much slower than nervous system which zips messages from eyes to brain to hand in a fraction of a second. Endocrine messages trudge along in the blood stream, taking several seconds or more to travel from the gland to the target tissue Nervous system = Email Endocrine System = Postal Mail Endocrine messages outlast the effects of neural messages
- This is why upset feelings may linger, beyond our thinking of what upset us

Adrenal Glands- release EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline) and NOREPINEPHRINE (nonadrenaline) Influences growth, reproduction, metabolism, and mood Pituitary Gland- master gland. Influences growth (Brain->Pituitary->Other glands->Hormones->Brain) The nervous system directs endocrine secretions, which then affect the nervous system

Schema: An organized pattern of thought or behavior A structured cluster of pre-conceived ideas A mental structure that presents some aspect of the world A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Schemas can be useful, because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting a vast amount of information. However, these mental frameworks also cause us to exclude pertinent information in favor of information that confirms our pre-existing beliefs and ideas. Schemas can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new information that does not conform to our established schemas. Mental Set: The tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that method worked in the past - Predisposes how we think
Example: A child opens the door to a store by pulling on it. He later insists on pulling the door handle of any similar-looking door to open it, and is puzzled that some of them must be pushed instead

3. Schemas/Mental Sets

4. Freud on dreams/Hypnosis
Freud on Dreams: Freud said the story line of our dreams (MANIFEST CONTENT), incorporates traces of previous days nonsexual experiences and preoccupations Dreams provide a psychic safety valve that discharges otherwise unacceptable feelings A dreams MANIFEST CONTENT is a censored, symbolic version of its LATENT CONTENT (underlying meaning of a dream) which consists of unconscious drives and wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly Most adult dreams can be traces back by analysis to erotic wishes Dreams are the key to understanding our inner conflicts

Wish-fulfillment His beliefs lack any scientific support and dreams can be interpreted in many different ways

Hypnosis Role Playing-Spanos

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High imagination, easy to hypnotize Acid in face Age regression Trust hypnotist Doing whats expected of them

Dissociation-Hilgard

1. A split between different levels of conciousness 2. Hidden observer- a passive, subconscious mind, observing the other 3. Ice bucket and deaf

DIVIDED CONSCIOUS THEORY- hypnosis has causes a split in awareness, a splitting of the consciousness. Read book and take in diction at the same time SOCIAL INFLUENCE THEORY- hypnosis is just role playing FALSE MEMORY- hypnosis brings back many memories but some of them are false Helpful in therapy in the cases of pain management and skin obesity NOT HELPFUL in curing addictions POST HYPNOSIS SUGGESTION- suggestion made during hypnosis to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized- help control undesirable symptoms and behaviors POST HYPNOSIS AMNESIA- inability to recall what happened in hypnosis when back in normal state

5. Operant/Classical

Conditioning
Classical
- Learn associations between events they dont control - Involuntary, automatic - No incentives - Passive on the part of the learner - Associating events: CS announces US - CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone

Both
- Learning of associations - Responses are under control of stimuli in the environment - Neither will last forever without reinforcement - New behaviors can build on previously established ones

Operant
- Learn associations between their behavior and resulting events - voluntary, operates on environment - Rewarded with incentives - Requires learner to actively participate - Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher) - Responding decreases when reinforcement stops

Behaviorist view on Learning

Behavior is largely the result of ones experiences with environmentconditioning. Learning is building relationships among events- stimuli and responses- finding contingencies. Learning involves observable behavior change. Contiguity of events aids learning- timing is everything. Many species of animals learn in these ways. Learning is a result of repeated experience with the world

Eyewitness Testimony
We organize incoming material and impose meaning upon it so that what we recall is effectively our version of what happened,

which may be more - witnesses might try to fit information into a schema resulting in distortions. Another aspect of memory that she emphasises is interference by post-event information (such as that which might be introduced during questioning).
- leading questions

False Memories

A false memory is a fabricated or distorted recollection of an event that did not actually happen. Factors that can influence false memory include misinformation and misattributing the original source of the information. Existing knowledge and other memories can also interfere with the formation of a new memory, causing the recollection of an event to be mistaken or entirely false.