The Reinforcement of Existing Bolted Timber Connections

by Thomas Lequeux supervised by Dr. Mark Evernden

Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering The University of Bath 2012

AR40223 MEng dissertation

Abstract
Within timber structures, the connections are widely recognised as the determining factor of timber member size and geometry. In order to keep up with the architectural and engineering demands on timber construction, developments in the efficiency of these connections must match the increases in capacity of newly developed timber materials. The aim of this study was to develop and investigate an original method of reinforcing existing bolted timber connections. The effectiveness of embedding Densified Veneer Wood (DVW) strips into parallel and perpendicular to the grain timber connections was investigated experimentally and analysed using various mathematical models. For the parallel to the grain connections, tensile pull out tests were carried out for four reduced EC5 end spacing connections. One of these was unreinforced; the other 3 had reinforcement introduced at varied distances between the dowel and the end distance. These tests were repeated for connections designed to EC5 end distance rules. The introduction of reinforcement in the reduced end distance connections lead to a 95% increase in connection capacity, which represented a capacity close to that of the non-reinforced EC5 end spacing connection. The addition of a net tension shear failure to the shear plug failure experienced in the connections was used to analyse the capacity increase due the reinforcement using a shear plug analysis model. The reinforcement of the EC5 determined end distance connection led to no significant increase in connection capacity, and a brittle tensile failure mode was experienced in all four connections. The reinforcement within these connections failed in axial tension. A mathematical model was developed to determine the axial tensile load subjected to the reinforcements within the connections, in order to determine the effectiveness of reinforcement as a function of the end distances of the connections. Although the model failed to quantify this, its limitations were analysed and its function in determining the influence of the embedded reinforcement on the splitting capacity timber connections was discussed. A reduction in connection capacity was witnessed in the reinforced perpendicular to the grain timber connections. Shear plane analysis models were successfully used to explain this, and the development of reinforcement introduction to increase the connection capacity was discussed.

Acknowledgements
I would like to extend my thanks to Mark Evernden for his guidance throughout this project. I am also very grateful for the support offered to me from Antony Darby, Tim Ibell, Will Bazeley, Sophie Hayward and Andrew Thomson.

Table of Contents
1 2 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................1 Literature review ......................................................................................................................3 2.1 Summary .......................................................................................................................3 2.2 Design of Metallic Dowel and Plate Connections .........................................................3 2.3 European Yield Model ..................................................................................................3 2.4 Brittle Failure of Timber Connect .................................................................................5 2.5 Connection Stiffness .....................................................................................................8 2.6 Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite Reinforcement ......................................8 2.7 Mechanical repair of timber beams fractured in flexure using bonded-in reinforcements ...............................................................................................................9 2.8 Reinforcement Materials ..............................................................................................10 2.8.1 Compressed Wood ..........................................................................................10 2.8.2 Densified Veneer Wood ..................................................................................10 2.8 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................11 Characterisation of connection components and selection of reinforcement material .12 3.1 Summary .....................................................................................................................12 3.2 Timber material and dimensions .................................................................................12 3.2.1 Timber embedment strength ...........................................................................12 3.2.2 Results of embedment strength tests and 5th percentile analysis method ...............................................................................................13 3.3 Dowel material and dimensions ...................................................................................13 3.3.1 Results and discussion of dowel characterisation tests ..................................14 3.4 Parallel to the grain timber connection design .............................................................14 3.4.1 Theoretical capacity of selected connection ....................................................15 3.4.2 Reinforcement characterisation .......................................................................16 3.4.3 Parallel to the grain reinforcement introduction..............................................16 3.5 Perpendicular to the grain timber connection design ...................................................17 3.5.1 Theoretical capacity of selected connection ....................................................17 3.5.2 Perpendicular to the grain reinforcement introduction....................................18 3.6 Reinforcement material properties ...............................................................................19 3.7 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................20 Experimental study of DVW reinforced timber connections ..............................................21 4.1 Summary ......................................................................................................................21 4.2 Parallel to grain connection testing ..............................................................................21 4.2.1 Reinforcement end distance ...........................................................................22 4.2.2 Connection capacity and failure mode predictions .........................................22 4.2.3 Results of parallel to grain connection testing ................................................23 4.2.4 Analysis of results of parallel to grain connection testing for reduced EC5 end distance 3d .........................................................23 4.2.5 Results of 5d end distance parallel to grain connection testing ...........................................................................................25 4.3 Perpendicular to grain connection testing ....................................................................25 II

4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.4 5

Reinforcement end distance ............................................................................26 Connection capacity and failure mode predictions .........................................26 Results of parallel to grain connection testing ................................................26 Analysis of results of parallel to grain connection testing for reduced EC5 end distance 3d.....................................................................27 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................28

Stiffness and Strength Analysis of Reinforced Timber Connections .................................29 5.1 Summary .....................................................................................................................29 5.2 Failure modes ...............................................................................................................29 5.3 Parallel to the grain stiffness analysis ..........................................................................29 5.4 Parallel to the grain strength analysis ...........................................................................30 5.4.1 Flexural capacity analysis ..............................................................................31 5.4.2 Full thickness shear plug strength analysis method ........................................32 5.5 Perpendicular to grain strength analysis .......................................................................34 5.5.1 Strength analysis of reinforcement contribution .............................................34 5.6 Concluding comments .................................................................................................35 Conclusion and development of findings...............................................................................36 6.1 Summary .....................................................................................................................36 6.2 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................36 6.2.1 Reinforcement characteristics ........................................................................36 6.2.2 Connection fabrication ...................................................................................36 6.2.3 Connection testing ...........................................................................................36 6.2.4 Strength modelling .........................................................................................36 Discussion and further work .....................................................................................................37 References ................................................................................................................................39

6.3 7

III

List of figures
1-1 1-2 1-3 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9 2-10 2-11 2-12 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-9 5-10 5-11 6-1 Typical mortice and tenon joint (Thomson, 2010) The Metropol Parasol, Seville Timber beam connection: Increased efficiency through reinforcement General dowel failure modes for built in metallic dowels (Larsen, 1973) Assumed behaviour of metallic dowels in bending (Larsen, 1973) Assumed behaviour for dowel embedment (Larsen, 1973) EYM failure modes for metallic dowel-plate timber connections (Thomson, 2010) Brittle Failure Modes- a) net tensions, b) splitting, c) plug shear Definition of fastener spacings Perpendicular to grain splitting Connection failure response perpendicular to grain (Van der Put and Leitjen, 2000) Assumed model for beam on elastic foundation analysis (Thomson, 2010) Strengthening Schemes (Yang and Smith, 2010) Rupture failure mode observed in specimen D (Yang and Smith, 2010) Spruce beams reinforced on both faces (Ansell, 2009) Perpendicular to the grain embedment testing configuration Double shear connection testing. a) perpendicular b) parallel post failure Load-slip plots for double shear connection testing Parallel to the grain pull out testing setup EYM failure modes for metallic dowel-plate timber connections (Thomson, 2010) Parallel to the grain reinforcement designs. a) cylindrical b) strip Perpendicular to the grain loading capacity test setup Perpendicular to the grain reinforcement designs. A) non-reinforced B) reinforced Reinforcement embedment into timber connection Three point bending test experimental setup Three point bending test characteristics Load-slip plot of three point testing experiment Parallel to the grain experimental setup Load-slip response for connections loaded parallel to the grain Timber element end view post failure: 5 Load-slip response for connections loaded parallel to the grain Timber connection G post failure Perpendicular to the grain experimental setup Load-slip perpendicular to the grain connection response. Failure modes of perpendicular to the grain connections Connection failure modes of parallel and perpendicular to the grain timber connections Comparison of theoretical and experimental values for connection stiffness Two-phase timber failure. a) plug shear b) net tension shear Tensile split through reinforcement, connection G Dowel loading onto timber members and reinforcement End view of shear plug perimeter. (a) definition (b) connection A shear plug End view of shear plug perimeter. (a) definition (b) connection B shear plug Plot comparing theoretical and experimental values of the relationship between the ultimate load and effective perimeter of the connections Plot comparing theoretical and experimental values of connection stiffness and splitting capacity Splitting shear surface of unreinforced connection a) Splitting shear surface of unreinforced connection b) Net tension failure bellow dowel Perpendicular to the grain connection reinforcement- inside face near surface mounting

IV

List of tables
2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 Minimum spacing and end and edge distances for dowels Embedment strength and foundation modulus for C16 Whitewood PSE Results summary for double shear connection testing Experimentally obtained material properties of DVW Summary of connection dimensions (parallel to the grain) Summary of load-slip response of parallel to the grain pull-out tests Summary of connection dimensions (perpendicular to the grain) Summary of load-slip response of perpendicular to the grain pull-out tests Connection tensile fracture loads

List of equations
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 5.1 5.2 5.3 EYM failure mode I EYM failure mode II

Characteristic fastener yield moment Characteristic splitting capacity of the connection

Flexural strength calculation from 3 point bending test Youngs Modulus calculation from 3 point bending Theoretical stiffness of timber connections Point load calculation Theoretical induced tensile load

List of symbols
Embedment strength Embedment strength parallel to the grain Foundation Modulus of timber Characteristic load carrying capacity of connection Fastener diameter Timber thickness Characteristic fastener yield moment Characteristic splitting capacity of the connection Timber member thickness Timber member depth Distance between loaded edge and centre of most distant fastener mm Flexural stress Youngs modulus Connection stiffness Dry density Effective point load subjected from dowel to DVW strip Theoretical induced tensile load of DVW strip

Effective length of DVW strip Ultimate connection capacity Total plug shear length (connection end distance) Effective perimeter length of shear plug Characteristic shear strength of timber

Chapter 1 Introduction
We are witnessing a revival of the use of timber in structural engineering. Growing concerns on the exhaustion of fossil fuels and the devastating impact of commonly used construction materials on the environment has led many to revert back to the use of this sustainable building materials. Responsibly managed forests are supplying the requirement for timber with very little carbon impact on the planet. This thesis aims to contribute to existing developments in timber construction to match the increase in scale at which it is being used. In the context of construction, timber provides an impressively high strength to weight ratio. The natural characteristics of timber such as the variations in species, size and shape render it extremely versatile. The size limitations of timber members due to natural growth geometry have been overcome by the development of laminated type materials such as glulam. These materials have revolutionised the scale at which timber structures are being built. The increase in flexural, compressive and tensile properties of laminated timber also permit the design of reduced sections of timber beams, to satisfy the architectural and engineering demands of the structure as well reducing the general cost attributed to the construction. The dominant limiting factor of timber construction is the design of connections. Often the connection requirements define the form and proportion of a structure. This thesis aims to develop mechanical reinforcements to improve the efficiency of timber connections. Modern timber construction has been derived following centuries of knowledge, from which safe methods of construction, connection details and design limitations have been developed. Mortice and tenon configurations (Figure 1-1) represent the most common form of connection used in traditional carpentry (Harris, 1978). The design of entirely timber connections has experienced a recent surge in popularity, due to their increased sustainability and low energy properties. On a structural basis, the use of entirely timber connection holds several key advantages. Timber connection elements have corrosion resistance properties, as well as relatively low heat conductivity properties relative to metallic components, increasing their fire resistance (Thomson, 2010). However, the design of these connections remains widely the same as those used in traditional carpentry, due to a lack of engineering development. Research carried out at the University of Bath has led to the successful development of several non-metallic connection materials.

Figure 1-1: Typical mortice and tenon joint (Thomson, 2010) 1

Metallic connections are now common practice in the field of timber construction. The development of these connections is attributed to timber and steel shortages experienced during the two world wars which pushed for more economical and efficient designs (Thomson, 2010). The original timber design code used in the UK BS EN 5268 was derived from war time construction practice in Canada (Thomson, 2010). This code has been developed into Eurocode 5 (EC5), which represents the design limits of both the serviceability and the ultimate load of structures. The advances of metal connection design have progress alongside developments of timber members. As the scale of timber structures continue to increase, connectors have been designed to match the increases in load transfer, as demonstrated in Figure 1-2.

T
Figure 1-2: The Metropol Parasol, Seville

he development of increasingly sophisticated metal connectors have reverted the limitations in capacity of timber connections back to the timber elements themselves. The research carried out in this thesis concentrates on an original method of reinforcing timber elements within connections, in order to increase connection capacity and efficiency (Figure 2-3).

original beam geometry connector efficient geometry of reinforced beam

Figure 1-3: Timber beam connection: Increased efficiency through reinforcement

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Summary

This chapter includes the summation of the research that has previously been undertaken in timber connections that use dowel type fasteners. Since the purpose of this thesis is to discover how timber connections can be reinforced, it is important to establish which connection type is to be used as a constant upon which the different reinforcement methods can be tested. The extensive research previously carried out on metallic type fasteners will assist in deciding which connection to use. Research into non-metallic connections will provide a number of materials potentially suitable for in-situ composite connection reinforcements. An initial review of the current analysis methods and design of timber connections including metallic dowel fasteners and slot in plate is required. This provides context for the reinforcement types created and subsequent analysis to be carried out. The primary subjects analysed include connection design in accordance to Eurocode 5 (EC5), connection yield capacity, brittle splitting, timber shear failure and the deformation of timber connections under loading. 2.2 Design of Metallic Dowel and Plate Connections

Metallic dowel type connections are designed for two distinct modes of failure; ductile bearing failures and brittle fracture or shear failures. The design is therefore ruled by the lower bound calculated capacity. The European Yield Model (EYM, established by Johansen in 1949) is used to analyse ductile failure. It is a force equilibrium model whereby the applied load is balanced with the embedment resistance of the connected structural member and the bending resistance of the fastener. Brittle facture or shear failure has since been observed at lower loads than those suggested by the EYM through research carried out by Quenneville and Mohammad (2000) and Leijten and Van der Put (2004). This research has since been incorporated into EC5 and will be discussed in Section 2.4. 2.3 European Yield Model

The EYM provides a simple and effective method for calculating the bearing capacity of metallic dowel connections. It was derived from observations of different failure modes during experiments and developed into theory through material properties and connection geometry. It also includes variations in timber member capacity due to different characteristic embedment strengths (Larsen, 1973). The dowel effect of the fastener is dependent on its bending resistance and the crushing resistance of the timber. A second tensile effect of the fastener is dependent on the end restraint of the fastener and friction between the fastener and timber, and is accounted for by an appropriate addition of strength to the yield model calculations. Figure 2-1 overleaf presents the two general cases of built-in dowel failure as derived by Larsen (1973). Case A depicts the bearing failure of the timber under a relatively stiff dowel,
3

whereas Case B shows the combined bending failure of the dowel and bearing failure of the timber. Analytical expressions for the two cases have been derived from assumptions made about the material properties of the metallic dowel and timber connection. Larsen (1973) modelled the steel material behaviour to be stiff-plastic for simplicity.

Case A

Case B

Figure 2-1: General dowel failure modes for built in metallic dowels- represents embedment strength (Larsen, 1973)

Figure 2-2: Assumed behaviour of metallic dowels in bending (Larsen, 1973)

The embedment strength of the timber under contact loading of a metallic dowel is demonstrated in Figure 2-3. Under this arrangement the load-displacement response of dowel bearing can also be obtained, where P represents the force per unit depth of timber. The force per unit strength of timber is expressed as the product of the diameter of the fastener d and the mean stress under the dowel . The assumption is made that pressure beneath the dowel due to the embedment strength is uniformly distributed (Figure 2-3). In the case of a dowel and thin plate timber connection, the EYM considers three potential failure modes, represented in Figure 2-4. Mode 1 illustrates the plastic embedment of the dowel into the timber connection. It represents a connection consisting of a very low embedment resistance timber coupled with a stiff dowel. Modes 2 and 3 represent simultaneous failure of the timber in bearing and the formation of plastic dowel yield points. Connection which fail this way are considered to be more efficient, as they make more use of the composite strength of the connection and generally use more slender fasteners (Thomson, 2010). Research carried out by Thomson (2010) at the University of Bath investigated the performance of non-metallic dowels within dowel-plate connections, in which modifications
4

Figure 2-3: Assumed behaviour for dowel embedment (Larsen, 1973)

were applied to the EYM model to carry out strength analysis of GFRP, compressed wood and oak dowels. From these findings a greater understanding of the fundamental components of the yield model was acquired for the purpose of this thesis.

Figure 2-4: EYM failure modes for metallic dowel-plate timber connections (Thomson, 2010)

2.4

Brittle Failure of Timber Connections

Through the introduction of reinforcement components into timber connections in this thesis, there is a potential for not only increasing the strength capacity but also changing the failure modes of the connections. It is therefore important to review brittle failure models as well as the EYM. Experimental work carried out by Quennville (2009) suggests that dowel-plate timber connections often fail in brittle modes rather than modes suggested by the EYM under generally lower loads than predicted. Eurocode 5 dictates the required minimum dimensions of the connection as well as the required end and edge distances and the spacings between fasteners to avoid brittle failure. Metallic dowels required much larger spacings than timber dowels used in traditional carpentry, as they are much stiffer and stronger. This must be considered when establishing which failure mode is to be induced, from which the effectiveness of the reinforcement can be investigated. Figure 2-5 illustrates the various brittle failure modes obtained for single dowel and plate timber connections. EC5 contains the relevant minimum spacing requirements to prevent brittle failure in timber connections, which will be used for the design of the laboratory connections in this thesis. Table 2-1 summarises the relevant end minimum spacing requirements for dowel and plate connections. Another consideration highlighted by the EC5 codes is that the load carrying

F F

(a)

F F

(b)

F F

(c)

Figure 2-5: Brittle Failure Modes- a) net tensions, b) splitting, c) plug shear

capacity of a multiple fastener connection may be lower than the sum of the individual load carrying capacities of each fastener. Although this thesis considers single dowel connections alone, this phenomenon should be considered were the effects of reinforcement on multiple dowel connections would be investigated.

Figure 2-6: Definition of fastener spacings Table 2.1 Minimum spacing and end and edge distances for dowels Spacing and end distances ( ) Angle to grain Minimum spacing or edge/end distances ( | |)

Research into the failure modes of timber connections loaded parallel to the grain has been carried out by Quennville and Mohammad (2000). This included a series of tests of the failure modes and strength of steel bolted timber connections, specifically in the row shear out and group tear out failure modes. From these results the theory that the longitudinal shear stress at failure is a function of the smaller of the end spacing or the dowel spacing and the member thickness. This means that when brittle shear failure governs, there is no advantage of using different end/dowel spacings since the smaller of the two would cause failure. Connections loaded perpendicular to the grain have their capacity limited through low perpendicular strength compared to axial strength of timber. These loads are difficult to negate since the timber connections at truss node in practice are perpendicular to the grain.
6

The linear elastic fracture mechanics model developed by Van der Put and Leitjen (2000) is now part of the basis of design of EC5.

Figure 2-7: perpendicular to grain splitting

A fracture load F for the timber connection shown in Figure 2-7 can be calculated using the section and connection properties and the deflection of the section at the point where the force is applied. This mechanism can be used to determine whether splitting will be the dominant mode of failure. Van der Put and Leitjen (2000) characterised the four modes of failure shown in Figure 2-8.

Figure 2-8: Connection failure response perpendicular to grain (Van der Put and Leitjen, 2000)

Mode A-

Mode BMode C-

Mode D-

The connection is much stronger than the splitting strength. Embedment stresses under the fastener will be low. The connection is therefore overdesigned. The connection strength equals the splitting strength. The embedment stresses are high. This is an optimally designed connection. The connection causes splitting only after significant slip due to high embedment stresses and hardening of the timber after yield. This is an underdesigned connection. No Splitting will occur. This connection is under designed.

In his thesis on non-metallic timber connections, Thomson (2010) relates the characterisation of timber connection failure to the design of reinforced concrete. He states that the capacity of mechanical fasteners in a timber connection should be under-designed to ensure connection
7

ductility prior to ultimate splitting failure, since the over-design of steel reinforcement causes brittle failure by concrete crushing in RC beams. 2.5 Connection Stiffness

Thomson (2010) derived a method of analysing the stiffness of non-metallic dowel-plate connections from the beam on elastic foundation theory. By adapting the widely used Aydoans model (1993) he calculated the effect of using different material dowels on the overall stiffness of the connection, by deriving the stiffness matrix from the model illustrated in Figure 2-9:

Figure 2-9: Assumed model for beam on elastic foundation analysis (Thomson, 2010)

By simply inputting the connection geometry, foundation moduli and dowel stiffness of a dowel-plate connection, the stiffness matrix could be used to determine its characteristic stiffness. The calculated theoretical values for the connection stiffness were on average 55% of the experimental values obtained, a considerable difference that was attributed to the significance of the variations in foundation moduli (Thomson, 2010). There is a possibility of deriving a similar model to establish the influence of reinforcement on the overall stiffness of dowel-plate connections. The predominant focus for this thesis is the influence of reinforcement on overall connection strength and not stiffness, as is the case in the practice of timber design. The application of this model was therefore considered unnecessary for this thesis. EC5 proposes a simple calculation for an unreinforced connection stiffness based on the timber density and dowel diameter, a method widely used in timber connection analysis. This calculation does not consider the effect of the timber grain orientation when calculating the stiffness of the connection, and can therefore be assumed to be conservative. 2.6 Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composite Reinforcement

The use of CFRP composite reinforcements in timber connections has been researched by Yang and Smith (2010) at the University of Hong Kong. Their research comprised of the strengthening of single-bolted timber joints with different configurations of CFR which were then subsequently tested under monotonic loading. The 0.166mm thick CFRP sheets where arranged to strengthen the timber specimens as illustrated in Figure 2-10.

Analysis of the calculated shear stress induced between the CFRP and timber substrate in scheme D (wrapped), let to the conclusion that the strength of this bolted timber joint was enhanced by an average of 58%.

Figure 2-10: Strengthening Schemes (Yang and Smith, 2010)

Figure 2-11: Rupture failure mode observed in specimen D (Yang and Smith, 2010)

The actual effectiveness of the reinforcement is questionable. From the rupture failure mode observed in specimen D (Figure 2-11), it becomes apparent that the CFRP wrapping around the bolt provided direct resistance to the connector rather than reinforcing the timber itself. This led to a failure mode dictating the capacity of the connection shifting from timber bearing and splitting to an instantaneous failure from CFRP deboning. This failure mode is undesirable as it limits the capacity to the capability of the CFRP. 2.7 Mechanical repair of timber beams fractured in flexure using bonded-in reinforcements

The use of bonded-in reinforcement to repair timber beams was investigated the University of Bath (Ansell, 2009). The reinforcement was introduced in the form of steel or composite CFRP and GFRP pultruded rods. The rectangular sections were introduced into grooves following the straightening direction of the fractured beams. The effectiveness of the reinforcement in restoring the flexural strength of the beam to its un-fractured value was investigated through a series of 4-point bending tests. The reinforced sections are illustrated in Figure 2-12.

Figure 2-12: Spruce beams reinforced on both faces (Ansell, 2009)

Of the reinforcement materials, the Steel and CFRP rods proved to be the most effective, as in most cases the flexural strength of the timber was restored to its pre-fracture value, and in some cases this value was exceeded through reinforcement. In one case the case of the CFRP reinforcement introduced on both the compressive and tensile face of the beam, a repaired flexural strength of 251% of the original un-fractured value was achieved. Introducing the reinforcement into both the top and bottom faces of the beams proved more effective than simply reinforcing only one of the sides. In most cases the failure mode of the beams were transformed due to the positioning of the reinforcement introduction, and the quality of the adhesive to reinforcement bond (Ansel, 2009). The results of the research carried out by Ansell are very impressive, and imply that boned in reinforcement would have an even greater influence on the flexural capacity if introduced into the un-fractured beams. The use of in situ steel to reinforce timber is questionable, due to its high thermal conductivity and therefore negative impact on the fireproofing of timber structures. 2.7 Reinforcement Materials

By reviewing findings into timber reinforcement materials and their properties, one can predict which could potentially increase the bearing capacity of a dowel and plate timber connection, and how they would influence the failure mode. Suitable materials can be obtained from research into non-metallic timber connections, where the materials ability to integrate with timber and increase the bearing capacity of the connection has been investigated. 2.7.1 Compressed Wood The use of compressed wood as a replacement for steel connectors in timber structures has been researched in Japan. It is fabricated by compressing low density ( ) wood such as Japanese cedar in a hot press for 30 minutes at 130C , where the product is a high density ( ) wood (Jung, 2008). In the process the clear wood specimens are compressed perpendicular to the grain. The heat and pressure soften the lignin within the cells of the wood, causing the cells to drift and collapse. A subsequent rapid drop in temperature freezes the compression. Where Jung (2008) tested full scale joints made from compressed wood dowel and plate connections, there were favourable results in their loading capacities. Other advantages of using compressed wood were cited in the research document such as adding value and structural integrity to timber structures. The sustainability and fireproof advantages of using non-metallic reinforcements in conjunction with non-metallic timber connections are also key driving forces for this research, as discussed Chapter 1. 2.7.2 Densified Veneer Wood Densified veneer wood (DVW) is a multi-layered material that comprises of beech wood veneers and phenol formaldehyde resin. Its usage as a component of timber connections has been widely reported by Leijten (1993). In the experiment carried out by Leitjen (1998), DVW was glued at the interface between steel fasteners and timber structural members to provide ductility within the connection. The research also showed that the reinforcement provided high embedment resistance and prevented splitting of the timber.
10

Leitjen (1998) proposed several key advantages of using DVW in timber connections. DVW is commercially available in a range of forms. Its density is similar to that of some hardwoods negating the need for specialist equipment to size the reinforcement components. Cross-wise layered veneers are less affected by load direction compared to unmodified timber. Tests showed that DVW had embedment strength of up to 160MPA (Leitjen, 1998). The resin content of DVWs affects directly its structural capacities and material properties. Fully resin-impregnated DVW is impermeable to moisture, although it has reduced tensions and bending strength. Leijten (1998) stated that partially resin-impregnated DVW is more suitable for structural purposes. Because it isnt fully impermeable to moisture, it is only applicable to certain service classes relating to moisture exposure discussed in EC5. A series of short term loading tests of DVW was carried out by Leijten (1998) to determine its embedment strength. The tests were carried out under tension and compression loading of the material as well as at 45 orientation. The density of the material ranged between 11441253 . This subsequently proved that the embedment strength of DVWs is independent of the load orientation and type (Leijten, 1998). 2.8 Conclusions

The analysis of the publications featured in this chapter has provided the necessary basis for the development of this thesis. An analysis of the reinforcement of both parallel and perpendicular to the grain connections will provide the body of this thesis. The European Yield Model provides the required timber failure modes which will be used to assess the influence of reinforcement on the capacity of connections. Eurocode 5 provides the guidance to the design of timber connections to which the dowel, plate, and timber connection parameters will be set. The connections investigated in this thesis will consist of single dowels, so that the EC5 minimum end spacing rules will dictate the connection failure modes. Reinforcement methods of wrapping and near surface mounting of timber connections have been proved to significantly increase connection capacity. An understanding of how the failure mode of a connection may be altered through reinforcement is important to determine its effectiveness. Modified woods provide a high strength alternative reinforcement material to previously used composite FRPs. They are more sustainable, fire resistant and provide structural integrity. Studies of various modified wood materials have provided suitable choices for the reinforcement material.

11

Chapter 3 Characterisation of connection components and selection of reinforcement material

3.1 Summary

This chapter focuses on selecting appropriate timber connections upon which the effect of the chosen reinforcement would be investigated experimentally, including that of different reinforcement designs. The development and strength analysis of the chosen connections will be further assessed in Chapters 4 and 5. For certain connection components, a series of characteristic tests were carried out to obtain the relevant properties of the materials. 3.2 Timber material and dimensions

The specimens used for the timber connections in experimental work carried out in this thesis were 48 98 mm planed Whitewood PSE beams, machine graded to C16 strength. This selection was made on the basis that this timber is particularly prone to splitting (BS EN 1995, 2004), and therefore matches the desired lower bound resistance connection from which the effect of reinforcement could be analysed. The timber was delivered at 15% moisture content, and had a mean density of . 3.2.1 Timber embedment strength The embedment strength and stiffness response of the softwood were system properties to obtain for use in the strength calculations in Chapter 5. The method of acquiring the embedment strength of the timber specimens a simplified version of BS EN 383 (2003) was used as proposed by Wilkinson (1991). This method consists of a dowel being loaded in compression in a half hole. The test was carried out for both perpendicular and parallel to the grain orientations, and was set up as shown below in Figure 3-1. The timber elements were tested in a Dartec loading machine at a rate of 3mm/minute with the intention of reaching failure within 300s (Thompson, 2010). Failure in the elements was defined as either the point where maximum load resistance was reached, or a 5mm displacement (BS EN 383, 2003).

Figure 3-1 Perpendicular to the grain embedment testing configuration

The cyclic loading method for obtaining the embedment strength was carried out as required by BS EN 383 (2003). The elements used for parallel and perpendicular to the grain testing measured 100 100 50 (length width thickness). The dowel used for the test measured 16mm in diameter. 3.2.2 Results of embedment strength tests and 5th percentile analysis method The characteristic values for the embedment strength and foundation modulus are presented in table 3.1, calculated in accordance with BS EN 14358 (2006). The standard BS EN 26891
12

(1991) was used to obtain the embedment strength

and foundation modulus from the experimental data, in accordance with the 5th percentile data analysis method taken from ASTM 5652-95. The embedment strength is a system specific characteristic equal to the maximum load resistance divided by the loaded dowel area. The foundation modulus is taken as the load resistance per unit displacement per unit dowel length (stiffness/unit dowel length) in the elastic loading range (Thomson, 2010).
Table 3.1: Embedment strength and foundation modulus for C16 Whitewood PSE Grain orientation Embedment Strength Foundation Modulus ( ) ( ) Parallel 24.1 989 Perpendicular 19.8 271

3.3

Dowel material and dimensions

The material and dimensions of the dowel and plate components are to remain constant throughout the experiments. In order to induce connection failure through the timber elements of the connections, the dowel and plate components must be selected to be sufficiently stiff and of a relatively high capacity. In accordance with EC5, the dowel diameter must measure between 8-30mm. The double shear test proposed in BS EN 26891 (1991) can be used to determine the stiffness and strength of a dowel relative to the timber capacity of a connection. In his thesis, Thomson (2010) found that a 12mm steel dowel provided a relatively strong and stiff connection, where it experienced plastic yielding before eventual timber failure. This experiment was replicated using a 16mm diameter dowel. It could therefore be established whether the dowel was sufficiently stiff and strong to induce failure in the timber element before it experienced plastic deformation. The testing method is illustrated in Figure 3-2, where the single dowel double shear connections are subjected to compressive monotonic loading. The connection slip was measured from the plate displacement. Two connection configurations were tested; in the first the side members were orientated parallel to the central member, whereas in the second the orientation was perpendicular. A Dartec universal loading machine rig was used for both tests to apply loading rate of 1.5mm/minute. This rate was chosen as it provided connection failure within 300 seconds as required in BS EN 26891 (1991).

a)

b)

Figure 3-2: Double shear connection testing. Grain orientation a) perpendicular b) parallel post failure 13

3.3.1 Results and discussion of dowel characterisation tests The connection yield load, ultimate load and stiffness were extrapolated from the results in Figure 3-3 using the methods described in Section 3.2.3. In accordance with BS EN 26891 (1991), failure in the connection was defined as a complete loss in loading capacity or the load at which the slip displacement reached 15mm.
Table 3.2: Results summary for double shear connection testing Connection orientation Parallel Perpendicular Yield Load (kN) 17.0 11.4 Ultimate Load (kN) 21.1 21.7 Stiffness (kN/mm) 11.8 10.7

The 16mm steel dowel provided a relatively stiff connection and a similar ultimate load of approximately 21kN for both grain orientations. The connection hardening experienced beyond the yield load was due to the bearing of the timber under the dowel loading. The element cross section illustrated in Figure 3-2 (b) confirms this, as the dowel has experienced little if any plastic deformation.
25 parallel 20 perpendicular

Load kN

15 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5

Connection Slip (mm)

Figure 3-3: Load-slip plots for double shear connection testing

For the connections in this thesis to qualify as thin plate (BS EN 1995 (2004)) the connection plates used must have a thickness of less that the diameter of the dowel passing through. It is common practice for connections of type to have plate thicknesses of between 8mm and 12mm (BS EN 1995 (2004)). A steel plate thickness of 10mm was used throughout the connection tests in this thesis. 3.4 Parallel to the grain timber connection design

The dimensions for the timber side members for connection testing were selected in accordance to a series of requirements. For parallel to the grain testing, the overall length was decided from the EC5 end and dowel spacing requirements as described in Chapter 2. Figure 3-4 illustrates the testing setup, which consists of a high strength connection at the top, achieved by combining a two dowel in line and plate connection with dimensions determined by the EC5 minimum spacing rules. The bottom single dowel connection was therefore designed to be of lower capacity and therefore to fail first. This is where the reinforcement will be introduced for comparative testing. The side member thickness and width was set at 48mm and 98mm respectively (Figure 3-4). The connection failure achieved in the double shear testing proved this width to be sufficiently large to mitigate against net shear failure along the side elements cross section.
14

Figure 3-4: Parallel to the grain pull out testing setup

3.4.1 Theoretical capacity of selected connection The characteristic load carrying capacity of the connection selected above can be calculated using the EYM equations in EC5. The purpose of the model is to determine whether the capacity of the connection is determined by the timber bearing capacity (Figure 3-6 (I)) or the dowel yield capacity (Figure 3-5 (II), BS EN 1995 (2004)).

II

Figure 3-5: EYM failure modes I (3.1) (3.2)

II

characteristic load carrying capacity of connection embedment strength parallel to the grain fastener diameter characteristic fastener yield moment timber thickness

(N) ( ) (mm) (Nmm) (mm)

15

EYM failure mode I- Timber load carrying capacity

EYM failure mode II- Dowel load carrying capacity

(3.3)

49.1kN Timber member capacity < Dowel yield capacity < plate capacity These solutions demonstrate that the timber element load bearing capacities the tested connections are far lower than the characteristic dowel load bearing capacity as desired. 3.4.2 Reinforcement characterisation This section focuses on the introduction of a reinforcement mechanism into the connection selected Section 3.4.1. The primary function of the reinforcement is to increase the overall capacity of the connection. The focus of the selection of the reinforcement in this thesis lies with its material properties and its method of integration into the existing connection. 3.4.3 Parallel to the grain reinforcement introduction The basis of reinforcement design in this thesis is to introduce in-situ elements into the connection to increase the overall capacity and potentially induce a more ductile mode of failure. By incorporating elements in-situ, there would be no overall change in connection geometry. The two initial designs are illustrated in Figure 3-6. Both designs function by redistributing the force applied to the connection through loading of the central dowel. A modified wood element of a higher strength and stiffness to the timber was to be near surface mounted to the connection. The following predictions have been made on the reinforcement performance of each design. Design A (Figure 3-6, A) illustrates a cylindrical element of the modified wood surrounding the dowel. By bonding this material into the timber, it would be loaded directly by the dowel, from which the load would be redistributed radially to a larger surface area. Design B (Figure 3-6, B) comprises of a near surface mounted strip of modified wood between the dowel and the end of the timber connection. Through the introduction a reinforcement element of higher axial tensile strength than the timber, the connection split should form at a higher load. In this thesis reinforcement design B will be investigated, as it has been predicted to provide a significant increase in connection capacity while using considerably less material that design A. In practice it would also be possible to introduce reinforcement B into an in service frame, whereas introducing reinforcement around the bolt in service (connection A) would not be. As well as influence on loading capacity, the influence of the reinforcement on the failure mode of the connection will be investigated.
16

timber

dowel DVW strip Tensile splitting force (a) F F (b)

Figure 3-6: Parallel to the grain reinforcement designs. a) cylindrical b) strip

3.5

Perpendicular to the grain timber connection design

The scope of this thesis includes the potential to reinforce perpendicular to grain timber connections. The primary weakness of these connections is described in Chapter 2 as the relatively low perpendicular strength compared to the axial strength of timber. When loaded, these connections tend to fail in a fracture mode, where the unzipping of the timber propagates along the grain from the dowel connection (Haller, 1998). The test setup used to investigate the reinforcement of perpendicular to the grain connections is illustrated in Figure 3-7. This is a simplified version of the fracture toughness testing described in ISO 22157. The timber members were loaded from a central dowel to induce fracture failure. The side member thickness and depth measured 48mm and 98mm respectively. The end distance between the dowel and the bottom edge of the timber element was set to 3d in accordance with EC5 minimum spacing rules. Each side member spanned a total of 240mm, providing an effective span of 200mm and 20mm of contact between the timber and steel plates each support (Figure 3-7). A preliminary test showed that this span/depth ratio was sufficient to induced complete splitting failure horizontally from the dowel before significant shear failure took place at the supports. The dowel and plate materials and dimensions used are the same as those described in Section 3.5.

Figure 3-7: Perpendicular to the grain loading capacity test setup

3.5.1 Theoretical capacity of selected connection As described in Chapter 2, the theoretical fracture load of a connection loaded perpendicularly to the grain can be calculated using the model derived by Van der Put and Leitjen (2000) which uses the following equation:
17

(3.4)
)

characteristic splitting capacity of the connection loaded member thickness timber member depth distance between loaded edge and centre of most distant fastener

(N) (mm) (mm) (mm)

Using this calculation the characteristic splitting capacity of the connection is found to be 14kN. As described in Chapter 2, this calculation tends to provide lower bound values for the splitting capacity of perpendicular connections, and comparisons between the theoretical and experimental values obtained can be found in Chapter 5. 3.5.2 Perpendicular to the grain reinforcement introduction A similar reinforcement mechanism to that designed for parallel to the grain connections is proposed for perpendicular to grain testing. By near surface mounting reinforcement strips of the modified wood into the timber members as illustrated in Figure 3-8, the connections can be tested and the influence of the reinforcement on the loading capacity was analysed. Figure 3-8, B illustrates how the reinforcement is designed to function; by introducing the strips in proximity to the dowel, they will obstruct the unzipping of the timber member and increase the tensile splitting capacity of the connection. This was predicted induce a loading higher capacity.

(A)

F tensile splitting force

F
(B)

Figure 3-8: Perpendicular to the grain reinforcement designs. A) non-reinforced B) reinforced

3.7.1 Reinforcement dimensions The reinforcement strips dimensions to be inserted into the timber connections measure mm (width height length). With the connection side members measuring 48mm in width, the strips would cover approximately 25% of this. This proposed width was chosen to provide an increase in connection capacity through reinforcement than was larger than the reduction in capacity through removal of timber material. This reasoning has been illustrated in Figure 3-9. All reinforcement strips are to be introduced to the outside face of the side member of the timber connections, as this is considerably more practical to manufacture than to embed them into the inside face of a full scale connection.
18

Figure 3-9: Reinforcement embedment into timber connection

3.6

Reinforcement material properties

Densified Veneer Wood (DVW) was chosen as the reinforcement material. The advantages of using this product have been discussed in Chapter 2. For the purpose of strength analysis in Chapter 5, the flexural capacity and youngs modulus of DVW investigated through a set of three point flexural strength tests. The material was tested parallel and perpendicular to the laminate direction. The experimental method adopted was proposed by BS EN 373 589.

Figure 3-10: Three point bending test experimental setup

The flexural strength of the timber can be calculated from the ultimate load under three point bending and the dimensions of the elements from equation 3.5.
F 10mm

10mm L/2=70mm L/2=70mm

F/2

F/2

Figure 3-11: Three point bending test characteristics

(3.5)

The flexural strength represents the highest stress experienced in the material at the point of rupture. Due to the bending nature of the test only the surface fibres experience the highest stress and therefore determine the strength of the material. If the material was to be testing solely in tension, the entire element would be subjected to the maximum stress meaning the weakest fibre would determine its strength. It is therefore evident flexural strength can be larger than the tensile strength for a given material. For the purpose of the strength analysis in this thesis they will be considered equal. The Elastic Modulus of the reinforcement elements are determined from the following equation, where both the ultimate load and the strain are derived from Figure 3-12.
(3.6) 19

The flexural strengths, elastic modulus and compressive strength of the DVW strips have been summarised in Table 3.3.
0.5 0.4 Load (kN) 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Deflection (mm)
parallel perpendicular

Figure 3-12: Load-slip plot of three point testing experiment Table 3.3: Experimentally obtained material properties of DVW Flexural Elastic Modulus Compressive Strength Ultimate load Strength (kN) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0.47 98.7 7173 590 0.37 72.1 5525 590

DVW grain orientation Perpendicular Parallel

Due to the higher value for flexural strength obtained under perpendicular to the laminate orientation loading, the reinforcement was introduced into the connection so that it was loaded in this orientation. 3.7 Conclusions

The connections to be tested have been designed in accordance to the relevant British Standards and EC5. DVW strips were chosen as the reinforcement type to be embedded into both the parallel and perpendicular timber connections to increase their tensile splitting capacity. EYM models were used to determine the theoretical capacities and failure modes of each connection. Material test where carried out to characterise the properties of the connection elements: A compression test provided the embedment strength of the C16 strength class timber elements Double shear compression tests determined that the 16mm diameter steel dowels were sufficiently stiff and strong to induce timber splitting failure before yielding. The tensile strength of the DVW reinforcement was derived from a 3 point bending test to provide the material characteristic for subsequent analysis.

20

Chapter 4

Experimental study of DVW reinforced timber connections

4.1 Summary A series of parallel and perpendicular DVW reinforced timber connections where tested experimentally. The objective was to assess the stiffness and strength of each connection and analyse the resulting failure modes. Characterising the failure modes was essential to assess the impact of the reinforcement on the stiffness and strength of the connections. They subsequently determined the analysis methods used in Chapter 5. The material properties of the softwood used throughout can be found in Chapter 4. Care was taken into ensuring that all the tested connections within a category were of the same dimensions, where the length was kept constant using a guide attachment to the band saw, and any fluctuations in member thicknesses where planed to achieve continuity in element dimension. It was ensured that the timber elements used contained few knots, although in the samples where some were found they were kept on stronger side of the connection and so away from the connections to be reinforced. A vertical axis pillar drill was used to drill the dowel hole in both the timber elements and the steel plates. The dowel holes were manufactured accurately to ensure a correct alignment in each connection. This prevented prestresses between timber elements developing from a poor fit, which would lead to undesired variations in the results. All reinforcement material was bonded in using Polyten, a high grade assembly adhesive. 4.2 Parallel to grain connection testing

A total of eight parallel to the grain connection pull out tests were carried out. In connections A, B, C, and D a reduced end spacing of 3d was used for the single dowel connection. For connections E, F, G and H the EC5 determined 80mm end distance was applied (Chapter 2). For each set of end distances, three variations in reinforcement distance from the dowel were tested, to be compared to a non-reinforced connection. These connection dimensions are summarised in Table 4.1. The connections with the reduced 3d end spacing were tested to establish whether the reinforcement would in fact increase the capacity of the connection to that equal to or higher than an equivalent 5d end spacing connection. In practice a reduced end distance of 3d represents an inefficient connection since the timber failure through splitting is induced much before dowel failure (EC5). For the purposed of this thesis, an induced brittle timber failure provided a clear failure mode upon which any influence from the reinforcement was observed. The 5d end distance tests were carried out to establish whether there would be an additional increase in capacity of the connection that had already been designed in accordance to EC5 to mitigate against timber splitting failure (Chapter 2). The connections were loaded monotonically in tension at a rate of 1mm/minute. This load rate was in accordance with BS EN 26891 (1991), and was designed induce ultimate failure within 180 to 600 seconds. Ultimate load was taken as complete loss of load resistance or connection slip of 15mm or over according to BS EN 26891 (1991). The high stiffness of the steel plate and dowel component meant that load slip was attributed solely to the timber and could therefore be measured directly from the platen displacement of the plates (Chapter 3). A Dartec universal loading machine was used to apply the tensile load throughout. The load and slip was recorded using strain smart data acquisition system 5000.
21

Figure 4-1: Parallel to the grain experimental setup

4.2.1 Reinforcement End Distance The dimensions (width/thickness), end distances and reinforcement distance from dowel x of each timber connection components are tabulated below:
Table 4.1: Summary of connection dimensions Test Connection A B C D E F G H Side member cross section (b/t) (mm) 96 48 96 48 96 48 96 48 96 48 96 48 96 48 96 48 End distance 3d 3d 3d 3d 5d 5d 5d 5d Reinforcement distance (x) (mm) / 0 10 20 / 0 25 50

4.2.2 Connection capacity and failure mode predictions Queenville and Mohammad (2000) concluded in their study of metallic bolted connections that the typical failure mode for dowel type connections was initialised by a single full thickness shear plug, followed by complete unzipping of remaining timber. This failure mode was predicted for unreinforced connections A and E. It was expected that where reinforcements were near surface mounted, there would be an overall increase in strength capacity of the connections. In the case of the reduced end distance tests B, C, D, it was expected that the failure mode would be more ductile, due to load distribution along the reinforcement (Chapter 3.) As for the specimens F, G, H where timber splitting had been mitigated against through the use of EC5 minimal end spacing rules, it was expected that the reinforcement would increase the bearing resistance under the loading of the dowel.
22

4.2.3 Results of parallel to grain connection testing Table 4.2 summarises the parallel to grain test results. The ultimate load was defined in accordance with BS EN 26891 (1991) using the ASTM D 5652-95 5th percentile method to determine yield load. Figure 4-2 combines the four reduced end spacing connection test results into a typical load-slip plot.
Table 4.2: Summary of load-slip response of parallel to the grain pull-out tests Test connection Yield Load (kN) Ultimate Load (kN) Stiffness (kN/mm) A 17.3 17.3 15.2 B 29.8 29.8 13.8 C 32.1 33.8 12.8 D 31.6 32.1 10.35 E 31.1 40.2 17.0 F 28.2 41.2 14.7 G 32.8 37.0 16.2 H 31.741 34.9 17.7

45 40 35 30 25 Force (kN) 20 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 Connection slip (mm) 8 10 12

A B C D E

Figure 4-2: Load-slip response for connections loaded parallel to the grain

4.2.4 Analysis of results of parallel to grain connection testing for reduced EC5 end distance 3d All connections with a reduced end spacing 3d i.e. A, B, C and D displayed a linear load slip response up to yielding. Loading was continued until brittle failure was achieved for all connections. Brittle failure of the timber side elements of all connections occurred post yield, except for connection C where there is evidence of connection ductility beyond elastic yielding (Figure 4-2).
23

There is clear evidence of a significant increase in both connection yield and ultimate strength from the unreinforced connection A to the reinforced connections B, C and D. The highest ultimate load obtained was that of connection D, measuring 33.8kN. This represented a 95% increase in connection ultimate strength when compared to the non-reinforced connection A. This increase in connection capacity was predicted in Section 4.2.3. The load-slip plot of the unreinforced 5d end distance connection E has been included in the Figure 4-2 for the purpose of comparison. It is clear that the reinforced, reduced end distance connections achieved a relatively competitive ultimate strength (33.8kN) to that of the unreinforced 5d end distance connection (40.2kN). The variations in yield and ultimate strength between reinforced connections B, C and D are low and are attributed to material inconsistencies and the variable nature of the composition of timber. Although a reduction in connection stiffness has been recorded from connection A to connections B, C, D, it is relatively small and is also attributed to material inconsistencies. A partial thickness shear plug developed in all the 3d end spacing connections. This failure mode represents an increase in the ductility of the connection as opposed to brittle splitting failure of the timber members (Thompson (2010). The influence of the partial thickness shear plug on the overall capacity of the connections is unclear from the data in Figure 4-2, and so has been analysed in the strength analysis section of Chapter 5. In connections C and D, a crack initially propagated from the dowel down to the reinforcement at the point of failure, which subsequently formed a partial thickness shear plug. Connections A and B experienced an instant partial thickness shear plug at the point of failure. In all the connections the formation of this plug led to a redistribution of loading onto the second timber element, where a splitting crack formed. In connection A, a partial shear plug formed in the second element as shown in Figure 4-3.

Connection A

Connection B

Figure 4-3: Timber element end view post failure:

A change in failure mode was observed for the reinforced connections B,C, and D from that of connection A. Figure 4-3 illustrates clearly that connection B experienced initial failure through a partial shear plug. Interestingly, net tension failure subsequently developed from the reinforcement strip downwards. This additional shear plane will be discussed in further detail in Chapter 5.
24

4.2.5 Results of 5d end distance parallel to grain connection testing The results of the 5d end distance connection testing has been summarised in a typical loadslip plot in Figure 4-4. It illustrates that the reinforcement in the connection provided little influences on the connection capacities, as the ultimate load capacity achieved by the reinforced connections is similar to that achieved by the unreinforced connection. The highest ultimate load achieved was through testing of connection F, at 41.2kN. The stiffness of the 5d end spacing connections was similar to that of the 3d end spacing connections. The variations in stiffness between the connections were relatively small and also attributed to material inconsistencies.
45 40 35 30 Force (kN) 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Slip displacement (mm) E F G H

Figure 4-4: Load-slip response for connections loaded parallel to the grain

Connections E, F, G and H demonstrated a relatively instantaneous connection failure post yield, caused from a tensile split forming along the entire length of the timber members at the ultimate load capacity (Figure 4-5). In contrast to the reduced end spacing connections, the reinforcement strips split along the connection failure.

Figure 4-5: Timber connection G post failure

4.3

Perpendicular to grain connection testing

A total of four perpendicular to the grain connection test were carried out. The dimensions of the side timber elements of the connections were kept constant and determined in Chapter 3. Connection I was tested without reinforcement, whereas connections J, K, L all contained
25

reinforcements introduced at different distances x from the central dowel (Figure 4-6). The connection characteristics are summarised in table 4.3. Figure 4-6 illustrates the test setup used, where the dowel is loaded into the timber in compression from the central plate. This method effectively replicated a perpendicular to the grain pull out test. The timber end distances above and below the dowel are identical, and so the direction of the load is not relevant and the desired splitting failure mode was achieved.

Figure 4-6: Perpendicular to the grain experimental setup

The connections were loaded monotonically in compression at a rate of 1mm/minute. This load rate is in accordance with BS EN 26891 (1991). The justification for the use of this load rate along with definitions of load failure are identical to the parallel to the grain loading test, and can be found in Section 4.2.1. 4.3.1 Reinforcement end distance
Table 4.3: Summary of connection dimensions Test Connection A B C D Side member cross section (b/t) (mm) 96 48 96 48 96 48 96 48 End distance 3d 3d 3d 3d Reinforcement distance (x) (mm) / 0 20 50

4.3.2 Connection capacity and failure mode predictions The failure mode predicted for the non-reinforced connection A consists of an initial high plastic deformation, during which the dowel embeds into the timber. This was predicted to cause simultaneous hardening of the timber and horizontal splitting of the timber to propagate from the central dowel. The reinforcement introduced into the connections B, C and D was expected to obstruct the induced splitting, leading to a failure mode shift from timber unzipping to a more ductile bearing failure, which would in theory increase the connections loading capacity. 4.3.3 Results of parallel to grain connection testing Table 4.4 summarises the parallel to grain test results. The ultimate load was defined from the method in BS EN 26891 (1991) described in Section 3.2.3. The stiffness plot was calculated using the ASTM D 5652-95 method described also found Section 3.2.3, from which the Yield
26

load of each connection was derived. Figure 4-7 combines the four perpendicular to the grain connection test results into a typical load-slip plot.
Table 4.4: Summary of load-slip response of perpendicular to the grain pull-out tests Test connection A B C D
30 25 20 Load (kN) 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Connection slip (mm)

Yield Load (kN) 16.3 11.9 14.6 14.8

Ultimate Load (kN) 22.8 21.6 21.2 22.0

Stiffness (kN/mm) 10.1 8.7 6.1 8.1

A B C D

Figure 4-7: Load-slip perpendicular to the grain connection response.

4.3.4 Analysis of results of parallel to grain connection testing for reduced EC5 end distance 3d All four perpendicular to the grain connections displayed a linear load slip response up to yielding. Elastic yielding was followed by significant plastic yielding of the timber (Figure 47), demonstrating connection hardening. Loading was continued until brittle failure was achieved for all connections. This was represented by timber splitting which propagated from the dowel along the grain as predicted in Section 4.3.2. The highest ultimate loading capacity was achieved by the non-reinforced connection at a load of 22.8kN. The reinforced connections B, C and D all failed under a lower load, ranging from 21.kN to 22 kN. This reduction in capacity through the introduction of reinforcement is relatively low. It was concluded that the reinforcement provided no positive contribution to the connection loading capacity. However the results do show that all reinforced connection failed at a lower capacity than the non-reinforced connection. Connection strength analysis in Chapter 5 evaluates how this reduction in capacity was induced. The influence of reinforcement on the connection stiffness was negligible and, as explained in section 4.2.5, was attributed to variations in the timber consistency. The influence of the
27

reinforcement to the connection stiffness could be analysed in further detail, but is unnecessary as the emphasis of this thesis is on the ultimate capacity of the connections. Analysis of the non-reinforced Connection A displays the failure mode predicted in Section 4.3.2. Timber splitting along the grain from the dowel occurred at the ultimate load (Figure 48 A). The influence of the reinforcement onto the failure mode of Connection D can be seen in Figure 4-8 B). The induced splitting was obstructed by the reinforcement strips to a certain depth, although a full length split along the inside face of the connections proved that the reinforcement did not stop splitting uniformly across the elements depth. Further analysis of the failure modes achieved can be found in Chapter 5.

Connection A

Connection D

Figure 4-8: Failure modes of perpendicular to the grain connections

4.4

Conclusions

Parallel and Perpendicular to the grain connection tests have been carried out to determine the influence of reinforcement on the overall connection capacity and failure modes. From these results the following conclusions were drawn: The addition of reinforcement to the parallel to the grain 3d end distance connections led to an increase in connection capacity of up to 95%, with the reinforcement proving similarly effective in all reduced end distance connections. This increase lead to a connection capacity close to that of a nonreinforced 5d end distance connection. The non-reinforced connection failure was initiated by a partial shear plug; whilst the reinforced connections displayed an additional net tension failure bellow the DVW strips. The addition of reinforcement to the parallel to the grain 5d end distance connections proved ineffective to the connection capacity or failure mode. The failure mode experienced in all 5d end distance connections consisted of instantaneous brittle failure post yield through tensile splitting. The addition of reinforcement to the perpendicular to the grain caused a reduction in connection capacity. An obstruction to the longitudinal tensile splitting was observed at the reinforcements. Recorded variations to connection stiffness were relatively small and attributed to material inconsistencies in all tested connections.

28

Chapter 5 Stiffness and Strength Analysis of Reinforced Timber Connections

5.1 Summary

This section outlines techniques used to predict the failure modes of the reinforced timber connections and their corresponding capacities. The non-reinforced parallel and perpendicular to the grain timber connection connections are analysed using the European Yield Model featured in EC5. An adaptation of this model is subsequently used to predict the influence of the embedded reinforcement on the strength of the connections. 5.2 Failure modes

For the purpose of strength analysis the connection failure modes obtained experimentally in Chapter 4 have been categorised using the EYM and illustrated in Figure 5-1 plot. Mode A represents an overdesigned connection where brittle timber failure is experienced prior to steel dowel yielding. This was the dominant failure mode experienced in the parallel to the grain connection experiments. Mode B represents the failure mode experienced in the perpendicular to the grain connection tests, illustrating connection hardening followed by splitting failure of the timber members.

Figure 5-1: Connection failure modes of parallel and perpendicular to the grain timber connections

5.3

Parallel to the grain stiffness analysis

The theoretical stiffness of a timber connection can be obtained through a simple calculation provided in EC5, which considers the connection dowel diameter and the density of the timber elements used (Equation 5.1).
(5.1)

dry density dowel diameter

) (mm)

Equation 5.1 provides a stiffness value per dowel per shear face. The timber density in the experiments was constant at 350 and the dowel diameter used measured 16mm. The theoretical parallel to the grain connection stiffness is therefore 9.1kN . A graphical comparison is shown in Figure 5-2.
29

50

40

theoretical stiffness

E)

Unreinforced,

Force (kN)

30

20
A) Unreinforced,

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5
Slip displacement (mm)

Figure 5-2: Comparison of theoretical and experimental values for connection stiffness

The theoretical calculation provided by EC5 does not take into account the effect of grain orientation on connection stiffness, which suggests it is a conservative method of analysis. 5.4 Parallel to the grain strength analysis

It is clear from the results in Chapter 4 that the reinforcement of the timber connections has led to a significant increase in connection capacity. This section aims to quantify this increase in capacity in terms of the change in failure mode induced by the reinforcement.

a) a) b)

Figure 5-3: Two-phase timber failure. a) plug shear b) net tension shear

As described in Chapter 4, the reduced end distance connections failed through the formation of a full thickness shear plug. The reinforced connections displayed an additional net tension shear failure which formed from the reinforcement strips (Figure 5-3). In order for the net shear failure to occur bellow the reinforcement, the reinforcement axial tensile capacity under dowel loading must have be higher than the force required to induce the failure mode illustrated in Figure 5-3. Since the reinforcement within the EC5 minimum end spacing connection failed in axial tension the ultimate connection failure (Figure 5-4), it is assumed that the axial tensile capacity of the reinforcement was reached.
30

Figure 5-4: Tensile split through reinforcement, connection G

The model in Section 5.4.1 attempts to determine at which end distance between 3d and 5d does the reinforcement fail in tensions before shear plug failure, and therefore at which end distance does the reinforcement become ineffective. 5.4.1 Reinforcement influence on fracture strength model This section attempts to quantify the effectiveness of the reinforcement in increasing the fracture strength of the connections through the characteristic tensile stress capacity of the DVW strips and the ultimate loads of the connections obtained experimentally. The lateral tensile stress capacity of the DVW strips was derived from the calculations carried out in Section 3.7.2 as 100N/ . For simplification of analysis, the force subjected to the reinforcement through the centrally loaded dowel is taken as a point load, derived from the UDL subjected to the connection from the dowel (Figure 5-5).This point load P is therefore a function of the ultimate load, reinforcement width to the timber side member width. The flexural stress induced to each DVW strip by the point load P is derived from equation 5.2. The ultimate load subjected onto the reinforcement is taken as the highest recorded ultimate load achieved experimentally for each parallel to the grain end distance group . This is to establish the worst case loading subjected onto the reinforcement. The tensile stress induced from the point load P to the reinforcement is defined from Equation 5.3.
plate dowel reinforcement
P

CV

L/2 L/2

P/2

P/2

timber

Figure 5-5: Dowel loading onto timber members and reinforcement

(5.2)

(5.3) 31

Table 5.1: Connection tensile fracture loads Connection orientation D F (N) 3600 4300 DVW Tensile strength ( ) 100 100 Theoretical induced tensile load ( ) 756 903

It is clear from the results in table 5.1 that the model has incorrectly derived the theoretical induced tensile load of the reinforcement, since these values are up to nine times the tensile strength value obtained experimentally. There are several limitations to this model which may explain why this is the case. The assumption that the dowel loading can be translated to a point load onto the DVW is not accurate, since the load has been partially redistributed through the timber to a more uniform loading arrangement (Figure 3-6,(b)) along the strip. The load from the dowel itself cannot be considered as a UDL, since a slight rotation of the dowel during plate loading induces a greater force on the inside face of the timber (Section 5.5). The DVW strip has also been modelled as a simply supported beam whereas in fact it is supported along its whole length by the timber section bellow it. This means that the 3 point bending tensile strength value established is not completely representative of the reinforcement effectiveness in the connection, and a beam on elastic foundation of the reinforcement embedded into the timber would potentially provide a more realistic value of capacity. The model does however represent part of the fracture behaviour of the reinforced connections. From the failure modes obtained, it is apparent that the 3d end distance connections failed in a series of shear modes before the reinforcement failed in tension (Chapter 4). The 5d end distance connections failed in instantaneous fracture post yield, including the splitting of the reinforcement strips. The tensile strength of the reinforcement was therefore reached between the loads experienced in the 3d and 5d connections. A model which included the fracture behaviour of timber when loaded by a single dowel could provide a more realistic theoretical effectiveness of the embedded reinforcement, and will be discussed further in chapter 6. 5.4.2 Full thickness shear plug strength analysis method The theoretical strength of a connection can be determined from the analysis of its post failure full thickness shear plug (Quenneville and Mohammad (2000); Thomson (2010); BS EN 1995, 2004). To calculate these values the shear strength value of the timber and the area of timber loaded in shear must be obtained. The characteristic shear strength value per shear plane, , for the C16 softwood is taken as (BS EN 338,2009). The area is taken as the length of the plug (Figure 5-6 (a)) multiplied by the timber thickness, which corresponds to the end distance of the connection.

(a) (b) Figure 5-6: end view of shear plug perimeter. (a) definition (b) connection A shear plug

32

The theoretical connection strength is calculated using Equation 5.2:

(5.2)

ultimate connection capacity total plug shear length (connection end distance ) effective perimeter length of shear plug characteristic shear strength of timber

(kN) (mm) (mm) (N/m )

In order to compare the theoretical connection strength of the reinforced connections, the shear plug of the connections was analysed using this method. The assumption was made that the additional shear plug perimeter obtained net tension failure bellow the reinforcement contributed to the connection strength, and so was added to the effective perimeter of the shear plug (Figure 5-7). Figure 5-7 illustrates the predicted theoretical relationship between ultimate capacity and effective shear plug perimeter of each connection, compared to the actual connection capacity and measured shear plug perimeter of each connection. These values are summarised in Figure A- of Appendix A.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5-7: End view of shear plug perimeter. (a) definition (b) connection B shear plug
60 50 Ultimate Load (kN) 40 30 20 10 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 Effective Perimeter (mm)
A E G F H C D B

theoretical,

theoretical, theoretical,

Figure 5-8: Plot comparing theoretical and experimental values of the relationship between the ultimate load and effective perimeter of the connections

Figure 5-8 illustrates a clear correlation between the theoretically and experimentally results, proving that the use of the shear plug strength analysis method is suitable for not only reduced end distance connections but also the reinforced connections. The assumption that the
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addition of the net tension shear perimeter to the effective perimeter of the connections is reasonable in the sense that the failure to which is contributed forms in the same plane as the shear plug. However this method has not been certified and is therefore only appropriate for the strength analysis of this thesis. 5.5 Perpendicular to grain strength analysis

The theoretical stiffness defined calculated in Section 5.3 also applies to the perpendicular to the grain connection, since the method by which it was defined doesnt take into account grain orientation. Additionally, the experimental results were compared to the characteristic splitting capacity of the connections, calculated in Section 3.6.2 to be 14kN for the non-reinforced connection perpendicular to the grain connection (EC 5). Figure 5-9 graphically compares the theoretical and experimental values obtained for connection stiffness and splitting capacity.
25 20 Load (kN) 15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 Connection slip (mm)
theoretical stiffness

theoretical splitting capacity

A B C D

Figure 5-9: Plot comparing theoretical and experimental values of connection stiffness and splitting capacity

The theoretical stiffness is very close to the experimental values obtained from connection testing (Figure 5-9). However the predicted splitting capacity is lower than the experimentally obtained values in all connection results. This splitting capacity is in fact similar than the yield strength of the connections. This may be because the splitting capacity is a lower bound value, and the connection actually experienced considerable plastic deformation before eventual splitting. 5.5.1 Strength analysis of reinforcement contribution The experimental findings in Chapter 4 stated that the reinforcement provided no increase in connection capacity when embedded into the perpendicular to the gain connections. In fact, the reinforced connections should a reduction in connection capacity. Through the analysis of the timber splitting at connection failure, this phenomenon may be explained. Figure 5-10 illustrates the shear surface responsible for connection failure during splitting.
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effective shear surface

Figure 5-10: Splitting shear surface of unreinforced connection

reinforcement effective shear surface

Figure 5-11: a) Splitting shear surface of unreinforced connection b) Net tension failure bellow dowel

It is evident from Figure 5-11 (a) that the introduction of reinforcement reduces this surface, as the timber fibres are cut perpendicular to the grain. Subsequently, a reduction in connection splitting capacity is induced. Figure 5-11 (b) illustrates the net tensions failure experienced in connections C and D. 5.6 Conclusions

The failure modes obtained experimentally have been categorised in accordance with the EYM. The influence of the reinforcement to the connection capacities and failure modes has been discussed and modelled for both the parallel and perpendicular to the grain connections. The experimental values for connection stiffness and capacities obtained in Chapter 3 have been directly compared to the theoretical values obtained by models provided in EC5. Adaptations to existing models have been made to attempt to quantify the effectiveness of the reinforcement methods. The perpendicular to the grain connection capacity and stiffness was calibrated to the theoretical value obtained through a fracture mechanics model featured in EC5. A model demonstrating the influence of the DVW reinforcement on the tensile fracture strength of the parallel to the grain connections has proved ineffective. Its limitations have been discussed, and its results provide part of a function of the connection tensile fracture strength. The theoretical parallel to the grain connection capacities have been derived from a shear plug analysis model, using the experimentally obtained effective shear plug perimeter of each connection. A direct correlation between the theoretically predicted and experimentally obtain capacities proved that the model was suitable. The conclusion was drawn that the additional shear perimeter obtained through the net tension failure mode of the 3d end distance connections was a function of the increase in connection capacity.
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6
6.1

Conclusions and development of research

Summary

The principal goal of this study was to create an original mechanism of reinforcing existing dowel type timber connections. This goal was achieved for specific timber connections, although a further development of the analysis of the reinforcement is required to make the mechanism more universally effective. By building on research previously undertaken on the reinforcement of timber connections, as well as the use of non-metallic materials for the design of timber connections, a research goal, development and experimental investigation was successfully carried out. Theoretical values have been obtained from various analytical models to validate the accuracy and quality of the experimental research. An analytical model has also been developed to attempt to quantify the effectiveness of connection reinforcement, although it requires development in order to be effective. The Principal finding of the research along with recommendations for development of this thesis are summarised below. 6.2 Conclusions

6.2.1 Reinforcement characteristics The embedded DVW strip reinforcements provided an increase in connection capacity of up to 95% for the reduced end distance connections, causing an overall an overall connection capacity nearly equivalent to that of a non-reinforced 5d end distance connections. This is also significantly larger than the 58% increase in capacity of connections through CFRP wrapping observed by Yang and Smith (2010). The distance between the reinforcement and the end distance of a connection held no bearing on the effectiveness of the reinforcement. This reinforcement design proved ineffective in 5d end distance connections, and led to a capacity reduction in perpendicular to the grain timber connections. 6.2.3 Connection fabrication The near surface mounting of the DVW strips was very simple, and could be easily introduced into in service timber connections. 6.2.4 Connection testing The reinforcement lead to an increase in the effective shear perimeter of the reduced end distance connections, increasing the ductility of the connection during shear plug failure. The 5d end distance connections failed instantaneously post yield through tensile splitting failure of the timber. In this case the reinforcement strips also failed in tension at the ultimate load. The perpendicular to the grain connection reinforcement caused an obstruction to the longitudinal tensile splitting failure mode. 6.2.5 Strength modelling The yield strength and tensile splitting capacities of the parallel and perpendicular to the grain connections were calculated using EYM models, and compared to the experimental values obtained. The theoretical capacity of parallel to the grain connections was determined using shear plug failure analysis, to determine the effectiveness of reinforcement in reduced end
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distance connections. This provided the validation of the increased connection capacity and ductile failure mode achieved. An additional model was developed to determine the effectiveness of the increase I connection tensile splitting capacity provided by the reinforcement. Although unsuccessful, the model did provide a foundation onto which a successful analytical model can be built by introducing the influence of fracture behaviour of timber. 6.3 Discussion and further work

This thesis provides the platform for the development of an original timber connection reinforcement method. This section discusses the reinforcement design developments considered to have the highest influence on the increase of connection capacity for both parallel and perpendicular to the grain connections. The development of this reinforcement design to provide a reduced end distance connection with a capacity equivalent to a 5d end distance connection should be investigated. By experimenting with different ratios of volume of embedded reinforcement to timber within a connection, ultimate reinforcement geometry could be established. Theoretically an increase ratio of reinforcement depth to timber depth would lead to a larger effective shear perimeter, and therefore a higher connection capacity (Section 5). An investigation into using greater reinforcement geometry or a reinforcement material with a greater tensile strength than DVW could prove that these developments increase the capacity parallel to the grain 5d end distance connections, since in this case the reinforcement failed in tension simultaneously with the timber. Analysis of fracture failure of the perpendicular to the grain connections led to the conclusion that the introduction of reinforcement effectively reduced the shear plane of the split, reducing the overall connection capacity. The inside face of the timber members experienced higher dowel loading due to slight dowel yielding as described in Chapter 5. An investigation could be carried out to discover if by near surface mounting the reinforcement to the inside face of the timber, the crack is in fact obstructed from where it originates. Routing the embedment slots on the inside face would however be hugely impractical on a manufacturing scale. Figure 6.1 illustrates a more practical solution to this reinforcement mechanism, adopted from the method of near surface mounting of steel rods into concrete beams.

Figure 6-1: Perpendicular to the grain connection reinforced on inside face by near surface mounted rods

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The use of more effective bonding agents to embed the reinforcement strips could be investigated, since the reinforcement strips that failed in net tension under dowel loading at a reduced end distance experience debonding. Research at the University of Bath into the use of epoxy adhesives for in situ timber bonding has proven that the fracture toughness of a connection can be increased by modifying the adhesives with modified with nano- and microparticles (Haller, 2011). As previously discussed, the development of the connection tensile strength model in Chapter 5 could lead to an effective method of determining the influence of reinforcements of different geometries and material properties. To do so, the addition of a function for the fracture toughness of the timber within a connection would have to be introduced.

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References
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Jung, K. (2008). Development of joint system using compressed wood fasteners. Proceedings of 10th World Conference on Timber Engineering Larsen, H. (1973). The yield load of bolted and nailed joints. Proceedings of International Union of Forest Research. Leijten, A. (1993). Densified veneer: An alternative to steel plate timber joints. Structural Engineering International, 3:181-183 Leijten, A. (1998) Densified veneer wood reinforced timber joints with expanded tube fasteners. Phd thesis, DTU Leitjen, A. , Van der put, T. (2004). Splitting strength of beams loaded perpendicular to the grain by connections. Proceedings of the World Conference on Timber Engineering, Lahti, Finland. Quennville, P. (2009). Bolted timber connecitons. The Structural Engineer, 87 (17): 19-20 Quennville, P., Mohammad, M. (2000). On the failure modes and strength of steel- woodsteel bolted timber connecitons loaded parallel to grain. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 28 (6): 949-959 Thomson, A. (2010). The Structural Performance of Non-metallic Timber Connections. Thesis (Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)). University of Bath. Van der put, T., Leijten, A. (2000). Evaulation of perpendicular to grain failure of beams caused by concentrated load of joints. Proceedings of CIB/W18, 33- 77. Wilkinson, T.L. (1991). Dowel Bearing strength. Forest Products Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture, Research Paper FPL-RP-505. Yang, J.Q., Smith, S.T. (2010). An experimental investigation on strengthening single-bolted timber joints with externally bonded CFRP composites. PhD Thesis. The University of Hong Kong

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