474

Appendix B Heat-Exchanger Design

The information given below is useful in preliminary conceptual design and owsheeting. More theory and data can be found by consulting specialized references [15].

B.1 Heat-transfer Fluids

Water Critical pressure and temperature values of water are 220 bar and 373.14 C. Steam is a valuable heating agent below 200 C, where the saturation pressure is about 24 bar. Superheated steam can be used to enlarge the temperature range. Liquid water is excellent for cooling, but also for heating at mild temperatures below 100 C. For higher temperatures thermal uids are more suitable. Salt Brines Salt brines are water solutions of inorganic salts. Aqueous CaCl2 solutions of maximum 25% are recommended down to 20 C. Salt brines are low cost but expensive in operation. Antifreezes described below are preferable. Glycol Solutions Ethylene glycol can be used in principle down to 35 C, but in practice is limited to 10 C because of high viscosity. Propylene glycol has the advantage of being nontoxic. Other antifreeze uids, such as methanol and ethanol solutions raise safety and toxicity problems. Refrigerants Refrigerants remove heat from a body or process uid by vaporization. Ammonia (R717) seems to be popular again after years of decline in favor of chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFCs). Because of damage to the ozone layer, the CFCs are being replaced by refrigerants based on hydrochlorouorocarbons (HCFC), although these are not completely inoffensive. Thermodynamic properties of new HCFC can be found in the Perrys Handbook (1997). One of the most recommended is R134a for replacing R12. Thermal Fluids By using thermal uids the heat-transfer operations can be carried out over a larger temperature interval but at reasonable operating
Chemical Process Design: Computer-Aided Case Studies. Alexandre C. Dimian and Costin Sorin Bildea Copyright 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 978-3-527-31403-4

B.2 Heat-transfer Coefcients

Table B.1 Properties of some thermal uids.

475

Fluid

Composition

Temperature range C

Psat max. temp. bar 10.6 11.9 3.4 13.7 5.2

Cp#

r#

kJ/kgK 1.556 2.702 1.571 3.012 1.478 2.586 1.506 2.257 1.343 2.264

kg/m3 1062 680 933.6 568.2 1011 734 990 547 947 563

cP 5 0.13 9.98 0.16 46.6 0.2 51 0.25 78 0.18

Dowtherm A Dowtherm J Dowtherm Q Syltherm 800 Syltherm XLT

(C6H5)2O / (C6H5)2 Alkylated aromatics Alkylated aromatics Siloxane Siloxane

L 15400 V 257400 80315 L 35330 40400 100260

# = values at minimum and maximum temperatures.

pressures. Table B.1 shows the properties of some thermal uids produced by Dow Chemicals. The best known Dowtherm A, is a mixture of diphenyl oxide/ diphenyl capable of working as liquid or vapor up to 400 C at a maximum pressure of 10 bar. Other uids are based on mixtures of heavy hydrocarbons. Silicones are excellent liquid heating/cooling media over a wide temperature range, as for example between 100 C and 400 C. More information can be found on the Internet sites of producers. Inorganic Salts Several formulations are known but the most widely used salt is a molten mixture of the eutectic NaNO2 (40%)/NaNO3 (7%) /KNO3 (53%), for operation between 146 C (melting point) and 454 C.

B.2 Heat-transfer Coefcients

The overall heat-transfer coefcient between two uids separated by a wall is the reciprocal of the sum of the individual resistances. Partial heat-transfer coefcients depend on the hydrodynamic regime and physical properties of uids, particularly viscosity and thermal conductivity. Table B.2 shows typical values for partial heattransfer coefcients that can be used in preliminary design. The assumed values have to be checked by rigorous calculation in nal design. Particularly attention should be given to two-phase mixtures, hydrogen-rich gases and condensation of vapors with noncondensable gases. Table B.3 gives values of thermal resistance due to fouling. Thicker walls of stainless steel should also be included in the overall heat-transfer coefcient. The

476

Appendix B Heat-Exchanger Design

Table B.2 Partial heat-transfer coefcients.

Fluid Gases Gases, low pressure Gases, high pressure Hydrogen-rich gases Liquids Water, turbulent regime Dilute aqueous Solutions Light organic liquids Viscous organic liquids Heavy-ends Brines Molten salts
NC: noncondensables.

h (W/m2 K)

Fluid Boiling liquids

h (W/m2 K)

2080 100300 80150 15003000 10002000 10001500 500800 200500 8001000 500700

Boiling water Boiling organics Condensing vapor Condensing steam Thermal uids Organics Organics with NC Refrigerants

15002000 8001300

40005000 20003000 8002000 5001500 1500

Table B.3 Fouling as the equivalent heat-transfer coefcient.

Fluid Cooling water (towers) Organic liquids & light hydrocarbon Refrigerated brine Steam condensate Steam vapor Condensing organic vapors Condensing thermal uids Aqueous salt solutions Flue gases

Fouling (W/m2 K) 30006000 5000 30005000 30005000 400010000 5000 5000 10003000 20005000

combination of different situations leads to the overall heat-transfer coefcients listed in Tables B.4 to B.7. Note that fouling is included.

B.3 Shell-and-tubes Heat Exchangers

Figure B.1 shows the American TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacture Association) standards that are largely accepted. The codication makes use of three letters that indicate the type of stationary head, shell and rear head, respectively. One of the most common types is AES or AEL that designate removable channel and cover (A), one-pass shell (E) and xed tube sheet (L) or oating-rear (S). A similar

B.3 Shell-and-tubes Heat Exchangers

Table B.4 Overall heat-transfer coefcients for shell-and-tubes heat exchangers.

477

Hot uid Heat exchangers Water Organic solvents Light oils Heavy oils Gases Coolers Organic solvents Light oils Heavy oils Gases Water Organic solvents Gases Water Water or brine Heaters Steam Steam Steam Steam Dowtherm Dowtherm Flue gases Condensers Steam Organic vapors Organics vapors, high NC, A Organics vapors, low NC, V Thermal uid vapors Tall oil, vegetable oil vapors Vaporizers Steam Steam Steam Evaporators Steam Steam Steam

Cold uid

U (W/m2 K)

Water Organic solvents Light oils Heavy oils Gases Water Water Water Water Brine Brine Brine Natural gas mixture with hydrogen Gases, moderate pressures Organic solvents Light oils Heavy oils Gases Heavy oils Gases Steam or hydrocarbon vapors Water Water Water Water Tall oil Water Aqueous diluted solutions Light organics Heavy organics Sea water (long tube falling lm) Sea water (long tube rising lm) Sugar solution (agitated lm)

8001500 200500 100400 50300 1050 250750 350900 60300 20300 6001200 150500 15250 500800 100200 5001000 300900 60450 30300 50300 20200 30100 10001500 7001000 100500 250600 300400 100250 10002000 10001500 600900 15003000 7002500 10002000

478

Appendix B Heat-Exchanger Design

Table B.5 Overall heat-transfer coefcients for air-cooled heat (bare tube basis).

Process uid Water cooling Light-organics cooling Fuel-oil cooling High viscous liquid cooling Hydrocarbon gases, 310 bar Hydrocarbon gases, 1030 bar Condensing hydrocarbons

U (W/m2 K) 500 400500 150 40100 60200 300400 400600

Table B.6 Overall heat-transfer coefcients for jacketed vessels.

Jacket Steam Steam Steam Water, brine, thermal uid Water, brine, thermal uid Water, brine, thermal uid

Vessel Aqueous solutions (glass-lined CS) Light organics (glass-lined CS) Viscous solutions (glass-lined CS) Aqueous solutions (glass-lined CS) Light organics (glass-lined CS) Viscous solutions (glass-lined CS)

U (W/m2 K) 5001000 (300500) 250800 (200400) 50300 (50200) 2501500 (150450) 200600 (150400) 100200 (50150)

Table B.7 Overall heat-transfer coefcients for immersed coils in agitated vessels.

Coil Steam Steam Steam Water or brine Light oils

NC: noncondensables.

Pool Diluted aqueous solutions Light oils Heavy oils Aqueous solutions Aqueous solutions

U (W/m2 K) 5001000 250500 150400 400700 200300

type is BEM but with bonnet-type cover. The type A is preferred when fouling in tubes is likely. The types NEN designates channel integral with tube sheets and removable cover. In preliminary design the problem is the selection of the right type of exchanger and its sizing that complies with design specications. Conversely, the design

B.3 Shell-and-tubes Heat Exchangers

479

Figure B.1 Type of shell-and-tubes heat exchangers following TEMA standards [1].

should be developed so as to use standard heat exchangers as much as possible. The designer should decide which side, shell or tube, is appropriate for each uid, and nd a compromise between heat-transfer intensity and maximum pressure drop. For example, cooling water usually passes through tubes in low-pressure condensers. When the ow velocity cannot ensure high transfer then 2, 4, or 6 passes are recommended. Note that at higher pressures the tubes are more appropriate for condensing, while the cooling water is better fed in the shell side, where the uid velocity can be manipulated by means of bafes.

480

Appendix B Heat-Exchanger Design

Rules for uid side selection are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Corrosion: most corrosive uid to the tube side. Fouling: fouling uids in tubes. Fluid temperatures: high-temperature uid in tubes. Pressure: high-pressure uids in tubes. Pressure drop: lower pressure drop can be obtained in one or two passes. Condensing steam and vapor at low pressures: shell side. Condensing gasliquid mixtures: tube side with vertical position. Stainless and special steels: corresponding uid in tubes.

Allowable pressure drop is the key design parameter. This is in general 0.5 to 0.7 bar for liquids, occasionally larger for tube-side ow, and of 0.1 bar for gases. The shell diameter depends on the number of tubes housed, as well as the limitations set by pressure and temperature. The diameter may vary between 0.3 and 3 m. High values are valid for xed-tube sheet. If a removable bundle is necessary then the shell diameter is limited to 1.5 m. Tube size is designated by outside diameter CO.D.) thickness length. Diameters are normalized in inch or mm. Examples are 1/4, 3/8, 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1, 11/4, and 11/2 inches. Tubes of 3/4 in or schedule 40 (19/15 mm), as well as 1 in (25/21 mm) are the most widely used. Tube lengths may be at any value up to 12 m, the more common values being of 6, 9, and 10 m. Triangular layout of tubes is the most encountered. The tube pitch is 1.25 times the outside diameter. Exact tube counting can be obtained by means of specialized design programs. For preliminary calculations the number of tubes can be found by means of relations based on the factor C = (D/d) 36, where D and d are the bundle and outside tube diameters, respectively. The total number of tubes Nt can be calculated by means of the following relations [1]: 1 2 4 6 tube pass: tube pass: tube pass: tubes pass: Nt = 1298 + 74.86C + 1.283C2 0.0078C3 0.0006C4 Nt = 1266 + 73.58C + 1.234C2 0.0071C3 0.0005C4 Nt = 1196 + 70.79C + 1.180C2 0.0059C3 0.0004C4 Nt = 1166 + 70.72C + 1.269C2 0.0074C3 0.0006C4

As an illustration, Table B.8 shows some layouts for 3/4 and 1 inch O.D. tubes. Double-pipe heat exchangers are widely used for smaller ow rates. When the heat-transfer coefcient outside is too low, a solution consists of using longitudinal nned tubes as an extended surface.

B.4 Air-cooled Heat Exchangers

Air-cooled heat exchangers are employed on a large scale as condensers of distillation columns or process coolers. The approach temperature the difference between process outlet temperature and dry-bulb air temperature is typically of 8 to 14 C above the temperature of the four consecutive warmest months. By air-

B.6 Plate Heat Exchangers

Table B.8 Shell and tubes layout.

481

Shell I.D., in
3

One pass /4 in O.D. 1 in O.D. 21 55 91 199 294 472 674

3

Two pass /4 in O.D. 1 in O.D. 16 52 86 188 282 454 664

3

Four pass /4 in O.D. 1 in O.D. 16 48 80 170 256 430 632

8 12 151/4 211/4 25 31 37

37 92 151 316 470 745 1074

30 82 138 302 452 728 1044

24 76 122 278 422 678 1012

humidication this difference can be reduced to 5 C. Air-cooled heat exchangers are manufactured from nned tubes. A typical ratio of extended to bare tube area is 15 : 1 to 20 : 1. Finned tubes are efcient when the heat-transfer coefcient outside the tubes is much lower than inside the tubes. The only way to increase the heat transferred on the air side is to extend the exchange area available. In this way the extended surface offered by ns signicantly increases the heat duty. For example, the outside heat-transfer coefcient increases from 1015 W/m2 K for smooth tubes to 100150 or more when nned tubes are used. Typical overall heat-transfer coefcients are given in Table B.5. The correction factor FT for LMTD is about 0.8.

B.5 Compact Heat Exchangers

Compact heat exchangers (CHEs) are characterized by high efciency in reduced volume, but much higher cost. If area density of the shell-and-tubes heat exchangers can achieve 100 m2/m3, the compact heat exchangers have signicantly higher values, between 200 and 1500 m2/m3. However, because of higher cost, the CHEs are employed only in special applications. Some common types are briey presented.

B.6 Plate Heat Exchangers

Plate heat exchangers are intensively used in the food and pharmaceutical industries, but less so in chemical industries. Because of the small cross section, intensive heat transfer can be realized, as for example from 400 W/m2 K with viscous uids up to 6000 W/m2 K for water. Gasket plate devices are the most common. The effective area per plate can be larger than 1 m2. Up to 400 plates can be

482

13 PVC Manufacturing by Suspension Polymerization

assembled in a frame. However, the operation is limited to 30 bars and 250 C. Welded plate heat exchangers are similar. The operation can rise to 80 bars and 500 C, but cleaning is problematic. Platen heat exchangers are manufactured by assembling plates separated by corrugated sheets, which form the ns. The plates are made from aluminum sealed by brazing. The operation of these devices requires clean uids. The main applications can be found in cryogenic and natural-gas liquefaction for pressures and temperatures up to 60 bars and 150 C.

B.7 Spiral Plate Exchangers

Spiral plate exchangers are usually of two types: spiral-plate and spiral-tubes. Very intensive heat transfer can be achieved, with transfer area per unit up to 250 m2. The operation is limited to 20 bars and 400 C. However, the cost of such devices is high.

References
1 Perrys, Chemical Engineers Handbook, Integration for the Efcient Use of Energy, 7th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA, The Institution of Chemical Engineers, 1997 2nd edn, 1994 2 Sinnot, R.K, Coulson & Richardsons 4 McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C., Harriott, P., Chemical Engineering, vol. 6, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2nd revision, 7th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA, 1996 2005 3 Linnhoff, B., D. W. Townsend, D. Boland, 5 Ludwig, E. E., Applied Process Design, G. F. Hewitt, B. Thomas, A. R. Guy, vol. 3, 3rd edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, R. H. Marsland, User Guide on Process 1999