CHAPTER 1 COMMUNCICATION TYPES AND SIGNALLING SCHEMES 1.

1 INTRODUCTION
Communication involves the process of establishing connection or link between 2 points for exchange of information. The electronic system used for communication purpose is called communication equipment. The function of an information source in a communication system is to produce the information which has to be transmitted.

The message signal generated from the information source is called as base-band signal or message signal. The base-band signal may be the combination of 2 or more message signals. If this signal is transmitted directly, then it is known as base-band transmission. The base-band signal may be both analog and digital. For transmission of information, the process of modulation is used with some features of a signal called carrier is varied in accordance with message signal.

When the carrier wave is continuous in nature, it is called Continuous Wave (CW) or Analog Modulation. On the other hand, if the carrier wave is a pulse type waveform, then it is called as Pulse Modulation. Depending upon the message signal communication is classified as Analog and Digital Communications. Digital communication offers several advantages such as ruggedness to transmission noise, efficient regeneration of the coded signal, more security etc. Digital communication is done mainly via two methods: Digital base band transmission and Digital band pass transmission. In Digital base band transmission, the data which is in the form of bits (Digitized values) is transmitted without any modulation. There are several ways of assigning waveforms to the digital data which are on-off code, polar RZ, Non polar RZ etc.

In Digital band pass transmission, the incoming signal is modulated on to a carrier with fixed frequency limits imposed by a band pass channel of interest. The communication channel which is used for pass band data transmission may be a microwave link or a satellite channel etc.

In any method in digital pass band data transmission, the modulation process involves switching (keying) the amplitude, frequency or phase of the sinusoidal carrier in some fashion according to modulated data. Thus there are three basic signaling schemes known as AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING, FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING and PHASE SHIFT KEYING depending upon the parameter modified in the carrier.

1.2 M-ARY SIGNALLING SCHEMES

In an M-ary signaling system, the information source emits a sequence of symbols from an alphabet that consists of M symbols. In an M-ary scheme, the number of possible signals is M=2n where n is an integer. The symbol duration is T=nTb where Tb is the bit duration. In pass band data transmission; these signals are generated by changing the amplitude, phase and frequency of the carrier signal in M discrete steps. Thus we have M-ary ASK, PSK and FSK.

M-ary signaling schemes are preferred over the binary signaling scheme for transmitting digital information over band pass channels when the requirement is to conserve bandwidth at the expense of increased power. Thus when the bandwidth of the channel is less than the required value, we may consider the M-ary signaling scheme for maximum efficiency.

1.2.1 QPSK Signal

QPSK is one of the most popular digital modulation techniques used for Satellite communication and sending data over cable networks. Its popularity comes from both its easy implementation and resilience to noise. 2

The implementation of QPSK involves changing the phase of the transmitted waveform. Each finite phase change representing unique digital data. A phase modulated waveform can be generated by using the digital data to change the phase of a signal while its frequency and amplitude stay constant. A QPSK modulated carrier undergoes four distinct changes in phase that are represented as symbols and can take on the values of . Each symbol represents two binary bits of data. The constellation

diagram of a QPSK modulated carrier is shown

Figure 1.1 Constellation plot of QPSK modulated signal

QPSK signal is given by the equation: ( ) =0 . ( ) / ; .. else where (1.1)

Where i= 1,2,3,4 and Eb is the transmitted signal energy per symbol and T is the symbol duration and fc is the carrier frequency. Each possible value of the phase corresponds to a unique pair of bits called a di-bit.

On expanding the above equation and separating it, we get two orthonormal basic functions 1 and 2 given by . .. (1.2) (1.3)

There are 4 message points and the associated signal vector are defined by , (( ) ) (( ) )- where i=1,2,3,4; (1.4)

Table 1: various dibits of QPSK signal Input di-bit Phase signal 10 00 01 11 /4 3/4 5/4 7/4 of QPSK Coordinates points +E/2 -E/2 -E/2 +E/2 -E/2 -E/2 +E/2 +E/2 of Message

The input binary sequence is represented in polar form, with symbols 1 and 0 represented by E and -E. The orthonormal basis functions are modulated by the two binary waves. Finally the two are added to give a resulting QPSK signal.

The symbol duration is given by 2T, which is twice the bit duration of the binary wave. For a given transmission, a QPSK carrier wave carries twice as many bits of information as corresponding binary PSK wave.

1.3 QPSK MODULATION

The figure 1.2 shows the block diagram of a typical QPSK transmitter. The unipolar binary message (data) first converted into a bipolar NRZ (Non-return to-zero) sequence using unipolar to bipolar converter. The bit stream is then split into two bit streams I (in-phase) and Q (quadrature). The bit stream in-phase (I) is called even stream and quadrature (Q) is called odd stream. 4

The input data go to the Serial-to-parallel converter then it is split up into two. The two bit stream is fed to the low pass filter. Then the two bit stream after filtering is fed to the modulator. The filter at the output of the modulator confines the power spectrum of the QPSK signal within the allocated band. The two modulated bit streams are summed and fed to the band pass filter and produce a QPSK output.

Figure 1.2 Block diagram of QPSK modulator.

1.4 QPSK DEMODULATION

For QPSK demodulator, a coherent demodulator is taken as an example. In coherent detection technique the knowledge of the carrier frequency and phase must be known to the receiver. This can be achieved by using a PLL (phase lock loop) at the receiver.

A PLL essentially locks to the incoming carrier frequency and tracks the variations in frequency and phase. For the following simulation, a PLL is not used but instead we simple use the output of the PLL. For demonstration purposes we simply assume that the carrier phase recovery is done and simply use the generated reference frequencies at the receiver ( ( )) and ( ( ))

In the demodulator the received signal is multiplied by a reference frequency generators ( ( )) and ( ( )) on separate arms (in-phase and quadrature

arms). The multiplied output on each arm is integrated over one bit period using an integrator.

A threshold detector makes a decision on each integrated bit based on a threshold. Finally the bits on the in-phase arm (even bits) and on the quadrature arm (odd bits) are remapped to form detected information stream. Detector for in-phase arm is shown below. For quadrature arm the below architecture remains same but function must be used instead. ( ) basis

Figure 1.3 Block diagram of QPSK demodulator

CHAPTER 2 DIGITAL RECEIVERS 2.1 INTRODUCTION

An error signal can be derived in a DSP based phase locked loop (PLL) from the ATAN (arctangent) of a detected angle as opposed to approximating the angle by the SINE of the angle as is the common practice in an analog based PLL. Another example we can cite is early-late gates used to extract timing information in analog timing recovery loops. The difference between the outputs of the early gate and the late gate drives the loop in the direction to set the difference to zero. We recognize that the earlylate gate difference forms an estimate of the derivative of the matched filter output. Thus rather than form three filters, the matched filter and bracketing early and late matched filters, we can build two filters, the matched filter and the derivative-matched filter. These systems may offer significant performance and implementation benefits in modern hardware and software defined radio systems. We first review conventional receiver structures and their digital counterparts. We then examine carrier and timing recovery schemes in terms of modern DSP based implementations. Multirate signal processing and polyphase filter structures form the core of timing recovery schemes, while the CORDIC structure forms the core of down-conversion and phase detector functions required for carrier synchronization.

2.2 GENERATIONS OF DIGITAL RECEIVERS

2.2.1 First Generation

It includes a section to perform analog preconditioning, an interface segment to convert the preconditioned data to a sampled data representation, a digital post conditioning segment to minimize the contributions of channel distortion and noise to the output signal, and a detector to estimate the parameters of the modulated signal.

The Detector also supplies feedback information to a carrier recovery loop, a timing recovery loop, and the equalizer controller. The carrier recovery loop aligns the frequency and phase of the controlled oscillator (in the final down converter) to the carrier frequency and phase of the received signal. Similarly, the timing recovery loop aligns the frequency and phase of the sampling clock so that the position of the data samples at the output of the digital block coincide with the time location of the maximum eye opening.

Our first concern is the analog components in the signal-conditioning path. Our second concern is the analog components in the feedback paths of the carrier and timing loops. Analog signals are required to control the VCOs of the carrier and timing recovery loops. The levels of the control signals are determined by the digital loop filters implemented in the DSP segment of the receiver. The level of the digital control signals must be brought to the analog domain via Analog to Digital Converters (ADC).

Figure-2.1: Block Diagram of Signal Processing performance in first generation receivers.

2.2.2 Second Generation

In this version of the receiver the ADC is positioned to be the interface to the analog signal at the I-F stage. The sampling and quantization occurs prior to the quadrature down conversion. We have two options here. In the first option, we select a sample rate satisfying the Nyquist criterion for the maximum frequency of the I-F stage. In the second option we select a sample rate satisfying the Nyquist criterion for the twosided bandwidth of the I-F stage, while intentionally violating the Nyquist criterion for the I-F center frequency.

Figure-2.2: Block Diagram of Signal Processing performance in second generation receivers.

2.2.3 Third Generation

A unique attribute of the down-sampling operation is that we can change the phase of the sample locations in the down sampled time series relative to the epochs in the series. If we are performing M-to-1 down sampling, we have access to the output time series with M-different sample phase offsets. We can use the existence of these M possible output series to affect a timing recovery process. Rather than have the timing recovery loop modify the locations of samples points during the ADC process, as done in first and second generation receivers, we can have loop control the phase of the re sampling process in the re-sampling filter. 9

Since the phase of the re-sampling filter is defined by the selection of the phase weights in the single path structure, the timing recovery process defaults to controlling an index pointer in the filter's coefficient space. We note that when the polyphase filter is used as part of the timing loop, the number of stages in the partition must be increased to satisfy the timing granularity requirements of the timing loop rather than the down sampling requirement

Figure-2.3: Block Diagram of Signal Processing performance in third generation receivers.

2.3 OPTIMUM ML RECEIVERS

The ultimate goal of a receiver is to detect the symbol sequence in a receiver signal disturbed by noise with minimal probability of detection errors. It is known that this is accomplished when the detector maximizes the posterior probability for all sequences ( ) (2.1)

The posteriori probability using Bayess rule can be written as ( | )

( | ) ( ) ( )

(2.2)

10

The MAP (Maximum a posteriori) detector therefore needs to know the a priori distribution P(a) and the distribution of rf conditioned on the knowledge of the data sequence a. Since p(rf) does not depend on the data sequence, maximizing p(a|rf) is same as maximizing ( | ) ( ). For equally probable data sequence then maximizing the a posteriori probability is the same as maximizing the likelihood function MAP reduces to ML(Maximum Likelihood). ( | ), and

2.3.1 MAP Receiver

The optimal MAP receiver has no separate synchronization unit. The synchronization parameters are considered as unwanted parameters which are removed from the pdf by averaging. ( | ) ( ) ( | ) ( ) ( ) (2.3)

2.3.2 ML Receiver
The ML receiver jointly estimates the synchronization parameters and the data sequence. The receiver comprises a digital matched filter, a time-variant interpolator and decimator, a phase rotation unit and a data sequence estimator. The matched filter operation operates on samples rf(kTs). the sample value at the correct sampling instant is obtained by digital interpolation of the matched filter output. The digital interpolator performs the function of a timing recovery circuit. The data sequence estimator and phase recovery circuit operate with one sample per symbol. The samples z(nT+ T)( symbol rate) are obtained from the matched filter output bt a time-variant decimator. ( ( ) ) ( ( ) ) ( ( ) ).. (2.4) (2.5)

11

CHAPTER 3 TIMING RECOVERY

3.1 OVERVIEW
Timing recovery is also called as Clock Recovery. The purpose of the timing recovery loop is to obtain symbol synchronization. Two quantities must be determined by the receiver to achieve symbol synchronization. The first is the sampling frequency. Locking the sampling frequency requires estimating the symbol period so that samples can be taken at the correct rate. Although this quantity should be known (e.g., the systems symbol rate is specified to be 20 MHz), oscillator drift will introduce deviations from the stated symbol rate. The other quantity to determine is sampling phase. Locking the sampling phase involves determining the correct time within a symbol period to take a sample. Realworld symbol pulse shapes have a peak in the center of the symbol period. Sampling the symbol at this peak results in the best signal-to-noise-ratio and will ideally eliminate interference from other symbols. This type of interference is known as inter-symbol interference.

3.2 TIMING RECOVERY

Assume that the samples {rf(kTs)} contain all information. Due to a shift between transmitter and receiver clocks, samples at t=kT+T are required. In the analog receiver the solution for this is to control the sampling instant of the received signal. The sampling process is synchronized to the symbol timing of the received signal. A modification of this analog solution would be to derive the timing information from the samples of the receiver and to control the sampling instant. Such a solution is called a hybrid timing recovery.

12

Analog Processor

Digital Processor

kT+T VCO

Sampling clock

Analog Timing Recovery

Analog Prefilter

Digital Processor

F(w)

kT+T VCO

Hybrid Timing Recovery

Analog Prefilter

Digital Processor

F(w) kTs

Digital Timing Recovery

Figure 3.1: Timing Recovery Methods

3.3 METHODS OF TIMING RECOVERY 3.3.1 Early-late gate algorithm

This timing recovery algorithm generates its error by using samples that are early and late compared to the ideal sampling point. The generation of the error requires at least three samples per symbol. The method of generating the error is illustrated in Figure 3.2. The left plot is for the case where sampling is occurring late. Note that the early and late samples are at different amplitudes. This difference in amplitude is used to derive an error for the timing recovery loop. Once the timing recovery loop converges, the early and late samples will be at equal amplitudes. The sample to be used for later processing is the sample that lies in the middle of the early and late samples. One drawback of the early-late gate algorithm is that it requires at least three samples per symbol. Thus, it is impractical for systems with high data rates. 13

Figure 3.2 Method of generating error for early-late gate algorithm

3.3.2 Mueller and Muller Algorithm

The Mueller and Muller algorithm only requires one sample per symbol. The error term is computed using the following equation: ( ) ( ) .... (3.1)

where yn is the sample from the current symbol and yn-1 is the sample from the previous symbol. The slicer (decision device) outputs for the current, and previous symbol are represented by n and n-1, respectively. Examples of the value for the Mueller and Muller error for the cases of different timing offsets are shown in Figure 3.3, Figure 3.4 and Figure 3.5. One drawback of this algorithm is that it is sensitive to carrier offsets, and thus carrier recovery must be performed prior to the Mueller and Muller timing recovery.

Figure 3.3:Timing is fast: en = (0.8 1) (1 0.5) = 0.3.

14

Figure 3.4: Correct timing: en = (1 1) (1 1) = 0.

Figure 3.5: Timing is slow: en = (0.5 1) (1 0.8) = 0.3.

3.3.3 Gardner algorithm

The Gardner algorithm has seen widespread use in many practical timing recovery loop implementations. The algorithm uses two samples per symbol and has the advantage of being insensitive to carrier offsets. The timing recovery loop can lock first, therefore simplifying the task of carrier recovery. The error for the Gardner algorithm is computed using the following equation: ( ) . (3.2)

where the spacing between yn and yn-2 is T seconds, and the spacing between yn and yn-1 is T/2 seconds. The following figures illustrate how the sign of the Gardner error can be used to determine whether the sampling is correct (Figure 3.6), late (Figure 3.7) or early (Figure 3.8). Note that the Gardner error is most useful on symbol transitions (when the symbol goes from positive to negative or vice-versa). The Gardner error is relatively small when the current and previous symbols have the same polarity.

15

Figure 3.6: Correct timing: en = (1 1) 0 = 0.

Figure 3.7: Timing is late en = (0.8 0.8) (0.2) = 0.32.

Figure 3.8: Timing is early: en = (0.8 0.8) (0.2) = 0.32.

3.4 TIMING RECOVERY DESCRIPTION

Figure 3.9 shows a typical baseband PAM communication system where information bits bk are applied to a line encoder which converts them into a sequence of symbols ak. This sequence enters the transmit filter GT() and then is sent through the channel C() which distorts the transmitted signal and adds noise. At the receiver, the signal is filtered by GR() in order to reject the noise components outside the signal bandwidth and reduced the effect of the ISI. The signal at the output of the receiver filter is

16

(3.3)

where g(t) is the baseband pulse given by the overall transfer function G() (Equation 3.4), n(t) is the additive noise, T is the symbol period (transmitter) and T is the fractional time delay (unknown) between the transmitter and the receiver, || < . The symbols k are estimated based upon these samples. They are finally decoded to give the sequence of bits bk.

..................... (3.4)
`

Fig 3.9 Basic communication system for baseband PAM The receiver does not know a priori the optimum sampling instants {kT+ T}. Therefore, the receiver must incorporate a timing recovery circuit or clock or symbol synchronizer which estimates the fractional delay from the received signal.

Two main categories of clock synchronizers are then distinguished depending on their operating principle: error tracking (feedback) and feedforward synchronizers.

3.4.1 Feedforward Synchronizer Figure 3.10 shows the basic architecture of the feedforward synchronizer. Its main component is the timing detector which computes directly the instantaneous value of the fractional delay from the incoming data. The noisy measurements are averaged to yield the estimate and sent as control signal to a reference signal generator. The generated clock is finally used by the data sampler 17

Fig 3.10 Feedforward (open-loop) Synchronizer

3.4.2 Feedback Synchronizer

The main component of the feedback synchronizer is the timing error detector, which compares the incoming PAM data with the reference signal, as shown in Figure 3.11. Its output gives the sign and magnitude of the timing error The filtered

timing error is used to control the data sampler. Hence, feedback synchronizers use the same principle than a classical PLL
PAM signal

Receiver Filter

Received data Sampler

Data out Decision device

Received data Reference signal

Reference signal

Timing error detector

VCO

Loop filter

Fig 3.11 Feedback (closed loop) Synchronizer The main difference between these two synchronizer implementations is now evident. The feedback synchronizer minimizes the timing error signal, the reference signal is used to correct itself thanks to the closed loop; the feedforward synchronizer estimates directly the timing from the incoming data and generates directly the reference signal, no feedback is needed. 18

3.5 CONCEPTS USED IN TIMING RECOVERY

INPUT INTERPOLATOR

OUTPUT

TIMING ERROR DETECTOR

CONTROLLER

LOOP FILTER

Figure 3.12 basic blocks of timing recovery

3.5.1 Interpolation
Interpolation is the process of defining a function that takes on specified values at specified points. Interpolation involves discovering a pattern in a set of data points to estimate a value between two points. Linear interpolation is one of the simplest ways to interpolatea line connecting two points is used to estimate intermediate values. Higherorder polynomials can replace linear functions for more accurate, but more complicated, results. Interpolation can be contrasted with extrapolation, which is used to estimate values outside of a set of points instead of between them. A discrete set of data points has points with two or more coordinates. In a typical XY scatter plot, the horizontal variable is x and the vertical variable is y. Data points with both an x and y coordinate can be plotted on this graph for easy visualization. In practical applications, both x and y represent finite real-world quantities. X generally represents an independent variable, such as time or space, while y represents a dependent variable The task of the interpolator is to compute the optimum samples y(nT+ T) from a set of received samples x(mTS) . 19

Figure 3.13: Digital Interpolator Filter The interpolating filter has an ideal impulse response of the form of the sampled si(x). It can be thought as a FIR filter with infinite taps whose values depend on the fractional delay .

(3.5)

3.5.1.1 Interpolation Types

There are many different interpolation methods, some of which are described below. Some of the concerns to take into account when choosing an appropriate algorithm are: How accurate is the method? How expensive is it? How smooth is the interpolant? How many data points are needed?

A) Piecewise Constant Interpolation The simplest interpolation method is to locate the nearest data value, and assign the same value. In simple problems, this method is unlikely to be used, as linear interpolation is almost as easy, but in higher dimensional multivariate interpolation, this could be a favorable choice for its speed and simplicity.

Figure 3.14: Piecewise constant interpolation or nearest-neighbor interpolation

20

B) Linear Interpolation Linear interpolation is the simplest method of getting values at positions in between the data points. The points are simply joined by straight line segments. Each segment (bounded by two data points) can be interpolated independently. The parameter mu defines where to estimate the value on the interpolated line, it is 0 at the first point and 1 and the second point. For interpolated values between the two points mu ranges between 0 and 1.

Figure 3.15: Plot of the data with linear interpolation

C) Polynomial Interpolation Polynomial interpolation is a generalization of linear interpolation. Note that the linear interpolant is a linear function. If we have n data points, there is exactly one polynomial of degree at most n1 going through all the data points. The interpolation error is proportional to the distance between the data points to the power n. Furthermore, the interpolant is a polynomial and thus infinitely differentiable. So, we see that polynomial interpolation overcomes most of the problems of linear interpolation. Polynomial interpolation also has some disadvantages. Calculating the interpolating polynomial is computationally expensive compared to linear interpolation.

Figure 3.16 Plot of the data with polynomial interpolation 21

D) Cubic Spline Interpolation Spline interpolation uses low-degree polynomials in each of the intervals, and chooses the polynomial pieces such that they fit smoothly together. The resulting function is called a spline For instance, the natural cubic spline is piecewise cubic and twice continuously differentiable. Furthermore, its second derivative is zero at the end points. Like polynomial interpolation, spline interpolation incurs a smaller error than linear interpolation and the interpolant is smoother. However, the interpolant is easier to evaluate than the high-degree polynomials used in polynomial interpolation.

Figure 3.17: Plot of the data with spline interpolation

3.5.2 The Farrow Structure

The Farrow structure is an efficient structure to implement polynomial based interpolation filter. Farrow proposed a structure of FIR filters in cascade where the output of each filter is obtained after a delay of a single unit from the previous filter output. The Farrow structure is shown in Fig.3.18. where ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) are m+1 FIR

filters and each filter has a polyphase structure. Fig. 3.19. shows the polyphase structure of a single FIR filter where ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

22

are ( )

the ( )

coefficients ( )

of

polyphase

structure

of

M+1th

FIR

filter.

( ) are the outputs of FIR filters respectively. The continuous

valued parameter is called the fractional interval and has values lie between 0 and 1. It controls the fractional factor by which the input sampled signal is to be interpolated and used to determine the time interval between the interpolated output sample and the previous input sample.

Figure 3.18 Farrow structure

Figure 3.19 Poly phase structure for (M+1)th FIR filter The output signal y(m) of the Farrow structure depends upon the input sampled signal x(n) and response of FIR filters hc(t). Mathematically, the output signal y(m) is given by

23

 Where it is assumed that n is the central sample of the interval ( )

(3.6)

and N is an even integer. The impulse response of the Farrow filter is expressed in terms of the coefficients of individual FIR filters and the factor.

(3.7) where ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )are the coefficients and M N 1 is the degree of

polynomial. When the polynomial coefficients are known, it is very easy to compute the impulse response for each interval.

vm(n) represents the input/output relationship of the each FIR filter shown in Fig. 2 whose impulse response coefficients are cm(k). Hence transfer function of each FIR filter is given by

(3.8)

Cm(z) is independent of the value of and is fixed for a given design. The only variable parameter in the design is . The output signal y(m) is obtained by adding the multiplication of the outputs of FIR filters by the powers of respectively.

24

3.5.3 Loop Filter

Each loop has four essential components: the polyphase matched filter, the timing error detector, the loop filter, and the controller. In each case, the polyphase matched filter operates on samples arriving every TS seconds. The timing error detector operates on the matched filter outputs which are output from the polyphase filterbank every T/N seconds and outputs a timing error every T seconds or once per sample corresponding to the current estimate of the optimum sampling instant. The output of the timing error detector is possibly upsampled and used to drive the loop filter and loop controller. There are three natural possibilities for the loop control when using an Mstage polyphase matched filter: The loop filter and controller can be run at MN samples/symbol, N samples/symbol, or 1 sample/symbol. Each choice results in a slightly different architecture Interpolation control is performed by a pair of counters whose increments are synchronized to the input sample clock with period. The counter is a decrementing modulo-1 counter with underflow period approximately Ti=T/N. The period of the underflow is altered by the output of the loop filter to align every Nth underflow. The underflow condition indicates that an interpolant should be computed and passed on the timing error detector. When the loop is in lock, the underflow condition will be detected when the polyphase index is pointing to the filterbank filter with the sample corresponding to the optimum sampling time.

3.5.4 Controller (Number Controlled Oscillator)

A Number Controlled Oscillator (NCO) is a digital signal generator which creates a synchronous (i.e. clocked), discrete-time, discrete-valued representation of a waveform, usually sinusoidal. NCOs are often used in conjunction with a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) at the output to create a direct digital synthesizer (DDS).

25

An NCO generally consists of two parts:

A phase accumulator (PA), which adds to the value held at its output a frequency control value at each clock sample.

A phase-to-amplitude converter (PAC), which uses the phase accumulator output word (phase word) usually as an index into a waveform look-up table (LUT) to provide a corresponding amplitude sample. Sometimes interpolation is used with the look-up table to provide better accuracy and reduce phase error noise When clocked, the phase accumulator (PA) creates a modulo-2N saw-tooth

waveform which is then converted by the phase-to-amplitude converter (PAC) to a sampled sinusoid, where N is the number of bits carried in the phase accumulator. N sets the NCO frequency resolution and is normally much larger than the number of bits defining the memory space of the PAC look-up table. If the PAC capacity is 2M, the PA output word must be truncated to M bits However, the truncated bits can be used for interpolation. The truncation of the phase output word does not affect the frequency accuracy but produces a time-varying periodic phase error.

26

CHAPTER 4 TECHNICAL APPROACH

This chapter deals with various concepts used in developing the project. The descriptions of these concepts are discussed individually.

4.1 DIGITAL RECEIVER FOR A PAM SIGNAL

The signal in the digital receivers is A/D converted to baseband immediately after down conversion. In a first stage the signal is down converted to (approximately) baseband by multiplying it with the complex output of an oscillator. The frequency of the oscillator is possibly controlled by a frequency control loop. Due to the residual frequency errors the baseband signal is slowly rotating at an angular frequency equal to the frequency difference between transmitter and receiver oscillators. The signal then enters an analog prefilter ( ) before it is sampled and quantized. All subsequent signal processing operations are performed digitally at the fixed processing rate of 1/Ts. The signal rf(t) at the output of the prefilter ( ) is the sum of useful signal sf( ) plus noise n(t). Since rf(t) is band limited the noise n(t) is also band limited. The noise samples {n(kTs)}, in general, are therefore correlated, i.e., statistically dependent. This implies that they carry information which must be taken into account further processed on the matched filter. The condition on the prefilter ( ) and its corresponding sampling rate 1/Ts

indeed does not require T/Ts to be rational. In other words, sampling is asynchronous with respect to the transmitter clock. The digital receiver does not require to have a clock frequency equal to the symbol rate 1/T. The only existing clock rate at the receiver is 1/Ts which is unrelated to symbol rate 1/T. In other words, the ratio T/Ts is irrational in general; any assumption that T is exact multiple of Ts oversimplifies the timing recovery problem of a fully digital receiver 27

Decimator control Free running oscillator

Timing estimator

Mixer

Analog prefilter F(w)

Sampler quantizer

Interpolator filter

Matched filter

Decimator

Symbol detector/ decoding

Possibly sequence estimation

Frequency synthesizer Frequency Integrator Coarse frequency correction

Fine frequency correction

Frequency error detector

Phase estimator

Frequency integrator

Figure 4.1 Block diagram of a typical digital PAM receiver

4.2 DIGITAL TIMING RECOVERY

The feedback digital timing recovery is shown in the figure. A time continuous, PAM signal x(t) is received. Symbol pulses in x(t) are uniformly spaced at intervals T. for simplicity x(t) is assumed to be a real, baseband signal.

Figure 4.2: Elements of digital timing recovery 28

Assume x(t) to be band limited so that it can be sampled at the rate 1/Ts without aliasing. If x(t) is not adequately band limited, aliasing will introduce distortion. Interpolation is not an appropriate technique to be applied to wide-band signals. Samples ( ) ( ) are taken at uniform intervals Ts. the ratio T/Ts is ( ) ( ) at intervals Ti. We assume that

assumed to be irrational. These signal samples are applied to the interpolator, which computes interpolants, designated

where K is small integer. The data filter employs the interpolants to compute the strobes that are used for data and timing recovery. In the sequel, the interval Ti between interpolants is treated as constant. A practical modem must be able to adjust the interval so that the strobes can be brought into synchronism with the data symbols of the signal. All the elements within the feedback loop contribute to the synchronization process. Timing error is measured by Timing Error Detector (TED) and filtered in the loop filter, whose output drives the controller. The interpolator obtains instructions for its computations from the controller.

4.2.1 Interpolation
In truly digital timing recovery there exist only clock ticks at t=kTs incommensurate with the symbol rate 1/T. The shifted samples must be obtained from those asynchronous samples {r (kTs)} solely by an algorithm operation on these samples rather than shifting a physical clock. The shifting is only one of two parts of the timing recovery operation. The other part is concerned with the problem of obtaining samples of the matched filter output z (kT+T) at symbol rate 1/T from the signal samples taken at rate 1/Ts, as ultimately requires for detection and decoding. The entire operation of digital timing recovery is best understood by emphasizing that the only time scale available at the receiver is defined by units of Ts and, therefore, the transmitter time scale defined by units of T must be expressed in terms of units of Ts. 29

The argument of these samples is

..

(4.1)

Where mn =Lint(.) means the largest integer less than or equal to the real number in the argument and is a fractional difference
Transmitter time scale (nT)

(a) (n+3)T+ 0T (n+4)T+ 0

(n-1)T+ 0 T

nT+ 0T

(n+1)T+ 0T

(n+2)T+ 0T

n-1Ts (b)

nT s

n+1Ts

n+2Ts

n+3Ts

n+4Ts

Mn-1Ts

MnTs

Mn+1Ts

Mn+2Ts

Mn+3Ts

Mn+4Ts

kTs

Receiver time scale (kTs)

Figure 4.3: Timing Scale The situation is illustrated in the figure where the transmitter time scale, defined at the receiver of T, is shifted by a constant amount of ( T), and the time scale at the receiver is defined by the multiples of Ts. Two important observations cam be made due to the fact that T and Ts are incommensurate. First, we observe that the relative time shift nTs is time variable despite the fact that ( T) is constant. Second, we observe that the time instances mnTs form a completely irregular pattern on the axis. This irregular patter is required to obtain an average of exactly T between the output samples of the matched filter, given a time quantization of Ts.

30

Digital recovery comprises two basic functions: 4.2.1.1 Estimation The fractional time delay the true value
.the

has to be estimates. The estimate is used as if it were

parameters (mn,n) follows immediately from .

4.2.1.2 Interpolation and Decimation From the samples {rf(kTs)} a set of samples { rf(kTs+ nTs)} must be computed. This operation is called interpolation and can be performed by a digital, time-variant filter HI(ejwTs, nTs). the time shift n is time-variant. The index n corresponds to the nth data symbol. Only the subset {y(mnTs)}={z(kTs+ nTs)} of values is required for further processing. This operation is called decimation. 4.2.1.3 Farrow structure for cubic interpolation Another approach, better suited for signal interpolation by machine, has been devised by Farrow. Let the impulse response be piecewise polynomial in each Tssegment, ( ) . ,( ) ()

(4.2)

The interpolant equation is given as ( ) ,( ) ,( ) - ,( ) -. (4.3)

Where I=I2-I1+1 Substituting equ (4.2) in equ (4.3) and rearrange terms to show that the interpolants can be computed from ( ) ( ) () .

31

()

() ( ()

) () ( )

(4.4)

The coefficients bf( i ) arc fixed numbers, independent of k , determined solely by the filters impulse response hI(t). There are NI such coefficients if all impulseresponse segments are described by polynomials of the same degree N. Equation (4.4) is itself a polynomial in k. Nested evaluation of (5.4) is the mostefficient approach. For a cubic interpolation: ( ) ,* ( ) ( )+ ( )( ). (4.5)

A block diagram for hardware evaluation of (4.4) is shown in Fig. 4.4. This Farrow Structure consists of N + 1 columns of FIR transversal filters, each column with fixed tap coefficients. Each FIR column has I taps. Since tap weights are fixed, they might readily be implemented by table look-up, rather than as actual multipliers.

Figure 4.4 Farrow structure for cubic interpolator

In general, I and N are independent; I is set by duration of impulse response and N is determined by the chosen filter piecewise polynomials. In the special case that the approximating polynomial (not the filter polynomials) interpolates the base points, then I = N + 1 and the structure is square.

32

A Farrow structure needs to transfer only the one variable k itself for each interpolation, instead of I filter coefficients as required by a stored-filter implementation. The transfer problem is greatly reduced, hut at a cost of increased complexity in the interpolator structure. A Farrow decomposition can be found for any polynomial based filter. Farrow coefficients {bl(i)} are shown in Table 4.1 for the particular case of a cubic interpolating polynomial

Table 4.1 Farrow coefficients bl(i) for cubic interpolator I -2 -1 0 1 l=0 0 0 1 0 l=1 -1/6 1 -1/2 -1/3 l=2 0 1/2 -1 1/2 l=3 1/6 -1/2 -1/6

4.2.2 Timing Error Estimation

4.2.2.1 ML Synchronization Algorithms Conceptually, the systematic derivation of ML synchronizers is straight forward. The likelihood function must be averaged over the unwanted parameters. For example, Joint estimation of ( ( Phase estimation: ( Timing estimation: ( ) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (4.8) ) , ( ) ( ) ( ). (4.7) ): ) ( ) ( ) . (4.6)

33

In principle, a more realistic channel model and time-variable parameters could be taken into account, but it turns out that this approach is mathematically are too complicated. In view of the often crude approximation made to arrive at a synchronizer algorithm, it makes no sense to consider accurate channel models. Instead, one derives synchronization algorithms under idealized conditions and later on analyses the performances of these algorithms when used in conjunction with realistic channels. We assume Nyquist pulses and a prefilter ( ) being symmetric about 1/2Ts.

In this case the likelihood functions, assume the simplified form ( ) 2 [ ( ) 0 ( | | ). ( ) 1]3. (4.9)

with the short hand notation

A first approximation of the likelihood function equation (4.9) is obtained for large values of N. We can therefore discard the term , from maximization to obtain the objective function ( ) 2 [ ( ) ]3. (4.10) , -

In most digital receivers timing recovery is done prior to phase recovery. Provided timing is known, one sample per symbol of the matched filter output is sufficient for carrier phase estimation and symbol detection. To minimize the computational load in the receiver, carrier phase estimation and correction must be made at the lowest sampling rate possible, which is the symbol rate 1/T. They will be either DD/DA(Decision Directed/Data Aided) or NDA(Non Data Aided). Systematically deriving synchronization algorithms may therefore be understood as a task of finding suitable approximations. The synchronizers can be classified into two main categories: 1. Class DD/DA : Decision Directed(DD) or Data Aided(DA) 2. Class NDA: Non Data Aided(NDA) 34

All DD algorithms require an initial parameter estimate before starting the detection process. To obtain a reliable estimate, one may end a preamble of known symbols. Class NDA algorithms are obtained if one actually performs(exactly or approximately) the averaging operation. 4.2.2.2 NDA Timing Parameter Estimation The objective function for the synchronization parameters ( ( ) 2 2 [ [ ( ) ( ) ) is given by (4.11)

]3. ]3

In first step we derive data and phase-independent timing estimators. The estimate of obtained by removing the unwanted parameters

is

and . To remove the data dependency

the above equation is to be multiplied by ( ), where ( ) is the ith of M symbols, and sum over the M possibilities. The likelihood function reads ( ) 2 [ ( ) ] ( )3. (4.12)

There are various avenues to obtain approximations to above equation. Assuming M-PSK modulation with M>2 the probabilities ( ) for

i= 1,2, ,M (4.13)

The maximum likelihood parameter for NDA integrated over entire range of 2, independent of ( ) and ( ( )) is given as
( ( ( )) ( ))

( )

( )-3

. (4.14)

( )

35

The result is same for all phase modulations (M-PSK) but not for M-QAM. In order to obtain an NDA synchronization algorithm for M-QAM, we would have to average over the symbols which are not possible in closed form. The equation is further simplified by a series expansion of modified Bessel function. Taking the logarithm, expanding into a series ( ) estimation yields ( ). ( ) and discarding any constant irrelevant for the

NDA:

(4.15)

Averaging over a uniformly distributed phase yields the non-coherent (NC) timing estimator. ( ) ( ) (4.16)

Thus the NDA expression when applied to Fourier series is thus defined by ( [ ]). (4.17)

Since c0 and the absolute value of |c1| are independent of equation is assumed for

the maximum of above

..

(4.18)

Here is the timing error estimation parameter which determines which signal to be interpolated. The coefficient c1 is the Fourier transform coefficient which is discussed below. It is quite remarkable that no maximum search is needed to find since it is explicitly given by the argument of Fourier coefficient by a summation of (2L+1) integrals. The coefficients Discrete Fourier Transforms (DFT). . The coefficient and is defined

can be computed by a

36

The integer Ms the (nominal) ratio between sampling and symbol rate, For the samples taken at kTs we obtain [ ( ) (, - ) ..
. /

(4.19)

A particularly simple implementation is found for Ms=4. For this value we obtain a multiplication-free realization of the estimator. 0 (, - ) ( ) 1
( )

) .

(4.20)

Here c0 and c1 are the Fourier transform coefficients and are discussed as above. The equation derived is used for the estimation of least error through Fourier transformation method.

4.2.3 Controller (Number Controlled Oscillator)

A controller provides the interpolator with a information needed to perform the computations. An interpolant is computed from equation (4.3) Using I adjacent x(m) of the signal and I samples of the impulse response h I(t) of the interpolating filter. The correct set of signal samples is identified by the base point index mk and the correct set of filter samples is identified by the fractional interval k. Thus the figure 4.4 is responsible for determining mk and k, and making that information available to the interpolator. Once mk and k have been identified by the controller, then the other elements load the selected signal and impulse response samples into the interpolation filter structure for computations.

37

Figure 4.5: Timing processor The necessary control can be provided by a number controlled oscillator (NCO). The signal samples are uniformly clocked through a shift register at the rate 1/T s and the NCO is clocked at the rate synchronized to 1/Ts. the interpolator is never called upon to perform upsampling, then the NCO clock period can be Ts. if upsampling is ever required, then a higher NCO clock rate is needed. The NCO clock rates in downsampling at the rate 1/Ts are modified in such a way to accommodate upsampling. The NCO is operated so that its average period is Ti. Recycling the NCO register indicates that a new interpolant is to be computed, using the signal samples currently residing in the interpolators shift register. Thus, the base point index is identified by flagging the correct set of signal samples rather than explicitly computing mk.

4.2.3.1 Extraction of k
Fractional interval k can be calculated from the contents of NCOs register. The NCO register contents computed at the mth clock tick as ( ) and the NCO control word as W(m). Then the NCO difference equation is 38

( )

, (

)-

. (4.21)

Control word W(m) (a positive fraction) is adjusted by the timing recovery loop so that the output of the data filter is strobed at near optimal timing. Under loop equlibrium conditions, W(m) will be nearly constant. Contents of the NCO will be decremented by an amount of W(m) each Ts seconds and the register will underflow each 1/W(m) clock ticks, on average. Thus the NCO period is ( ) and so

( )

1 (1+mk)

NCO register content

(mk)

time 0 mkTs (k+mk)Ts (1+mk)Ts (1+mk)-1

Figure 4.6: NCO relations This is to say, W (m) is a synchronizers estimate of the average frequency of interpolation 1/Ti, expressed relative to the sampling frequency 1/Ts. The control word is an estimate because it is produced from filtering of multiple, noisy measurements of timing error. The figure 4.5 determines the estimation of k which is extracted from NCO, which is a plot of time-continuous (t) verses continuous time. In the figure 4.5 mkTs is the time of the sampled clock pulse immediately preceding the kth interpolation 39

time

. NCO register contents decrease through zero at t=kTi, and the ) . ) and ( ) are available at the clock ticks.

zero crossing (underflow) becomes known at the next clock tick at time ( Register contents (

From similar triangles in figure 4.5 it can be seen that

( ( ) ( ) )

(4.22)

which can be solved for

as
( ( ) ) ( ) ( ( )

..

(4.23)

An estimate for numbers ( ) and W(

can be obtained by performing the indicated division of the two ) that are both available from the NCO. ; nominal value of this ratio is designated as 0. All

To avoid division,

( )

though the exact Ti/Ts is unknown and irrational, the nominal value 0, expressed to finite precision, can often be an excellent approximation to the true value. Therefore the fractional interval can be approximated by deviation of is too large, then a first order correction ( ), ( ( )- (4.24) ( ). If the

reduces the standard deviation in division.

to

, again without requiring a

40

CHAPTER 5 INTRODUCTION TO SIMULINK

Simulink is integrated with MATLAB, providing immediate access to an extensive range of tools that let you develop algorithms, analyze and visualize simulations, create batch processing scripts, customize the modeling environment, and define signal, parameter, and test data. Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamical systems. It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time, or a hybrid of the two. Systems can also be multirate, i.e., have different parts that are sampled or updated at different rates. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. With this interface, you can draw the models just as you would with pencil and paper (or as most textbooks depict them). Simulink includes a comprehensive block library of sinks, sources, linear and nonlinear components, and connectors. You can also customize and create your own blocks

5.1 WORKING WITH MODELS

Simulink lets you to create, model, and maintain a detailed block diagram of the system using a comprehensive set of predefined blocks. Simulink software includes an extensive library of functions commonly used in modeling a system. These include: Continuous and discrete dynamics blocks, such as Integration and Unit Delay Algorithmic blocks, such as Sum, Product, and Lookup Table Structural blocks, such as Mux, Switch, and Bus Selector

It is possible to customize these built-in blocks or create new ones directly in Simulink and place them into new libraries. Additional blocksets (available separately) extend Simulink with specific functionality for aerospace, communications, radio frequency, signal processing, video and image processing, and other applications. 41

Figure 5.1 Simulink library To create a new model, select Model from the new submenu of the Simulink library window's File menu. To create a new model on Windows, select the New Model button on the Library Browser's toolbar

Figure 5.2 Opening Simulink New file Simulink opens a new model window.

42

You will need to copy blocks into the model from the following Simulink block libraries: Sources library (the Sine Wave block) Sinks library (the Scope block) Continuous library (the Integrator block) Signals & Systems library (the Mux block)

To copy the Sine Wave block from the Library Browser, first expand the Library Browser tree to display the blocks in the Sources library. Do this by clicking on the Sources node to display the Sources library blocks. Finally, click on the Sine Wave node to select the Sine Wave block.

Here is how the Library Browser should look after you have done this.

Figure 5.3 Simulink library browser

5.2 HOW SIMULINK WORKS

Simulink updates the state of each block of the model at each time step, starting from the first value and ending to the final value of the time span. In time discrete simulations, Simulink is able to work with two kind of data processing: sample based processing: each block elaborates one sample in one time step

43

 frame based processing: signals are propagated through a model in batches of samples. Samples are processed at the same time in blocks that are suited for working with frames. An M-by-1 frame-based vector represents M consecutive samples Systems can also be multirate, i.e., have different parts that are sampled or updated at different rates.

5.2.1 Sample-Based Vs Frame-Based Processing

Sample based processing has the advantages of working with very simple models, of being available with all blocks, and it does not provide problems with feedback loops; it has the disadvantage to make the simulation slow Frame based processing has the advantage of maximizing the efficiency of the system by distributing the fixed process overhead across many samples, but it is not supported from all blocks and it introduces a certain amount of latency in signals, with potential problems in systems with feedback

Figure 5.4 sample and frame based operation

44

5.3 BLOCKS USED

5.3.1 Random Integer Generator

The Random Integer Generator block generates uniformly distributed random integers in the range [0, M-1], where M is the M-ary number defined in the dialog box. The M-ary number can be either a scalar or a vector. If it is a scalar, then all output random variables are independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.). If the M-ary number is a vector, then its length must equal the length of the Initial seed; in this case each output has its own output range.

5.3.2 QPSK Modulator Baseband

The QPSK Modulator Baseband block modulates using the quaternary phase shift keying method. The output is a baseband representation of the modulated signal. If the Input type parameter is set to Integer, then valid input values are 0, 1, 2, and 3. If Constellation ordering is set to Binary, for input m the output symbol is exp(j + j m/2) where is the Phase offset parameter. In this case, the input can be either a scalar or a

frame-based column vector. For integer inputs, the block can accept the data types int8, uint8, int16, uint16, int32, uint32, single, and double. For bit inputs, the block can accept int8, uint8, int16, uint16, int32, uint32, Boolean, single, and double.

45

5.3.3 Digital Filter

The Digital Filter block independently filters each channel of the input signal with a specified digital IIR or FIR filter. The block can implement static filters with fixed coefficients, as well as time-varying filters with coefficients that change over time. This block filters each channel of the input signal independently over time. The output frame status and dimensions are always the same as those of the input signal that is filtered.

5.3.4 Delay

The Delay block delays a discrete-time input by the number of samples or frames specified in the Delay units and Delay parameters. The Delay value must be an integer value greater than or equal to zero. When you enter a value of zero for the Delay parameter, any initial conditions you might have entered have no effect on the output. The Delay block allows you to set the initial conditions of the signal that is being delayed. The initial conditions must be numeric.

5.3.5 Slider Gain

The Slider Gain block allows you to vary a scalar gain during a simulation using a slider. The block accepts one input and generates one output.

46

Parameters and Dialog Box

Low: The lower limit of the slider range. The default is 0. High: The upper limit of the slider range. The default is 2.

5.3.6 Gain

The Gain block multiplies the input by a constant value (gain). The input and the gain can each be a scalar, vector, or matrix. You specify the value of the gain in the Gain parameter. The Multiplication parameter lets you specify element-wise or matrix multiplication. For matrix multiplication, this parameter also lets you indicate the order of the multiplicands.

5.3.7 Display

The Display block shows the value of its input on its icon. The amount of data displayed and the time steps at which the data is displayed are determined by the Decimation block parameter and the Sample Time property The Decimation parameter enables you to display data at every nth sample and the Sample Time property, settable with set_param, enables you to specify a sampling interval at which to display points.

47

5.3.8 Scope

The Scope block displays its input with respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port) and all axes have a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope block allows you to adjust the amount of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope window and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation.

5.3.9 Constant

The Constant block generates a real or complex constant value. The block generates scalar (one-element array), vector (1-D array), or matrix (2-D array) output, depending on the dimensionality of the Constant value parameter and the setting of the Interpret vector parameters as 1-D parameter.

5.3.10 Discrete Filter

The Discrete Filter block models Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) and Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filters using a direct form II structure (also known as "control canonical form"). You specify the filter as a ratio of polynomials in z-1. You can specify that the block have a scalar output or vector output where the elements correspond to a set of filters that have the same denominator polynomial but different numerator polynomials. 48

CHAPTER 6 DESIGNING THE MODEL

6.1 DESIGN STEPS
6.1.1 Discrete Time Transmitter

Figure 6.1 Discrete Time Transmitter

The above block diagram shows the functioning of a transmitter which generates the input signal as that of a transmitter which is implemented in real-time systems. The first block of the discrete time transmitter is the timing control unit. The block diagram below shows the design of timing control unit.

Figure 6.2 Timing control unit

49

The first block used in the timing control unit is 1/D and the parameters are entered in the blocks used. The DSP constant block generates the output a discrete-time or continuous-time constant.

Figure 6.3 Discrete time constant.

The three inputs are fed to the adder (-, -, +) which further operates and is produced to the delay. The delay parameters are set accordingly as shown in the below figure 6.4. This delay unit is used for delaying the discrete-time input by specified number of samples or frames.

Figure 6.4 Delay block 50

The delay along with the constant block (which is default set to 1) is applied to the math function block which includes logarithmic, exponential, power and modulus functions.

Figure 6.5 Math function

The discrete sampled at the output is given to the relational operator and compared if the signal has any error in it and further computations are done. This block applies the selected relational operator to the inputs and outputs.

Figure 6.6 Relational operator

51

The output after the relational operation is the symbol clock which acts as the enable for the symbol generator which in turn generates the samples. And a delay control output is generated from the timing control unit is thus given to the farrow variable delay which is used in computation of minimum fractional delay.

The second block in the transmitter section designed is the symbol generator. The main blocks in this are random integer generator, QPSK modulator baseband, gain. The block designed is shown in the below figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7 Symbol Generator

The random integer generator, generates random uniformly distributed integers in range [0, M-1], where M is the M-ary number. The M-ary number here we specify is 4.

Figure 6.8 Random integer generator.

52

Thus for M=4, we generate a QPSK signal. Hence this QPSK signal should be fed to the QPSK modulator baseband block for further operation. The functional parameters block is shown in the below figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9 QPSK modulator baseband.

The basic functioning of the QPSK modulator baseband block is that, it modulates the input signal using Quaternary phase shift keying method. The input can be either bits or integer. Here we apply integer. For the sample-based integer input, input must be a scalar; hence the output from the random integer generator should be a scalar. The output of the QPSK modulator baseband is fed to the gain block, which is shown in the figure 6.10.

53

Figure 6.10 Gain for interpolation.

The gain value to be applied here is D*sqrt (2) with a multiplication parameter (K. *u) and fed to the input of farrow variable delay.

The farrow structure output is fed to the Root raised cosine (RRC) filter.

Figure 6.11 Root raised cosine filter 54

The root raised cosine filter, independently filter each channel of input over time using a specified filter implementation.

6.1.2 Downsampler
The transmitter output is given to the downsampler. The downsampler coefficient is 2, i.e., here we downsample with a factor of 2. First we apply an FIR filter to the input signal, then downsample by an integer value factor. The filter is implemented using an efficient polyphase FIR decimation structure.

Figure 6.12 RRC with D=2

After the downsampling operation the output of the downsampler is fed to the farrow variable delay. The structure of that is shown in the below figure 6.13.

55

6.1.3 Farrow Variable Delay

Figure 6.13 Farrow Structure

A delay is introduced in the above structure is shown in figure 6.13. The downsampler output is given as one of the input to the farrow structure. The fractional delay is another input applied to the farrow structure which is internally fed to the Horners rule for the removal of fractional delay. The Horners rule is shown in the below figure 6.14.

Figure 6.14 Horners Rule

The filter coefficients are derived internally through the RRC filter which are b3, b2, b1, b0. After the computation of fractional delay we give the output to the Timing Error Detector. The blocks used in the derivation of the equation are multipliers and adders. Thus fractional delay coefficients are produced for each and every filter correspondingly. The filter coefficients are given as input in the block as shown in the below figure 6.15.

56

Figure 6.15 Filter coefficients

6.1.4 Timing Error Detector and Loop Filter

Figure 6.16 Detection section

The above circuit is timing error estimation circuit designed. The output of the farrow variable delay is divided in to in-phase and quadrature components of the delay. Hence processed output is given to the timing error detector.

Figure 6.17 Timing Error Detector

57

The circuit design of the timing error detector is given in below figure 6.17. The output of the magnitude square delays is applied to the digital filter and thus applied to trigonometric block for the minimum error delay for which the function has more than one argument for hyperbolic and trigonometric functions. Here we go with design of atan (arc tangent).

Figure 6.18 trigonometric function block

After the timing error is produced, it is applied to the loop filter block which is designed for filtering the error. The smoothing filter is designed in such a way that the transfer function generated is used in minimizing the error. The figure 6.19 shows the parameter which generates a transfer function internally.

Figure 6.19 Smoothing filter

58

The loop filter block diagram is shown in the below figure 6.20 which is designed for the minimal error production.

Figure 6.20 Loop Filter The output of the loop filter is produced to the timing control input for the timing control unit block. The timing error produced is given to the plot.

6.1.5 Timing Control Unit

Figure 6.21 Number Controlled Oscillator

59

The design of timing control unit comprises the same as the, block designed in transmitter section. Here we go with the discrete filter with coefficients designed particularly for transfer function and display of the minimal error is displayed using a display or a scope.

6.1.6 Symbol Sampling

Figure 6.22 Symbol Sampler

The symbol clock used here to enable and the data which is produced at the farrow variable delay is transferred directly to the plot. The output is the in-phase and quadrature components.

6.1.7 Plots

Figure 6.23 Plots 60

The plots from different sections are as follows.

One set of outputs displayed here are the inputs applied to the circuit (symbol clock and I/Q plot) Another set of outputs are the actual outputs (timing error, timing control input and NCO output) that should be observed for the given inputs. Adjust the plots by changing the values for corresponding plots as shown in below figure 6.24.

Figure 6.24 Plots parameters and coefficients.

Constellation plot is one major block which is used for observing the output of QPSK modulated signal to be demodulated for the variable noise. Thus the block properties are very important to make the output visible. Choosing number of terms, to represent the axis etc are possible. Figure 6.25 below is the block which determines the parameters to be changed for the implementation of constellation (scatter plot).

61

Figure 6.25 Discrete-time scatter plot The default values obtained while running the program will be shown in the MATLAB window- workspace link. The values of the coefficients b0, b1, b2, b3, D, Fsymbol etc. as shown in the below figure.

Figure 6.26 workspace

62

CHAPTER 7 WORKING OF TIMING RECOVERY CIRCUIT

Figure 7.1 Simulink model for timing recovery

63

7.1 Discrete Time Transmitter

The symbol error generated is applied to the discrete time transmitter. The source frequency is F = 1 MHz for sampling rate D=8.

In the timing control unit, the sample time is 1/(D*F symbol). Hence for every 1sec it overflows. If the symbol error is zero or less than zero, overflow occurs after every 8 clock cycles as per symbol rate of in special case less than or greater than 8 cycles due to error generated.

When overflowed the symbol out is high. When the enable is high, it captures and produces the output to scaling block.

The second output from the timing control unit is the delay control which is produced after the scaling operation. This delay is given as input for product operation of Horners rule in Farrow structure.

The symbol out acts as enables to the symbol generator which produces a signal with randomly generated values and QPSK modulation and given as input to filter state whose output is given as another product to the Farrow structure.

The output of Farrow structure is given as input to the digital filter (Root Raised Cosine filter), then the output from discrete time transmitter is as input to raised cosine filter.

In the root raised cosine (RRC) filter consists of phase and frequency offset. In the phase offset the complex number generated from symbol generator is shifted by j/100 and the frequency offset varies with time (2fct). The phase and frequency offset are calculated using ML(maximum likelihood) parameter estimation. In ML the parameter to be calculated is assumed to be the nearest value. 64

The output of transmitter is given to a down sampler and then to the Farrow structure following the same operation with the delay which is the feedback is obtained from the timing control unit.

7.2 Timing Error Detector and Loop Filter

The outputs from the Farrow structure are passed on to the timing error detector where the errors are processed through the filters after arithmetic operations and the continuous errors are operated with atan operation where atan= tan-1(imag/real). The output is given to an unwrapper section where the 2 factor in the error is removed with the arithmetic, delay and relational operations and then given to loop filter. The error obtained is the timing error which is directly plotted using scope.

In the loop filter the error is filtered using a transfer function which is obtained from the delay. This filtered value is given as input to the timing control unit and also plotted on scope.

7.3 Timing Control Unit

The operation in the timing control unit is the Number Control Oscillator (NCO). The symbol with least error is detected using NCO. The operation of NCO is that the register overflows for the least error and clock out is given back to the timing error detector to calculate the next least error possible.

A display is used to show the error at the particular instant i.e for variable error gain introduced at transmitter. The symbol clock and the delay are plotted on the scope.

65

7.4 Symbol Sampling

The input to the symbol sampling comes from symbol out clock from timing control unit and from the Farrow structure. In this section the data samples are produced. Whenever the symbol out clock is high it acts as enable to the symbol sampler and after delay it is plotted as delay clock on the scope and the enable high the in-phase and quadrature (I/Q) component is obtained and is plotted.

7.5 Plots
The scope blocks are used to plot the signals generated. Here we use two scopes one with two inputs and the other with three inputs and a scatter plot.

The inputs to the two input scatter plot are one the symbol clock from the Timing Control Unit and the other is the In-phase and Quadrature component from the Symbol Sampling after converting from complex to real.

The inputs to the three other scope are the Timing error and timing control input from the Timing error detector and NCO output from Timing control unit.The scatter plot is the plot obtained by plotting the real and imaginary components of the output of symbol sampler on a X-Y graph.

7.6 Advantages
At some point in a digital communications receiver, the received analog signal must be sampled before performing equalization and decoding. Sampling at the wrong times can have a devastating impact on overall performance. Hence the problem of synchronization in baseband transmission systems is reduced by the timing recovery concept.

At high SNR, the decisions provided by a symbol detector used in a PLL are reliable enough for the timing recovery unit to perform well. Thus, the 66

conventional receiver is sufficient to be used in a system operating at high SNR because of its simplicity. The timing recovery which functions at lower SNR rates is more advantageous because it helps in reduce the cost of operation in magnetic recording systems. The oversampling techniques for symbol timing recovery have other advantages over the interpolation method: 1. When the symbol data is recovered, we also recover the timing clock. The recovered timing clock will be used in the network termination to synchronize the transmitting data to the master clock in the line termination. Extra circuits will be needed for this job in the interpolation Method 2. It takes advantages of oversampling techniques (X modulation and broadband sampling) which are becoming increasingly important in meeting the stringent requirements for digital receivers. By incorporating symbol timing recovery in the required decimation filter, we can have simple implementation.

7.7 DISADVANTAGES
Theoretically, joint maximum-likelihood (ML) estimation of the timing offset and the data sequence is a preferred method of synchronization but its complexity is huge.

The performance of timing recovery scheme decreases for the low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), i.e. timing recovery at low SNR is more difficult. Thus, the need for efficient timing recovery schemes becomes increasingly important in improving the performance of timing recovery.

At low SNR and moderate to severe timing offset models, timing recovery is very difficult because of the phenomenon called a cycle slip. When a cycle slip occurs,

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the receiver adds or drops symbols, and this causes a burst of errors in data detection process. The received data signal practically undergoes many kinds of impairments, such as timing offset, frequency offset, additive noise, etc., the amount of timing information embedded in the received data signal tends to be decreased.

7.8 APPLICATIONS
7.8.1 SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIOS
Software defined radios (SDR) are highly configurable hardware platforms that provide the technology for realizing the rapidly expanding third (and future) generation digital wireless communication infrastructure. Many sophisticated signal processing tasks are performed in a SDR, including advanced compression algorithms, power control, channel estimation, equalization, forward error control and protocol management.

While there is a plethora of silicon alternatives available for implementing the various functions in a SDR, field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) are an attractive option for many of these tasks for reasons of performance, power consumption and configurability.

The software in a SDR defines the system personality, but currently, the implementation is often a mix of analog hardware, ASICs, FPGAs and DSP software. The rapid uptake of state-of-the-art semiconductor process technology by FPGA manufacturers is opening-up new opportunities for the effective insertion of FPGAs in the SDR signal conditioning chain. Functions frequently performed by ASICs and DSP processors can now be done by configurable logic.

Timing recovery and carrier recovery are the main algorithms used in the designing of SDR receivers which are flexibly implemented on FPGAs, ASICs.

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7.8.2 MAGNETIC RECORDING SYSTEMS

The performance of the proposed timing recovery schemes is observed in a magnetic recording system. This system is considered because magnetic recording is a primary method of storage for a variety of applications, including desktop, mobile, and server systems.

Timing recovery in magnetic recording systems is an increasingly critical problem because of the growing data rate to be supported. Improving the performance of timing recovery will give rise to improved reliability of an entire recording system, which in turn results in increased storage capacity.

This experiment will help us decide whether or not the proposed schemes are worth being employed in real-life applications, if compared to the conventional schemes used in todays magnetic recording read-channel chip architectures.

7.8.3 TIMING RECOVERY FOR FAST CONVERGENCE

It is desirable for timing recovery to achieve synchronization as fast as possible. This means that all the initial phase and frequency offsets in a system during acquisition, and any phase and frequency changes during tracking should be recovered very quickly (i.e., within a fewer number of samples).

To improve the performance of conventional timing recovery, we exploit the idea of oversampling the received analog signal by twice the symbol rate to get more timing information. Because the oversampled system requires a fractionally-spaced equalizer instead of a T-spaced equalizer, it will also get all the benefits from a fractionally spaced equalizer.

For example, it is insensitive to a constant timing offset in the system, as opposed to a T-spaced equalizer. With this idea, we propose the oversampled PSP-based timing recovery scheme to achieve a fast convergence rate in the application 69

CHAPTER 8 RESULTS
The outputs observed here are 1. First set of output consists of symbol clock, in-phase and quadrature components. 2. The second set of outputs consists of timing error, timing control input and NCO output.

In this section, we observe the plots at different error gains namely, at least gain (-1), at error gain of -0.5, at zero error gain, at error gain of 0.2, at error gain of 0.5 and at the maximum error gain (1). And we also observe the constellation plot (scatter plot) for different values of error gains.

The below are the different plots of symbol clock, in-phase and quadrature components, timing error, timing control input, NCO output at different error gains.

8.1 PLOTS AT-1 ERROR GAIN (LEAST GAIN)

Figure 8.1 plots obtained at least error gain of -1

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The error gain provided here is the least error gain i.e.

. For which the in-

phase and quadrature components are out of phase. The least symbol error rate in percentage is -1.001 approximately.

Hence the frequency offset which shifts made real components and displayed in components at time.

gives a complex number which is plot. Hence the phase shift occurs in the

The NCO plot which starts from 0 extends to

. The equation for which the

NCO is determined for in-phase and quadrature components is given as Hence for higher order of will be no more value of ( ) ( ) and there

the equation becomes

to be integrated. Hence the value

is maximum value

and there by the wave drops to zero and the process repeats further. The operation of NCO is common in all aspects and varies with the error gain respectively.

8.2 PLOTS AT -0.5 ERROR GAIN

Figure 8.2 plots obtained at least error gain of -0.5 71

The value of error gain provided here is

. The least symbol error rate in

percentage is -0.4956 approximately. Here the timing offset value is changed accordingly which in turn shifts the NCO output above zero.

The

plot components are out of phase with the same factor

and the

symbol clock is constant in all aspects.

8.3 PLOTS AT ZERO ERROR GAIN

Figure 8.3 plots obtained at least error gain of 0 The value of error gain provided here is constantly and the

. The symbol clock is running

plot components in-phase and quadrature components are running

at same instant, as the error is zero the original signal is transmitted here. The least symbol error rate in percentage is 0.001774 approximately. The NCO output here is at interval which is the maximum level when the

error is zero (approx.). The overflow occurs after 1sec, i.e. after every 8-clock cycles as the error gain is zero.

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8.4 PLOTS AT 0.2 ERROR GAIN

Figure 8.4 plots obtained at least error gain of 0.2 The value of error gain provided here is

. The least symbol error rate in

percentage is 0.1991 approximately. Here the timing and frequency offset changes and increases such that the in-phase and quadrature components move in one phase and shifts at particular instant. The NCO output reaches very slowly to zero from the maximum component i.e. the components when in same phase makes the output reach slowly to zero. The NCO output is shifted here by 1800 accordingly with the ( data. ) which should be subtracted and

The overflow here occurs accordingly for the result of summation of the output from the loop filter and the factor given to the NCO.

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8.5 PLOTS AT 0.5 ERROR GAIN

Figure 8.5 plots obtained at least error gain of 0.5 The value of error gain provided here is

. The least symbol error rate in

percentage is 0.5013 approximately. When the error gain is more than the desired output the NCO controls the error rate accordingly for increase in the error.

8.6 PLOTS AT 1 ERROR GAIN (MAXIMUM GAIN)

Figure 8.6 plots obtained at maximum error gain of 1

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The error gain provided here is the maximum error gain i.e.

. The least

symbol error rate in percentage is 0.9952 approximately. Hence the timing offset and frequency offset are very less which can be observed in the plot.

8.7 CONSTELLATION PLOT

This plot is also called as scatter plot. The output of the is given to the scatter plot to observe where the components are present in the four quadrants.

The basic description for this plot is related with the QPSK modulation and demodulation, i.e. in four quadrants at the angles the components are

present.The sine and cosine waves when in particular quadrants the in-phase and quadrature components are given as . .

/ in Quadrant-I, .

/ in Quadrant-II,

/ in Quadrant-III, .

/ in Quadrant-IV.

Thus at these particular values the output is shown in below plots for different values of symbol error rate i.e. at least error gain (-1), zero error gain and maximum error gain.

8.7.1 Scatter Plot at Least Error Gain (-1)

Figure 8.7: Scatter plot at least error gain

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All the components in the four quadrants are scattered as shown in figure 8.7. The error gain here is least value i.e. -1. The X-axis is the in-phase component and the Y-axis here is the Quadrature component.

We cannot distinguish the components of particular quadrant at the beginning. The components settle after particular timing offset in respective places.

8.7.2 Scatter Plot at Zero Error Gain

Figure 8.8: scatter plot at zero error gain

The components in the four quadrants are operated without any error, i.e. at zero error gain (assumed). Here exactly the components are placed at their respective positions. There are no disturbances in the signal which is processed. The quadrant components for the respective angles are given as 1. (1, 1) in Quadrant-I (angle = 450) 2. (-1, 1) in Quadrant-II (angle = 1350) 3. (-1, -1) in Quadrant-III (angle = 2250) 4. (1, -1) in Quadrant-IV (angle = 3150)

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8.7.3 Scatter Plot at Maximum Error Gain (1)

Figure 8.9: Scatter plot at maximum error gain

As shown in the figure 8.9, the components in the plot are scattered because the error gain is maximum here. We cannot distinguish the components of each quadrant individually how they are grouped into. Hence the error estimate should always be less. And in later process the components settle down at their respective positions. Hence the timing offset and the frequency offset are the main concepts used for determining the result.

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CONCLUSION
Timing recovery is the process of synchronizing the sampler with the received analog signal. Sampling at the wrong times can have a devastating impact on overall performance. Improving the performance of timing recovery will give rise to improved reliability of an entire system. In this work, we developed and investigated the method of extracting the data using timing recovery.

The summary of the whole project is discussed below. Chapter 2, is an overview of basic types of signaling schemes that are used in communication. We discuss about the phase shift keying which is one among three basic signaling schemes (ASK, FSK and PSK). And further we will see about the M-ary signaling scheme which is the basic concept for developing QPSK signal. Here we also discuss about the QPSK modulation and demodulation schemes which is the basic concept used in developing the concept timing recovery.

Chapter 3 is a brief overview of generations of digital receivers. In this project we develop the Simulink model for the latest generation receiver (third generation) for communication and we also put forth the derivations and discussions about the ML (Maximum-Likelihood) receivers and MAP (Maximum a posteriori) receivers.

Chapter 4 is dealt with the basics of timing recovery which is the proposed scheme in the project for the transmission of data. Here we discuss about concepts used for extracting data that is transmitted from transmitter to receiver. We also see about the timing recovery methods namely Early-late-gate algorithm, Mueller and Muller algorithm and Gardener algorithm and the drawbacks for each method. Thus the basic operations of concepts used in timing recovery such as Interpolation, TED, Loop filter and Number controlled oscillator are discussed thoroughly.

Chapter 5 is an approach to develop digital timing recovery and dealt with the problem when and where to interpolate the signal and implementing the Farrow structure 78

for cubic interpolation. We also derive the equations for Timing error estimation( ) using ML synchronization algorithm. The extraction of base-point index (mk) and fractional interval (k) for the number controlled oscillator using NDA (Non-data-aided) method is also discussed in this project which gives the value where the least error is possible.

Chapter 6 is dealt with the software used i.e., Simulink, which is integrated with MATLAB, which helps in modeling, simulating, analyzing dynamical systems. And also the description of basic blocks used in the creation of Simulink model for timing recovery such as Random integer generator, QPSK modulator base-band, discrete filter, etc.

Chapter 7 is about the Simulink model that is created for achieving timing recovery in digital receivers. And working of each sub-blocks of the model is explained in very detail.

Hence this project helps in eliminating the error (approximately) that is possibly incurred with the signal that is transmitted to the receiver.

Choosing an appropriate timing recovery method determines the quality of data that is received correctly. Simulink is the best software implementation used for the timing recovery process for Maximum Likelihood (ML) receiver.

Thus timing recovery is the basic concept that establishes better synchronization between data and the clock pulses recovered so that they may be received and processed correctly.

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FUTURE SCOPE
Sampling at the wrong times can have a devastating impact on overall performance of a receiver. The timing recovery process discussed in this project is the main concept used in all the digital receivers. Hence the implementation of timing recovery along with the carrier recovery is possibly expected.

The algorithm developed in this project along with carrier recovery is very flexible and can be improved, modified such that it can handle any kind of data that is coming in. implementation of this algorithm on FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) module is also expected which can be created by incorporating the code into the chip, which is the advanced technology that is used in present day implementations.

Discussed below are the advanced methods of timing recovery that are developed and are under process for implementation.

PER-SURVIVOR PROCESSING (PSP)

A new timing recovery scheme based on per-survivor processing (PSP), which jointly performs timing recovery and equalization, by embedding a separate decisiondirected PLL into each survivor of a Viterbi algorithm (used for decoding convolution codes, in baseband detection for wireless systems, and also for detection of recorded data in magnetic disk drives.). The proposed scheme is shown to perform better than conventional timing recovery, especially when the SNR is low and the timing error is large. An important advantage of this technique is its amenability to real-time implementation.

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ITERATIVE TIMING RECOVERY

A new iterative timing recovery scheme that exploits the presence of the errorcontrol code; in doing so, it can perform even better than the PSP scheme. The proposed iterative timing recovery scheme is realized by embedding the timing recovery process into a trellis-based soft-output equalizer using PSP. Then, this module iteratively exchanges soft information with the error control decoder, as in conventional turbo equalization. The resulting system jointly performs the functions of timing recovery, equalization, and decoding. The proposed iterative timing recovery scheme is better than previously reported iterative timing recovery schemes, especially when the timing error is severe.

NBM SCHEME
Joint ML estimation of the timing offset and the data sequence, which jointly performs timing recovery, equalization, and error-correction decoding, is a preferred method of synchronization, but its complexity is problematic. A solution based on the EM algorithm is also complex. Fortunately, a solution to this problem with complexity comparable to the conventional receiver has been proposed which is referred to as the NBM scheme. The NBM scheme is realized by embedding the timing recovery step inside the turbo equalizer so as to perform timing recovery, equalization, and error-correction decoding jointly. The key idea of the NBM scheme is as follows. For every turbo iteration, the turbo equalizer will produce the decisions that are more reliable than the decisions from the PLL. These better decisions are fed back to the timing recovery unit to improve the timing estimates. Then, the new timing estimates are used to refine the samples. These better samples will be employed to improve the performance of the turbo equalizer in the next iteration. This process repeats for as many as iterations needed.

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REFERENCES
1. Digital Communications by Heinrich Meyr, Marc Moeneclaey, Stefan A. Fechtel. 2. Synchronization Techniques for Digital Receivers by Umberto Mengali. 3. Floyd M. Gardner, Interpolation in digital modems. I. Fundamentals IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol 41, No. 3, March 1993. 4. Lars Erup, , Floyd M. Gardner, , and Robert A. Harris, Interpolation in Digital Modems-Part 2: Implementation and Performance, IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol 41, No. 6, June 1993. 5. All Digital Timing Recovery and FPGA Implementation , Daniel Crdenas, German Arevalo 6. Signal Processing in Next Generation Digital Receivers and Transmitters by Fred Harris 7. Fredric J. Harris, and Michael Rice Multirate Digital Filters for Symbol Timing Synchronization in Software Defined Radios IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, VOL. 19, NO. 12, December 2001 8. R. W. Schafer and L.R. Rahiner, A digital signal processing approach to interpolation, Proc. IEEE, v. 61. pp. h92-702, June 1973. 9. O.E. Agazzi et. al., A digital signal processor for an ANSI standard ISDN transceiver, IEEEJ. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 24, pp. 1605-1613, Dec. 1989. 10. F.M. Gardner, A BPSK/QPSK timing-error detector for sampled receivers, IEEE Trarrs. Commun., vol. COM-34, pp. 423429, May 1986. 11. J. Tiernan, F. Harris, and D. Becker, Digital receiver for variable rate symbol synchronization, Patent US5 504 785, Apr. 1996. 12. F. J. Harris, Multirate digital filters used for timing recovery in digital receivers, in Proc. Asilomar Conf. Signals, Systems, and Computers, 2000, pp. 246251.

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