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April 2012
Cover Photo: Blue Bonnets and Honey Bee All Rights Reserved. Image Credit: Retrieved on 4.10.12 from:
http://haykulu.org/2012/03/09/blue-bonnets-and-honey-bee/
The Texas Science Teacher, official journal of the Science Teachers Association of Texas, is published semiannually in April and October. Enumeration of each volume begins with the April issue. Editorial contents are copyrighted. All material appearing in The Texas Science Teacher (including editorials, articles, letters, etc.) reflects the views of the author(s) and/or advertisers, and does not necessarily reflect the views of the Science Teachers Association of Texas (STAT) or its Board of Directors. Announcements and advertisements for products published in this journal do not imply endorsement by the Science Teachers Association of Texas. STAT reserves the right to refuse any announcement or advertisement that appears to be in conflict with the mission or positions of the Science Teachers Association of Texas. Permission is granted by STAT for libraries and other users to make single reproductions of The Texas Science Teacher for their personal, noncommercial, or internal use. Authors are granted unlimited noncommercial use. This permission does not extend to any commercial, advertising, promotional, or any other work, including new collective work, which may reasonably be considered to generate a profit.
April 2012
n 1985, as a first year teacher at Alex W. Spence Academy for the Academically Talented and Gifted in the Dallas Independent School District, I received an invitation from then science director Winston Hoskins to attend the Conference for the Advancement of Science Teaching (CAST). I had no idea what this conference was, but I figured I would attend. At the orientation meeting, Winston said that a study had shown that there was one correlation among good science teachers. What was that one correlation? Attendance at science conferences! After my first CAST, I agreed with this study. I also realized that by attending the conference I had joined a statewide teacher organization call the Science Teachers Association of Texas. Over the next seven years, I attended CAST whenever possible (one time by camping because I could not afford a hotel) and remained a member of the STAT. After all, the STAT yearly membership was only $20 (I think). In the fall of 1989, I did my first presentation at CAST. It was at Texas A&M and I had the privilege of being part of the Operation Physics program the previous summer. At that CAST, all the Operation Physics trainers in Texas met and I got to meet, among others, Mrs. Virginia Woods. For those of you who do not know Virginia, she was a founding member of STAT and went on to become the first paid (part-time and never paid enough) Executive Secretary of STAT. Each year, STAT gives a Virginia Woods Award for outstanding contribution to the organization. For many years, Virginia kept the organization going, never getting paid enough for all she did. Virginia is one of the shining examples of the many science educators who gave of themselves to keep the organization going, teachers who have 3
served on the Board of Directors, as President, on committees, editors of the newsletter and journal, on CAST committees and volunteers at the conferences. In 1996, as the new science coordinator for the Mesquite Independent School District, I attended the CAST in Corpus Christi and one of my physics teachers, Becky Gideon (then Becky Coker), was the Vice President. Shortly after that conference, the President-Elect of STAT moved out of state and Becky, who had agreed to serve a one-year term as VP, was suddenly President-Elect and then President. During that time the editor of the STATellite: the Official Newsletter of STAT, Dr. Cynthia Ledbetter, decided to resign as editor and Becky asked me if I was interested. So somewhere in 1997, I took over as editor (since Cynthia and I worked on a few issues together I do not remember the exact date). As Editor I was an appointed non-voting member of the STAT Board. During the last 18 years, I have had a unique insight into the workings of STAT. In 2007 I gave up editorship of the STATellite and became Editor of the Texas Science Teacher: the Official Peer-Reviewed Journal of STAT. In 2009, I was elected President-Elect and, for the first time, was a voting member of the Board. I then served as President for 2010-11 and Past President for 2011-12. As Past President, I was privileged to serve as Conference Chairman for the CAST in Dallas last fall. Why, this has been a real trip down memory lane! This will be my last issue as editor of the Texas Science Teacher and at the end of the STAT Board meeting on May 19th, I will finish my long tenure on the Board. For the first time in 18 years I will not be attending quarterly board meetings, April 2012
www.Learning.com/STEM-ready
April 2012
With Houghton Mifflin Harcourt/Holt McDougal, every student can be a science star.
Holt McDougal is a trademark of HMH Publishers LLC. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Printed in the U.S.A. 04/12 MS47798
April 2012
here has been an increasing demand for K-12 students to have learning opportunities in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields at an early age. Research shows that even students in lower elementary grades are able to comprehend some of the more basic concepts of STEM-related content. As our society changes, so does the need to begin incorporating inquiry-based learning in our educational practices. Scientists and other professionals are beginning to work in multidisciplinary teams, and thus, to prepare our future workforce, we must also teach our students to work in teams. This article suggests a format for a summer STEM enrichment camp for elementary students. The proposed activities integrate the Five E approach to inquiry-based learning and utilize components of the National Science Education Standards (1996) in order to provide students with an engaging and fun experience to enhance learning over summer vacation. Keywords: inquiry-based learning, STEM, elementary, summer school Engaging Elementary Students in Summer Science Enrichment Activities Each year, students and teachers alike count down the days until school ends. At the beginning of the next school year, teachers may ask their students Did you forget everything you learned over the summer? For many students, the answer to that question may be Yes! How can students not only retain what theyve learned over the summer, but add to what they already know in a way that is appealing or interesting? Participation in a summer enrichment camp or program can help students with this. 6
A high quality summer program can engage students, teach them new skills, encourage them to expand hidden talents, fostering innovation and creativity. Summer programs can be remediation tools for students, engaging them in science-related activities that enhance their learning from the previous year, and further develop students understandings of the scientific world around them. These programs can be an avenue for encouraging students to develop further interest in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. Inquiry-based STEM instruction can be easily integrated into a summer elementary science curriculum (Brenner, 2009). Those not familiar with STEM integration in the school curriculum may suggest that young students arent yet ready for an introduction to complex concepts in the STEM fields. According to French (2004), young students are capable of gaining an extensive vocabulary related to science and are able to use higher order cognitive skills for participating in activities related to planning, predicting, and drawing inferences about the world around them. Charlesworth & Lind (2010) state in some ways, attitudes towards a subject or an activity can be as important as the subject itself (p. 81). They further add that research supports the notion that participation in a science program at a young age can help students to improve their language and literacy skills. National Science Standards In July 2011, the National Research Council (NRC) published A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas. This framework was developed from a collaboration between four major agencies: National Academy of Science, National April 2012
Notable High School Chemistry Concepts (contd.) Engaging Elementary Students (contd.)
opportunity for social peer engagement in an authentic learning environment. An inquiry-based method of instruction, the Five E approach, will be used. The inquiry method allows students to take the lead in their learning while the teacher serves as a trainer and facilitator. The Five E approach to inquiry learning was developed by the Biological Science Career Study team, headed by Richard Bybee (Bybee et al., 2006). Five E is a constructivist approach centered on the learners building their own understanding of a concept. This constructivist approach is grounded in the works of Piaget, famous for his research on cognitive development, and Howard Gardner, known for his theory on multiple intelligences. The Five E approach has five components: engage, explore, explain, elaborate (or extend), and evaluate. During the first component, engage, teachers will introduce a topic and stimulate the students interest in the topic. Second, students will explore their topic through hands-on activities and research to investigate a specific problem. Then, the students will explain the problem by formally presenting the issues to the class and providing research-based solutions. During the fourth component, students learn to elaborate. They participate in activities facilitated by the teacher in which they expand upon what theyve already discovered. This can also be achieved by having students participate in constructive peer feedback activities. Lastly, students progress through the final component, evaluate. In this phase, students will ask each other about what theyve learned from their research, observations, and final product. 8 Program Components The modules for this summer camp are an extension of inquiry projects and activities completed throughout the regular school year by elementary classroom. The individual projects selected were expanded into detailed modules which could be implemented as a one week or two week summer camp. The summer STEM camp runs on a five-day schedule from 8:30 am 3:30 pm. If replicated, this camp could also be set up as either a one or two week half day camp. Transportation and lunch/ snacks are an additional consideration for the timing of this camp. The camp will utilize collaboration from local university engineering or science department and/ or recruit community-based engineers for participation. This collaboration between the teacher and professionals in the field aids the student in developing an indepth understanding of the real-world applications. Costs for conducting this camp may vary based on the number of students and length of the camp. Facilitators should consider using materials that can be easily found in the school or at home, providing the students with an opportunity to view the simple machines around them in new and different ways. The summer STEM camp is designed to address the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) as well as the recently published framework for K-12 science education. The National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) addressed in this project are: Science as Inquiry: By giving the students an opportunity to explore and then create their own simple machines, students are developing an appreciation of how we know what we know in science thus facilitating April 2012
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April 2012
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By the end of Module 4, students should be able to answer the following questions: 1) Were you able to solve a problem by developing a new design of a simple machine? 2) Were you able to construct a model of Module 4: Finalization of Project and Expert your simple machine? Evaluation (Elaborate/Evaluate): 3) Were you able to collect data on the During the morning of Day 5, students strengths and weaknesses of your will work in their collaborative groups model? to implement their improvements 4) How could the students conceptualize as well as the improvements they or design a model for a simple gathered from their class. They will machine? test their inventions one last time. In the afternoon, engineering Conclusion professionals and/or students-inThe NRC states that there is training visit the elementary students. ample opportunity to develop scientific Each group will share their invention thinking, argumentation, and reasoning with the professionals, which now [in elementary school], and that is the includes any revisions they may have experience that will best support science made. Each group will explain why learning across the grades (NRC, 2011, p. they created that simple machine, why 2-8). This proposal for a summer STEM it makes a specific job easier, and how camp for elementary students focuses they improved it. The engineers will on this reasoning as well as use of the give the students positive feedback national science standards as a basis for and recommendations on their its implementation. Engaging students projects. Students are then asked to at an early age in STEM-related learning self-evaluate their simple machine and tasks is essential to increasing the and to reflect on their experience. The probability of students pursuing future facilitator will ask each student how careers in the STEM disciplines of science, they can use what they learned in the technology, engineering and math. As summer camp in the real world. Charlesworth & Lind (2010) suggest, it is just as important for students to have fun The final component of the day will while learning concepts related to STEM as 13 The Texas Science Teacher Volume 41, Number 1 April 2012
Brenner, D. (2009). STEM topics in elementary education. Technology & Children, 14(1), pp. 14 16. Charlesworth, R., & Lind, K.K. (2010). Math & science for young children. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. French, L. (2004). Science as the center of a coherent, integrated early childhood curriculum. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19(1), pp. 128-149. National Research Council (NRC) (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. National Research Council (NRC) (2011). A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas. Committee on a Conceptual Framework for New K-12 Science Education Standards. Board on Science Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Terzian, M., Anderson-Moore, K., & Hamilton, K. (2009). White paper. Effective and Promising Summer Learning Programs and Approaches for Economically Disadvantaged Children and Youth. Retrieved from:
http://www.wallacefoundation.org/KnowledgeCenter/KnowledgeTopics/CurrentAreasofFocus/Out-Of-SchoolLearn ing/Documents/Effective-and-Promising-Summer-Learning-Programs.pdf.
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Author Biographies
Dr. Tracy Walker is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Doctoral Studies at Virginia State University. She has worked closely with colleagues in the Education department on projects related to the development of a STEM Lab School, focusing specifically on increasing the interest of elementary-aged students in STEM-related opportunities. Dr. Walkers K-12 school experience includes working as a school counselor, school counseling director, and division-wide testing director. Her areas of research interest include STEM, research methods, mentoring and assessment.
Dr. Trina Spencer is an Assistant Professor of Elementary Education at Virginia State University. She has been an educator for more than 20 years with teaching experience at both the university and public school levels. Her research areas include instructional methods, classroom assessment, and strategies for increasing pre-service teacher interest and confidence for science teaching.
Kim F. Powell is the Elementary Science Specialist in Henrico County Public Schools, Richmond, Virginia. She oversees the science curriculum in 45 elementary schools supporting 24,000 elementary students. Ms. Powell has been a curriculum specialist for 2 years and has devoted my career to teaching children for over 22 years. She hosts a blog for my teachers that houses content to assist them in integrating STREAM (Science Technology Research Engineering Art and Mathematics) into their classrooms. Please visit her blog: http://blogs.henrico.k12.va.us/pbscience/. Ms. Powell is also keeping abreast of the Next Generation Standards and is working to implement change to align to the common core with the current Virginia standards. Olaniyi Lucas is a secondary school counselor and doctoral student at Virginia State University. Olaniyi is beginning her seventh year as a schol counselor. Within that time, she has served as a member and technology chair for the Virginia School Counselor Association (VSCA) and presented at many conferences. Olaniyi completed her undergraduate degree at Virginia Commonwealth University (Psychology) in 2002 and her Masters of Education degree at Virginia State University (School Counseling) in 2006. Olaniyi is actively engaged in the learning process and seeks out new and innovative ways to help her students learn.
Authors Note
Tracy M. Walker, Assistant Professor, Department of Doctoral Studies, Virginia State University Trina L. Spencer, Assistant Professor, Department of Teaching and Learning, Virginia State University Kimberly F. Powell, Educational Specialist for Elementary Science, Henrico County Public Schools, Virginia Olaniyi I. Lucas, Graduate Student, Department of Doctoral Studies, Virginia State University Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tracy M. Walker: School Address: Department of Doctoral Studies, P.O. Box 9403, Petersburg, VA 23806. Home address: 6153 Bootsie Blvd., Richmond, VA 23231. Contact email: twalker@vsu.edu.
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Introduction he National Research Council has just released its much-anticipated recommendations for K-12 science and engineering education (National Research Council 2011). Implicit in the arguments for a stronger and more focused approach to teaching and learning in these fields is the realization that fewer students are choosing to pursue degrees in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) than will be needed to fill workforce positions in our ever advancing technology-driven society. In light of this situation, research on why students choose a college major in the STEM fields and how students are influenced toward a career in one of these disciplines is vital. We need to look at data for the country as a whole, but also at data from the state of Texas to help inform educators and other community members as they make decisions that we hope will steer students toward STEM careers. Current research literature identifies several factors that correlate with student choice of STEM major. These include influence of teachers and parents, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and science self-efficacy (Forrester 2010; Maltese 2008; Lau & Roeser, 2002; Crisp, Nora & Taggart, 2009; Tai, Sadler & Loehr 2005). Many studies report that the influence of primary and secondary teachers is the most prominent factor in directing students toward a college major or a specific career path (Hattie 2003; MacIntyre et al.; Dick & Rallis 1991; Forrester 2010; Tai, Sadler & Loehr 2005; Tytler 2010; Lau & Roeser 2002; Maltese 2008). Parental encouragement is also a prominent factor through modeling of educational goals, 17
support through direct involvement with a school or learning activities, and verbal, emotional and financial support before and during college enrollment (Lau & Roeser 2002; Rowan-Kenyon 2007; Smith & Hausafus 1997; Herdon & Hirt 2004). Studies have focused on the student voice, methods of teaching science, the teacher voice and influences of popular science. Research from all of these areas must be integrated to make informed decisions about science education policies (Christidou 2011). Elucidating the student reflection of characteristics of teacher interactions and teaching styles as well as parental interactions is an important step to understanding what determines the success of a student within the STEM disciplines and what piques student interest in pursuing advanced studies in these fields. (MacIntryre et al. 2010, Hattie 2003). To give a richer, more detailed description of the pre-college factors that influence a students choice of STEM major among students in Texas, we undertook a case study comparing and contrasting populations of college-enrolled students who chose a STEM major with those who did not choose a STEM major. The case study approach allowed for a qualitative examination of a smaller sample size so that we could concentrate on specific context-dependent scenarios that might enrich an understanding of the influences affecting students (Gerring 2004, Flyvbjerg 2006). An article published by J. Koch in Science and Children (1990) describes the use of a science autobiography to stimulate discussion among pre-service elementary school teachers enrolled in a science methods course. Ellsworth & Buss (2000) reported interesting research April 2012
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Experiencing Physics
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Physics, A First Course - Second Edition
Physics A First Course, is an ideal approach to physics at the introductory, conceptual level. This program uses an inquiry-based approach. Students discover science concepts by investigating with hands-on equipment. Foundations of Physics, is a friendly, readable, conceptual approach to physics that is accessible to every student. This program includes successful STAAR strategies and a focus on mathematics for conceptualized physics.
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April 2012
test, reliability is indicated by a Cronbachs alpha of 0.71. Table 2 summarizes the mean Non-STEM performance of each sample population on 0 Males each GALT item. One point is assigned for correct completion of an item, and perfect 22 Females performance on the GALT test corresponds 17 Education to a score of 12. Figure 2 is a representation 2 Applied Studies of the stage distribution of students in each 1 Speech Pathology sample as determined by GALT performance. Most students in both sections can be 1 Family Studies Nasco Science Division categorized in the formal operations stage Texas 1 Psychology Science Teacher based on GALT score; however, 7 non-STEM March 2012 4 Seniors students fell in the concrete and transitional TST1203 12 Juniors stages.
4 Sophomores 2 Freshmen
Comparison of GALT data for STEM and non-STEM samples The GALT test can be used to assess logic reasoning ability and separates students into three operational stages that correspond to Piagets developmental model: the concrete stage, a transitional stage and the formal stage (Roadrangka 1986, Roadrangka, Yeany & Padilla 1986). This test has particular relevance when examining data for STEM and non-STEM university students as numerous research studies report a correlation between science ability and development of logic reasoning ability ( for example: Bird 2010; Bunce & Hutchinson 1993; Jiang et al. 2010). We planned to use this data to investigate connections between logic reasoning ability and experiences in learning and teaching of science among our sample populations. We might expect higher GALT scores for students who have a track record of success in STEM disciplines at the high school level and in turn expect a greater proportion of students who choose a STEM major to exhibit high GALT scores. During this administration of the GALT 23
There is a statistically significant difference between the mean GALT score of the STEM sample (10.3 + 1.35) and the mean GALT score of the non-STEM sample (7.8 + 2.21). Analysis of the sub-categories measured by the GALT test show that the
TST1203
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Mean score
Figure 2: Operational Figure 2: Operational stages determined using GALT stages determined using GALT
25 20 15 10 5 0 Concrete operational 0-4 Transitional stage 5-7 Formal operational 8-12 STEM Non-STEM
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Qualitative Data General attitudes toward science General attitudes toward science as expressed in the science autobiographies of students in both the STEM and non-STEM samples were analyzed and categorized. Five categories were used to group the student attitudes that resulted from pre-college experiences: overall positive, overall neutral, overall negative, positive to negative, and negative to positive. None of the students in either group had an overall negative attitude toward science during their early education years. In the STEM sample, 15 students had an overall positive attitude toward science, 6 students reported transitioning from a negative to a positive attitude through their primary and secondary education years, and one student reported a transition from a positive to a negative attitude toward science during precollege education (Figure 3). By contrast, the non-STEM sample included 9 students with an overall positive attitude toward science, 3 students were classified as overall neutral, 6 students reported transitioning from negative to positive attitudes and 4 students included information in their autobiographies suggesting a shift from positive to negative attitudes toward science (Figure 3). Examination of Figure 3 shows that the greatest proportion of students in both samples can be classified as having a positive attitude toward science before beginning their college educations (combining the positive and negative to positive categories). However, it is not surprising that slightly more than 25% of the non-STEM students expressed a 27 The Texas Science Teacher Volume 41, Number 1 April 2012
Themes in the science autobiographies Previous research suggests several common influences on student pursuit of and success in a STEM major in college. We began our analysis of the autobiographies by looking for evidence of these influences during the pre-college years to see if we could gather more detail about how students in our samples were affected in either positive or negative ways. Students discussed the influence of teachers, family, school and out-ofschool experiences. We saw evidence of student self-efficacy in both sample groups. One emergent theme that we did not initially target was prominent in writings collected from both sample groups: the importance of hands-on or laboratory learning in the classroom. A discussion of the data gathered under each of these themes follows. Theme I: The positive influence of teachers Among all of the anticipated and emergent themes, students in both samples dedicated the greatest number of sentences to discussing the influences of primary and secondary teachers on their attitudes toward science. All 44 students mentioned precollege level teachers in their science autobiographies. Nine out of the 22 students in the STEM sample specifically mentioned high school science teachers who fostered a personal relationship with their students and served as mentors. This is seen in the 28 The Texas Science Teacher Volume 41, Number 1 April 2012
Students can usually tell when teachers could care less about them, and I know for me personally, it lessens my motivation greatly. I most effectively learned science at this level despite the teachers unpleasant attitude towards the Overall, the focus on teacher influence students in my class. is a dominant theme among the 44 written 30 The Texas Science Teacher Volume 41, Number 1 April 2012
By contrast, only one student in the non-STEM sample described an outside of school experience as the primary influence on her attitude toward science and one additional student listed out of school experiences as being important. In both of these cases, the out-of-school experience they discussed was family influence. Theme V: The science self-efficacy Low self-efficacy is frequently suggested as a limiting factor in student success (Forrester 2010; Lau & Roeser 2002; Schoon & Boone 1998). We examined the student autobiographies for evidence of attitude toward the ability to succeed in learning science content materials. Interestingly, the STEM students dedicated fewer sentences to any discussion of their science ability than the non-STEM students. This may be due to a tacit assumption among students enrolled in an honors chemistry course that they are capable science scholars. Many of their statements about future careers in science or medicine included statements that implied confidence in their ability to achieve their post-graduate goals. They also made statements about their roles in learning or in coursework that indicated they considered themselves successful science students. The following excerpts are indicative of the STEM students confidence. After serious considerations I made one of the greatest decisions in my life, I decided to follow my heart and take the harder route. I am very confident that with the science background that I have, this major is not far off and well within my grasp. The ideal science students role in a 33
April 2012
Author Biographies
Erin Q. Boyd is a senior at Abilene Christian University majoring in Biology and Psychology and involved in research projects in the social and biological sciences. She works as a research assistant and Erin Q. Boyd is a senior at Abilene Christian University majoring in Biology and Psychology and involved social media coordinator for Mobile Enhanced Inquiry Based Learning, a Next Generation Learning in research projects in the social and biological sciences. She works as a research assistant and social Challenge Wave I research project. Upon graduation, she will continue her education at the University media coordinator for Mobile Enhanced Inquiry Based Learning, a Next Generation Learning Challenge of Texas at continue her in the Department of Texas at Wave I research project. Upon graduation, she will Arlington education at the University of Psychology studying Health and Nueroscience Psychology.
Arlington in the Department of Psychology studying Health and Nueroscience Psychology.
Erin Q. Boyd is a senior at Abilene Christian University majoring in Biology and Psychologyin the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Cynthia B. Powell is an assistant professor and involved in research projects in the social and biologicalChristian University. research assistant M.S. in inorganic chemistry at Texas A&M University and Abilene sciences. She works as a She earned an and social media coordinator for Mobile Enhanced Inquiry Based Learning, a Next Generation Learning Challenge a Ph.D. in chemistry/chemistry education at the University of North Texas. Her research interests inWave I research project. Upon graduation, she will continue her education at the University of Texas at clude synthetic organometallic chemistry as well as effective pedagogies for promoting deep conceptual Arlington in the Department of Psychology studying Health and Nueroscience Psychology.
Literature Cited
Cynthia B. Powell is an assistant professor in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Abilene Christian University. She earned an M.S. in inorganic chemistry at Texas A&M University and a Ph.D. in Bird, L. (2010). Logical reasoning ability and student performance in general chemistry/chemistry education at the University of North Texas. Her research interests include synthetic organometallic chemistry as well as effective pedagogies for promoting deep conceptual understanding 541-546. doi: 10.1021/ed8001754 and the use of technology to support student learning.
Buchmann, T., & DiPrete, T. A. (2006). The growing female advantage in college completion: The role of family background and academic achievement. American Sociological Review, 71(4), 515-541. doi: 10.1177/000312240607100401
Cynthia D. M., & assistant professor in the (1993). The use of and GALT (Group Assessment of Logical Thinking) as a predictor of Bunce, B. Powell is anHutchinson, K. D. Department of Chemistry the Biochemistry at Abilene Christian University. She earned an M.S. in inorganic chemistry at Texas A&M University and a Ph.D. in academic success in college chemistry. The Journal of Chemical Education, 70(3), 183-187. doi: 10.1021/ed070p183 chemistry/chemistry education at the University of North Texas. Her research interests include synthetic organometallic chemistry as well as effective pedagogies for promoting deep conceptual understanding and the use of V. (2011). Interests, attitudes Christidou, technology to support student learning. and images related to science: Combining
students voices with the voices of school science, teachers, and popular science. International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 6(2), 141-159. Retrieved from http://www.ijese.com/IJESE_v6n2_Vasilia_Christidou.pdf
Crisp, G., Nora, A., & Taggart, A. (2009). Student characteristics, pre-college, college, and environmental factors as predictors of majoring in and earning a STEM degree: An analysis of students attending a Hispanic serving institution. American Educational Research Journal, 46(4), 924-942. doi: 10.3102/0002831209349460 Desmond, M., & Turley, R.N. L.(2009). The role of familism in explaining the Hispanic-White college application gap. Social Problems, 56(2), 311-334. doi: 10.1525/sp.2009.56.2.311. Dick, T. P., & Rallis, S. F. (1991). Factors and influences on high school students career choices. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22(4), 281-292. doi: 10.2307/749273 Ellsworth, J. Z., & Buss, A. (2000). Autobiographical stories from preservice elementary mathematics and science students:
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ab practices are considered indispensable tools for teaching science. However, often they do not yield the desired effects in schools. Many students who participate in lab practices do not necessarily score higher on tests, nor do they necessarily gain stronger scientific confidence. In this quantitative, nonexperimental study, 76 at-risk students were tested in an Environmental Science program with the purpose of indentifying effective instructional models applicable to science lab practices that could yield better results in terms of test grades and student confidence in science. Two types of labs were analyzed: (a) expository labs, where students followed systematic instructions to find a pre-determined result, and (b) inquiry labs, where students created their own investigations to find answers to specific research questions. The results of the study indicate that lab practices are very beneficial to students if properly conducted. However, inquirybased labs seem to yield significantly higher results, in terms of test scores and student confidence, than expository labs do. Paired sample t-tests were conducted on pre/ post-lab test scores throughout the study, and regression models were developed on student socio-economic status (SES) and special education (SPED) classification. The results suggest that low SES and SPED students appear to benefit much more from conducting inquiry labs than they do from doing expository labs. Given the results of the study on low SES and SPED populations, further research is encouraged in the analysis of the relationships between effective lab designs and other demographic attributes. 42
Introduction Key Words: At-Risk Student, Environmental Science, Expository Lab, Inquiry Lab. Background Laboratory practices (labs) played vital roles in shaping our progress as a modern society, allowing scientists to simulate conditions otherwise too difficult, risky, or too expensive to face in the real world. This unique characteristic of labs makes them indispensable tools of scientific work and discovery. Singer, Hilton, and Schweingruber (2005) defined labs as opportunities for students to interact directly with the material world (or with data drawn from the material world), using the tools, data collection techniques, models and theories of science (p. 31). This definition seems to put much emphasis on the critical need for labs in all science classes: labs provide the opportunity to interact with the material world, and perhaps to understand it better. The Role of Labs Although the role of labs is clear for scientists and students who pursue scientific careers, it is not as clear for those students who do not have particular interest in science, or for students classified as at-risk1. In most secondary and postsecondary settings, students are required to
1 For the purpose of this study, the definition of at-risk students will refer to the Texas Education Agencys (2010) definition: A student at risk of dropping out of school based on state-defined criteria (TEC 29.081) (p. 4). Specifically, under the Texas Education Code, Title 2 Public Education, Chapter 29, Subchapter C, an at risk student is a student under the age of 21, identified by 13 specific strands, among which low SES and SPED (Texas Education Agency [TEA], 2009). The Texas Science Teacher Volume 41, Number 1 April 2012
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M (SD)
k - .090 -.078 -.081 -.056 -.062 -.047 -.088 -.069 -.095 -.049 -.045 -.067 -.056 -.043 -.082 -.078 -.095 -.069 -.078
Skew .019 -.072 -.045 -.023 -.041 .079 -.044 .064 .093 -.035 -.067 -.039 -.022 .084 -.025 .014 .076 -.044 .089 -.043
n = 76
-.089
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r .892*** .910*** .967*** .906*** .956*** .988*** .935*** .901*** .886*** .948***
p < .001.
Table 3 summarizes the results of the t-values with p < .05. The t-value is an expression of the probability that pre-lab and post-lab quiz scores have the same mean. The smaller the t-value, the larger is the probability of the means to be the same, and viceversa. The critical values for the t distribution, with a degree of freedom (df) = 74, and two sided = .05, is t = 1.99 (Van Belle, Fisher, Heagerty, & Lumley, 2004). All t-values are greater than the critical t, significant even for = .001 (critical t = 3.43). They ranged from t(74) = 3.565, p < .001 in expository lab 2, to t(74) = 15.631, p < .001 in inquiry lab 2.
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t 4.519*** 3.565*** 6.712*** 5.251*** 6.087*** 11.234*** 15.631*** 13.346*** 12.279*** 9.611***
df = 74
p < .001.
Because information pertaining to student socio-economic status (SES) and in need of special education (SPED) of the participants was available in the study, a multiple regression analysis was conducted. This analysis was indented to strengthen the answer to research questions Q1, since it showed whether the differences in test scores could be predicted by SES or SPED status of the participants. The regression models for expository labs and inquiry labs showed strong relationship between the observed values and the model-predicted values for both the expository lab quiz scores (R = .921) and the inquiry lab quiz scores (R = .894). In order to answer Q2, three surveys, reflecting the participants perception of confidence in doing science, were administered: one initial survey at the beginning of the course, and two more (one pertaining to expository labs and one pertaining to inquiry labs) at course completion, as shown in Table 4. The results of the surveys indicate that initially the participants seemed eager to do science and work on labs, scoring an average of 4.1 points out of 5 on a Likert Scale. However, the results of the expository lab survey show an average of 2.8 points out of 5, suggesting perhaps that the participants did not feel like those labs met their expectations and did not help significantly to increase their confidence level in science. Conversely, the survey results of inquiry labs averaged a 4.4 points out of 5, which seem to suggest that the participants felt more confident and prepared after this type of lab approach.
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Expository Labs 2.1 1.6 2.9 2.6 3.2 3.0 3.7 3.6 3.1 2.2 2.8
Inquiry Labs 4.1 5.0 4.8 3.8 4.5 4.8 4.3 4.2 4.5 4.0 4.4
n = 76
Conclusions Q1. The results of this study show that there are statistically significant differences between the test scores of at-risk students who perform expository labs and students who perform inquiry labs, in an Environmental Science program. At-risk students who perform inquiry labs seem to score higher than at-risk students who perform expository labs. 49 The Texas Science Teacher Volume 41, Number 1 April 2012
on other aspects of the scientific fields, like physical and chemical sciences. Additionally, while this study focused specifically on low SES and SPED status, future research should analyze other demographic attributes such as IQ, student GPA or LEP status, in an effort to determine their relationships with student academic success in science. Author Biography
Gianluca Corsi, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor of Biology and Environmental Science at the American Public University System, as well as a secondary Science educator. Dr. Corsi resides in the Fort Worth area (TX), but studied Ecology and Forest Sustainability at the University of Padova (Padua, Italy). He spent years assessing the environmental impact of deforestation practices in remote areas of the Italian Alps, and studied environmental conservation in Brazil, where he traveled between the Mato Grosso forests and the semiarid zones of the Brazilian North East. Dr. Corsi designs and develops life science labs and curricula for high school science programs and coaches science teachers to be confident and successful in the art of teaching science through hands-on activities.
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The Science Teachers Association of Texas (STAT) publishes two periodicals: The Statellite and The Texas Science Teacher. The Statellite is the associations newsletter. It contains innovative science activities, STAT leadership news, and current information on membership benefits. The Texas Science Teacher is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes papers pertinent to science education from all fields of science and science teaching. Contributions can be research articles, research notes, book reviews, and essays of general scientific interest. For Both Publications: All submitted material must be a significant original contribution not being considered elsewhere for publication. Inform the editor if material included in the article is published on the web, as excessive duplication should be avoided and adequate links must be established. All manuscripts must be written in English. Send an electronic copy of your manuscript to: the STAT Editor at stat@bizaustin.rr.com Include in the e-mail the author name(s), current e-mail and physical address(es), and a contact phone number. Indicate the publication for which the manuscript is submitted. Two referees (reviewers) and the editor review all manuscripts. You will receive communication of original receipt and then of completed reviews. Submissions for both publications should follow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition. Guidelines - The submission guidelines on-line: http://www.statweb.org/texas-science-teacher/tst-guidelines Upon Acceptance - Return the edited manuscript as soon as possible as an e-mail attachment to the editor. The manuscript must be returned in strict adherence to the instructions you receive with your manuscript. Tables and Figures - All tables must be separate files in Microsoft Word format. All images must be separate files in .jpg, .psd, .ai, or other standard format. The file name of each table or figure must relate to its place in the document (e.g. Figure 1.jpg). If submitting picture, they must be accompanied by a separate file, including a caption and the source (i.e. the name of the photographer and/or the image copyright owner) for each image.
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