International Baccalaureate Physics SL Quantum and Nuclear Physics Option B

For examinations in 2009 Introduction

Welcome to the International Baccalaureate Physics guide to the Quantum and Nuclear Option. I hope you, the reader will not find atomic physics a Bohr, electron emission too photo-electrifying, that your understanding wont decay with time and you wont become unstuck with gluons and quarks. Anyway, the author has spent 28 years teaching, 18 of which have been with IB physics in international schools. The author studied astronomy at University College London, including quantum and nuclear physics. This guide is not a textbook, as it does not cover every syllabus statement in detail. Its aim is to support the textbook and the notes made in class. This is achieved by summarising the key points, some two dozen worked examples, each followed by similar problems (with answers on proceeding page). Also, there are several hands-on tasks, allowing students to improve their graphing and labelling skills, a list of the commonest mistakes in the exam and finally some two dozen questions, all with answers and clues how to work them out. For high level students, this option is identical to the high level topic 13 and can also be of help in that area. Have a calculator at hand, plus data booklet, pencil, ruler, protractor, compass and eraser to fill in the spaces, rub out and try again at a later date. I would like to thank Jacek Latkowski and Arthur Kattavenos for kindly proofreading the manuscript and ex-students for letting me use them as guinea pigs for the booklet. I would greatly value any feedback on this revision guide so that later editions can continue to help students round the world. Please feel free to email me at Oxford Study Courses-(osc@osc-ib.com). Hugh Duncan

Contents
Topic 1. Quantum physics 1a. The photoelectric effect. 1b. The photon. 1c. Millikans experiment. 1d. Problem solving. 1e. The wave nature of matter. 1f. The electron diffraction experiment. 1g. Solving matter wave problems. 1h. Atomic spectra and atomic energy states. 1i. Spectra as evidence for quanta. 1j. Calculating wavelength form energy levels. 1k. Electron in a box. 1l. The Schrdinger model. 1m. Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle. 2. Nuclear physics 2a. The nucleus. 2b. The mass spectrometer. 2c. Evidence for nuclear energy levels. 2d. Beta decay and the neutrino. 2e. The decay constant. 2f. Half life. 2g. Decay problems. 2h. Measuring short and long half lives. 3. Common exam mistakes 4. Questions 5. Answers Sub topic page 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 11 12 13 14 16 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 21 24 25 27

Option B Quantum and Nuclear Physics 1. Quantum Physics

1a. The photoelectric effect -the photoelectric effect is the release of electrons from a metal surface by sufficiently energetic light waves. Such electrons are called photoelectrons. -consider a clean zinc plate on a negative gold leaf electroscope (GLE). -if UV light is shone on the zinc, the GLE discharges: electrons escape. -this does not happen if the charge is +ve. zinc -it discharges even if the uv source is weak UV or a long way away. GLE -it does not happen if visible light is used, even if the intensity is increased. -it starts to happen within 10-10 s of the light arriving -the number of electrons escaping depends on the intensity, not the wavelength. -the KE of escaping electrons increases with the frequency of light, not intensity. -electrons escape from other metals using different wavelengths. -they escape from sodium with orange light, from potassium with red light. Key points: the photoelectric effect is the release of electrons from a metal surface by energetic enough light. 1b. The photon -the wave theory of light can explain most of these observations. However: -an electron should be able to escape with low energy light if it was a wave, it would just take more time to accumulate enough incoming wave energy. -if light was a wave, higher intensity means a greater amplitude so an electron should escape with more kinetic energy, but it does not. -as electrons escape instantaneously and only with light of a high enough frequency, and KE independent of intensity, the wave theory is incomplete. -Planck suggested that light is made up of small packets of energy called photons, the energy depending on the frequency of light. -if E is the energy in Joules J and f the frequency in Hertz (Hz), then E = hf -where h is Plancks constant at 6.63 x 10-34 Js. -as an example, green light has a wavelength of = 5.0 x 10-7 m and the speed of light is c = 3.0 x 108 ms-1. The frequency is given by c = f . f = 6.0 x 1014 Hz, so the energy of a green photon is E = hf = 4.0 x 10-19 J -at such low energies a new unit of energy is used, the electron volt (eV) -1eV is the energy change when an electron moves through 1 volt. -from work done = charge x voltage, W = eV so in this case -1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J -19 -19 -for the green photon above, its energy is 4 x 10 / 1.6 x 10 = 2.5eV Task 1: a blue lamp, wavelength 420nm has a power output of 60W. What is the energy of one photon and how many are created every second?

-for an electron to escape a metal surface it must have enough energy to overcome the attraction due to the positive charges left behind. -this energy is called the work function, , and is different for each metal. -when an electron absorbs a photon, its energy increases by E = hf. -some energy is used to overcome the work function . -any energy left will appear as kinetic energy of the electron = mv. -in words; kinetic energy of the electron = photon energy work function -as a formula; mv = hf - -NOTE the process is a one-to-one interaction. One photon-one electron. -an electron can only absorb one photon, not two or part of a photon. -eg light of wavelength 600nm falls onto a magnesium surface of work function 1.25eV. With what velocity do the photoelectrons leave the surface? E = hf = hc/ =6.63 x 10-34 x 3 x 108 / 6 x 10-7 = 3.3 x 10-19 J =1.25eV = 2.0 x 10
-19

J so using EK = mv = hf -

mv = 3.3 x 10-19 - 2.0 x 10-19 = 1.3 x 10-19 J so v = (2x1.3 x 10-19 / 9.1 x 10-31) = 5.4 x 105 ms-1 Task 2: electrons leave a zinc surface with a velocity of 2.0 x 10 ms using uv light of wavelength 300nm. What is the work function in eV?
5 -1

Key points: light is made up of quanta of energy called photons. Light as a wave cannot explain the photoelectric effect, but as particles (photons) it can. Task 1 ans: 4.7 x 10-19 J, 1.3 x 1020 photons. NB put wavelength in metres.

1c. Millikans experiment -electrons escape from a metal if the frequency of light is sufficient. prism light phototube
mA

results of Einsteins exp eV =h V 0 f0 f

-a phototube contains a curved electrode coated in a specific metal. -opposite is a point electrode and both are contained in a vacuum tube. -if suitable light reaches the curved plate, photoelectrons escape. -they move to the anode and a very small current is detected. -this is called the photoelectric current. -if a large enough reverse voltage is put across the phototube, it can stop the electrons from arriving. This is called the stopping potential Vs. -the KE of the escaping electron is turned into electrical potential energy. eVs = mv -using the previous equation mv = hf - eVs = hf - . -a photon of just the right energy can overcome the work function. -the frequency of this photon is called the threshold frequency f0. -in this case eVs = 0, so hf0 = . -by varying the wavelength of light, the stopping potential can be found. -the voltage is varied until the photoelectric current drops to zero. -a graph of energy eV against f gives a straight line, the gradient being h. -the x-intercept is the threshold frequency f0 and the y-intercept . -for all materials the gradient is constant at h. -different metals have different threshold frequencies and work functions. Key points -stopping potential (Vs) is the voltage needed to stop photoelectrons escaping. -on an energy-frequency graph the y intercept is the work function (). -all metals have the same gradient, that of Planks constant h.

1d. Problem solving -eg 1.6V is needed to stop photoelectrons escaping from barium of work function 1.2V. What is the wavelength of light used? eVs = hf - , so 1.6 = hf 1.2 so hf = 2.8eV = 4.5 x 10
-19

as .= c/f and E = hf so f = E/h so .= hc /E = 440nm. Task 2 ans: 4.0eV

Task 3: red light of wavelength 650nm shines on calcium of work function 0.80eV. What is the stopping potential?

Task 4: in the table on page 6 use c = f to complete the frequency column. -then use E = eV to complete the energy column. -plot a graph of eV against f in the box to the right. find the gradient (h), the x-intercept (f0) and the y-intercept (). 8 -1 -19 -note c = 3.0 x 10 ms and e = 1.6 x 10 C.

Vs/V 0.10 0.30 0.70 0.90 1.20 1.50

/nm 660 590 530 480 440 410

eV/J

f/Hz

Task 3 ans: 1.1V

Task box 5: so you think you know about the true nature of light. Fill in the spaces below then check back to see if you were right. The escape of electrons from a metal surface using light is the (1) effect. They are called (2) electrons. The work done in moving an electron through 1 volt is the (3). Light consists of packets of energy called (4). The energy is proportional to the lights (5). The energy needed to escape a metal is the (6). The minimum frequency of light that releases electrons from a metal is the (7) frequency. The voltage needed to stop electrons escaping is the (8). A (9) contains light sensitive electrodes in a vacuum.

Task box 5 1. _______ 2. _______ 3. _______ _________ 4. _______ 5. _______ 6. _______ _________ 7. _______ 8. _______ _________ 9. _______

1e. The wave nature of matter -the photoelectric effect showed that light can behave as a particle. -such effects as interference and diffraction show light as a wave. -that light is both a wave and particle is called wave-particle duality. -de Broglie pointed out that there is symmetry in the universe. -he proposed that if light is both a wave and particle, then perhaps matter can also show wave properties as well as particle properties. -the wave behaviour of matter is called matter waves. -de Broglie proposed that there is a wave associated with a moving particle, whose wavelength decreases with mass m and velocity v. = h/mv or = h/p note: p = mv
-34

-p is the momentum of the particle and h Plancks constant = 6.6 x 10 Js. -consider a tennis ball of mass 0.1kg moving at 10 ms-1. -its wavelength is = h/mv = 6.6 x 10-34/ 0.1 x 10 = 6.6 x 10-34m. -this is a very small wavelength! -wave effects like diffraction are only noticeable when the gap though which the waves pass is of the order of the size of the wavelength. -to see the diffraction of tennis balls, they would have to pass through a slit 6.6 x 10-34 m wide and being about 8cm across this is impossible! -the wave nature of matter can only be seen with small particles. -31 6 -1 -take an electron mass 9.1 x 10 kg moving at 2 x 10 ms . -34 -31 6 -10 -the wavelength is = 6.6 x 10 / (9.1 x 10 x 2 x 10 ) = 3.6 x 10 m -diffraction of electrons happens as atomic spacing in a crystal is of this size. Task 6: a neutron has a mass 1.67 x 10 kg. If it was to diffract in a crystal like the electron above what would be its velocity?
-27

Task 4 ans : h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js 14 f0 = 4.3 x 10 Hz -19 = 3.2 x 10 J (NB +/- 10%) Key points -matter particles have wave properties and can be diffracted. -the associated wavelength is inversely related to the particles momentum. -such phenomena can only be observed with particles at the atomic level. -for everyday objects the wavelength is far too small for diffraction to be observed. 1f. The electron diffraction experiment

Task 5 Answers 1. photoelectric 2. photo 3. electronvolt 4. photons 5. frequency 6. work function 7. threshold 8. stopping potential 9. phototube

-thermionic electrons are produced from a hot cathode wire. -they are accelerated down a cathode tube by a high positive voltage. -the electrons encounter a thin graphite crystal and diffract (see below). -diffraction rings are seen on the screen, whose radii reduce with voltage. hot graphite cathode wire anode 6V ac screen x atom

close up of crystal

vacuum tube high voltage D diffraction rings important triangle -the electron gains KE from the voltage V -the EK gained by moving through a pd is eV so mv = eV multiply by 2m mv = 2meV -as = h/mv, square this one = h / mv now equate both = h / 2meV and square rooting = h / (2meV) -for example a typical accelerating voltage is 3000V. -with m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg and e = 1.6 x 10-19 C the electron wavelength is = h / (2meV) = 6.6 x 10-34 / (2 x 9.1 x 10-31 x 1.6 x 10-19 x 3000) -11 = 2.2 x 10 m. -for constructive interference there must be an integer number of waves along the two triangles n in the crystal diagram, so n/2 along one. n = 2d sin -this is known as Braggs law and is also applied to x-rays. d

-as = 2 and can be found from the triangle tan = x/D, the wavelength of the electrons can be found. -11 -take the example above where = 2.2 x 10 m for the electrons and n = 1. -10 -if the lattice spacing d for graphite is 1.6 x 10 m then is given by -11 n = 2d sin sin = /2d = 4 x 10 / 2 x 1.6 x 10-10 sin = 4/32 = 0.045 so = 4.0 so = 8.0 -there are in fact two rings due to the hexagonal structure of graphite, the hexagons having two different spacings. Task 6 ans: about 1100 ms
-1

Key points: electrons can be diffracted by a thin graphite layer in a cathode tube. -this is because moving electrons behave as waves whose length is similar to crystal atomic spacings. 1g Solving matter wave problems Example 1-a proton has a diameter of 1.0 x 10 m and a mass 1.67 x 10 kg. What velocity will it need in order to have a wavelength equal to its own diameter? =1.0 x 10-15 m = h/mv so -34 -15 -27 v = 6.63 x 10 /1.0 x 10 x 1.67 x 10 8 -1 v = 3.97 x 10 ms this is greater than the speed of light, so the calculation would need to be done again taking into account relativity. Example 2-a muon has an electrons charge but 208 times the mass. What wavelength will it have when accelerated through a voltage of 25kV? -with m = 209 x 9.1 x 10-31 kg and e = 1.6 x 10-19 C the muon wavelength = h / (2meV) = 6.6 x 10-34 / (2 x 209 x 9.1 x 10-31 x 1.6 x 10-19 x25000) = 5.4 x 10-13 m. Task 7: what voltage is needed to give protons the same wavelength as the muon above (assuming protons can be accelerated the same way)? Task box 8: well, have you accepted that particles are not what you thought they were? Fill in the spaces below and check back to see if you have taken on this odd concept. (1) has wave and particle properties, so does matter. It is called (2). The idea of (3) waves was proposed by (4). The wavelength decreases with (5) and (6) . Particles can be (7) if the gap is about the size of the (8). Such effects can only easily be observed with particles such as (9), (10) and (11) by using a crystal. Electrons are boiled off a hot cathode wire by (12) emission, accelerated by a high voltage and pass through the crystal to form (13) on the screen. (14) law allows us to calculate the (15) through the crystal. Task box 8 1. _______ 2. _______ _________ 3. _______ 4. __ ____ 5. _______ 6. _______ 7. _______ 8. _______ 9. _______ 10. ______ 11. ______ 12. ______ 13. ______ 14. ______ 15. ______
-15 -27

1h. Atomic spectra and atomic energy states Observing atomic spectra -light from a hot wire bulb is observed through a prism or diffraction grating. -a complete spectrum is seen, called a continuous emission spectrum. -a discharge tube contains a gaseous element at low pressure. -a high voltage is applied (e.g. 5kV), it glows and the spectrum is observed. -the spectrum is not continuous, but contains discrete emission lines. -these lines depend only on the element in the discharge tube. -if a continuous spectrum is shone through a discharge tube that is not connected to 5kV, dark lines appear in the continuous spectrum. -this is called an absorption line spectrum. -all three spectra are shown below, including intensity(I)-wavelength graphs. continuous spectrum emission line spectrum absorption spectrum

I I wavelength I wavelength wavelength

Key points -gases at low pressure when excited give out emission line spectra. -when a continuous spectrum shines through a low pressure gas an absorptions spectrum is created. -all other materials when excited give out continuous emission spectra.

Task 7 ans: 1.6V 1i. Spectra as evidence for quanta -the same element always gives the same emission line spectrum. -this suggests that atoms can only have certain amounts of energy. -in the case of the spectrum from hydrogen, the lines follow a geometrical progression, also suggesting that energy in atoms is quantized. The Bohr model -in the Bohr model of the atom, there are two important postulates -first, electrons can only exist in orbits where the angular momentum is an integer multiple of h/2 which is written as . h is Plancks constant. -electrons can jump between orbits by absorbing or emitting radiation. -normally a free charge that accelerates will radiate its energy away.
Task box 8 Answers 1. Light. 2. matter waves. 3. matter. 4. de Broglie. 5. 6. mass and velocity. 7. diffracted. 8. wavelength. 9. 10. 11. protons, neutrons, electrons. 12. thermionic. 13. rings. 14. Braggs. 15. path.

-an electron in a circular orbit is accelerating so should lose energy. -however a bound electron behaves differently to a free electron. -the electron can be treated as a wave in an atom. -if an integer of waves fit in an orbit, the electron becomes a standing wave. -in standing waves, no energy is transported so none can be lost. -a wave on a string is a standing wave, shown in the diagram below right. -e.g. consider an electron as complete waves in an orbit. -an ac signal shown on an oscilloscope is a good image. -a metal ring when struck sets up standing waves, similar to that of a musical triangle. The picture below left shows an orbiting electron of four waves. electron orbit with four waves standing waves on strings

picturing an electron as a standing wave in an orbit.

-the diagram above left shows an electron in an orbit as a standing wave. -this orbit shows the electron as four complete waves. -as there needs to be an integer No. of waves, one wave is the simplest. -the next simplest is two, then three, and so on. -if the orbits are flattened out again, they can be shown as below left. electrons as standing waves n=4 n=3 energy levels n=4 n=3 e E3 E2

n=2 n=2 n=1 n=1

e e

E1

e ground state

E0

-the lowest orbit where n =1 is called the ground state with energy E0. -if the electron is in a higher orbit, it is called an excited state. -an electron can jump to a higher state by absorbing a photon. -it can only absorb a photon if the energy difference between states is equal to the photons energy. -e.g. an electron is in the second orbit E1 and jumps to the third orbit E2 by absorbing a photon. -the energy of the photon E must be the difference in the two energy levels. -thus E = E2 E1. -electrons can also jump to higher levels via collisions or high voltages.

10

-when an electron falls to a lower level, it emits a photon. -an electron falls from the second level E1 to the ground state E0, the energy of the photon E = E1 E0. -all the energy states of an electron in an atom are negative and take only certain values. -the energy of a free electron is always positive and can have any value. -this topic is dealt with in more detail later. Limits of the Bohr model -the main limitation of the Bohr model is that it only works with one electron. -this is fine for the hydrogen atom where there is only one atom. -it can work for helium that has lost one of its two electrons (singly ionised). -it can work for lithium that is doubly ionised and so on. -most atoms have many electrons, so it does not work in most cases. -similarly it only works for atoms not molecules and has the limitation of circular orbits for the electrons. Key points -in the Bohr model of the atom electrons can only exist with certain energies. -electrons move between levels by absorbing or emitting radiation. -Bohrs model only works for single electron atoms.

1j. Calculating wavelengths from energy levels -ionisation energy is the energy needed to free an electron from an atom. -if a bound electron absorbs a photon with greater than the ionisation energy, the electron will carry off the remaining energy as kinetic. -if a photon does not have enough energy to raise an electron to the next state, it will not be absorbed. -an electron will not absorb two different photons in order to raise its state, it will only absorb one if it has the exact amount to take it to a higher state. -similarly an electron when falling to a lower state will not give out two separate photons, only one, equal to the energy jump. -if a photon has enough energy to raise an electron above the next level, but not enough to the one above that, it will not be absorbed. It is all or nothing. -consider this atom below left: 0eV -2.5 -3.4 -6.9 -10.0 4 3 2 1 0eV -2.5 -3.4 -6.9 -10.0 4 3 2 1

-suppose a photon of 3.1eV arrives, can it absorbed? Yes if there is an electron in the lowest state as 10 + 3.1 = -6.9eV. See diagram above right. -will an electron in level 2 absorb a 3.4eV photon? No as it needs at least 6.9-3.4 = 3.5eV to reach the next level. -will an electron in level 2 absorb a 3.6eV photon? No as that is too much to reach level 3 (3.5eV) and too little to reach level 4 (6.9-2.5 = 4.4eV). -what will happen to an electron in level 2 if a 7.9eV photon arrives? -this is greater than the energy needed to release the electron so the photon will be absorbed, 6.9eV will be used to free the electron leaving the electron -19 with 7.9-6.9 = 1eV of kinetic energy. This is 1.6 x 10 J. Using EK = mv -31 and the electron mass 9.1 x 10 kg, the electrons velocity can be found:

11

v = (2EK /m) = (2x1.6 x 10 / 9.1 x 10 ) v = (3.5 x 1011) = 5.4 x 105 ms-1 Task 10: an electron in the ground state of the atom above absorbs a photon of wavelength 8.0 x 10-8 m. What is its velocity? -consider the following energy levels in an atom 0eV -1 -3 -9 4 3 2

-19

-31

-27

Task 11: list all the possible allowed jumps. Convert the energy from eV to J. Use E = hf to find the frequency in each case. Use c = f to find the wavelength. Identify from which part of the spectrum these photons come from. NB visible is from 400nm to 750nm.

1k. Electron in a box model -atomic energy levels (and hence discrete spectral lines) can be explained more fully by a simple model called the electron in a box model. -suppose an electron in an atom can only move in one dimension. -as a moving electron has a wave associated with it, then the electron can be considered as a string between two fixed points, similar to a guitar string. -when plucked it must have nodes at the ends. A standing wave is set up. -antinodes must occur between these nodes. -this makes half a wavelength between the ends. See the diagram below -if L is the length of the string then the simplest wavelength 0 = 2L. -the next simplest 1 will be two half wave lengths, hence 2L/2 or L. -if n is an integer, the wavelength of a standing waves must be equal to 2L/n -as = h /mv and n = 2L/n then h/mv = 2L/n making mv the subject n=3 mv = nh/2L square both sides n=2 mv = nh/4L multiply by half and dividing by m n=1 mv = nh/8mL this gives the kinetic energy of the electron in a box: the circumference L = 2r 1 = 2L 2 = L electron in a box L 3 = 3L/2

12

so this becomes EK = mv = nh/8m(2r) -combining this equation with its potential energy gives the total energy. -the potential energy also depends on an integer squared so the total energy of the electron will also depend on an integer squared. -as the electrons can only exist with these discrete energies, and can jump from one level to another, then for a given element, the electrons all have the same energy jumps and hence the same wavelengths in their spectra. -using the above equations, the calculated energies in a hydrogen atom match up with those found by experiment. Key points : -the origin of atomic energy levels can be explained by the electron in a box model. -if an electron is confined to a box, it will become a standing wave whose energy is a multiple of a positive integer.

1l. The Schrdinger model -the Schrdinger model extends the Bohr model of the atom. -the wave associated with particles is a probability wave. -the height of the wave gives the chance of finding the particle there. -the simplest model is to imagine that the position of an electron is decided by the throw of a pair of dice. The number on the dice gives the position. -for example, a four and six are thrown, so the electron is found at ten. -in our model an electron can be found between 2 and 12. -the most likely position is of course 7. The chance is 6/36. -the dice version of the probability wave is shown below left. probability/36 6 bound electrons probability wave prob Most likely radius dist

12 position

-the real probability wave for an electron is more complex than this and is represented by (psi). -the simplest is shown above right. -an electron can no longer be pictured as a point particle whose position in time and space is perfectly known, nor is it just a wave along the orbit. -electrons in an atom can move in three dimensions, hence the wave function is spread out in 3 dimensions. -instead of a small particle, an electron is pictured as a cloud, the density of the cloud indicating the most likely place to find the electron. -consider the blur of a spinning fan blade. It is as if the blade is spread out thinly round its circular path, hence becoming see-through and likely to be found equally anywhere along its path. -using Schrdingers wave function, the most likely positions for an electron coincide with the radii of the orbits in the Bohr model.

13

Key points -in the Schrdinger model electron position is decided by a probability wave . -it is spread out in three dimensions. -the most likely electron positions coincide with Bohrs energy levels. Task box 12 Task box 12: lets look back inside an atom and see how much you took in. Fill in the spaces and check; a hot body such as a filament lamp gives out a (1) spectrum. A hot gas at low pressure gives out a (2) spectrum. If white light is shone through a cold gas, an (3) is seen. The (4) model of the atoms states that electrons can only exist in orbits with a certain amounts of (5) and when an electron jumps between orbits, energy is exchanged in the form of (6). The (7) model modified this so that the position of the electron was decided by a (8) wave. An electron in the lowest orbit is in the (9) state, higher orbits, an (10) state. The energy for an electron to escape an atom is the (11) energy. 1. __________ ____________ 2. __________ ____________ 3. __________ ____________ 4. __________ 5. __________ ____________ 6. __________ 7. __________ 8. __________ 9. __________ 10. _________ 11. _________

1m. Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle -Heisenberg showed that there is a limit on the accuracy possible when measuring two aspects of a particle. -suppose a particles energy is needed at a specific instant. -as a moving particle is also a wave (i.e. spread out), it takes time for all the energy to arrive. -so either the energy is known accurately but the time is not, or the time is known accurately but the energy is not. -Heisenbergs Principle states that the product of the error in energy E and error in time t can never be smaller than h/4: Task 10 Ans: 2.3 x 10 ms
6 -1

Task 11 answer: 18, 24, 26, 6, 8, 2eV, all from the UV except the 2eV which is orange.

E.t

h 4

-this principle can also be applied to creating particles out of nothing! -energy can come into existence as long as it disappears in a very short time. -the larger the amount of energy, the shorter the time it can exist. -a particle of a certain rest mass (and therefore energy E) can come into existence for a period of time t before it disappears, as long as the product E.t is greater than h/4. -put simply, a very light particle can exist for a longer period than a heavy particle, before it disappears. -as an example, suppose an electron was to be created out of nothing. -for how long could it exist before disappearing?

14

-use the formula E.t h/4 then rearrange to make time the subject t = h / E.4 -for an electron E = 511keV, turn this into joules 511 000 x 1.6 x 10
-19

Task 12 answers
1. continuous emission. 2. emission line. 3. absorption spectrum. 4. Bohr. 5. angular momentum. 6. radiation 7. Schrodinger. 8. probability. 9. ground. 10.excited. 11. ionisation.

= 8.18 x 10

-14

and h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js t = 6.63 x 10 /(8.18 x 10 t ~ 6 x 10-22s -this is clearly a very short period of time. If the electron had even a high velocity (which would mean more energy and even less time!), e.g. close to the speed of light 3.0 x 8 -1 10 ms (but ignoring relativity), it would not travel far -13 before disappearing: about 2x10 m, which is barely a fraction the distance across an atom!
-34 -14

x 4)

Note: the Uncertainty Principle can also be applied to the momentum and position of a particle. If the uncertainty in the momentum is mv and the uncertainty in position is r then mv. r

h 4

-this variation of the Principle is useful when finding how far a short half-life particle will travel before it decays, r being the range and the velocity is taken as the speed of light c. (See later). Key points -two aspects of a particle cannot be both known with perfect accuracy. -this is Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle. -this is a consequence of quantum mechanics.

15

2 Nuclear physics
2a. The nucleus Rutherfords Scattering Experiment -alpha particles from a radioactive source are fired at a very thin gold foil. -this occurs in a vacuum and the scattered particles hit a fluorescent screen to be observed by a microscope. -most alphas pass through undeflected or with small deflection, but a few (1 in 10 000) bounce back! Rutherford scattering atom gold foil va vacuum screen alpha particles alpha source nucleus

microscope

-if positive and negative charges were evenly spread inside an atom, there would be very little scattering, certainly not through very large angles. -it is concluded from this experiment that atoms contain almost all the mass and all the positive charge in a small central space called the nucleus. -a cloud of negative electrons located in energy levels outside the nucleus. -as about 1 in 10 000 alpha particles are turned back, it is concluded that the nucleus takes up about 1/10000 the size of the atom. -a typical atom has a diameter 10-10 m so the diameter of the nucleus is of the order of 10-14 m. -this size of the nucleus is supported by considering the law of conservation of energy for a head-on collision between an alpha particle and a gold nucleus in order to find the closest approach. -an alpha particle of mass m has a velocity of v and charge q. -it has energy of motion EK = mv -when it approaches the nucleus of a gold atom, of charge Q, its energy of motion becomes electrical potential energy EP. -the potential energy stored in an electrical field is given by EP = kQq/r -where k is the electrostatic constant = 1/40, and r is the distance, which in this case is the closest approach (0 = permeability of free space). See diagram below. -due to conservation, EK = EP so mv = kQq/r -rearranging to find r r = 2kQq/mv 7 -1 -a typical alpha particle travels at 5% the speed of light, v = 1.5 x 10 ms . -26 9 -2 -its mass m = 6.4 x 10 kg and k = 9.0 x 10 .NmC -a gold nucleus has a charge Q = 80e = 80 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 1.28 x 10-17 C -19 -an alpha particle has a charge q = 2e = 3.2 x 10 C so 9 -19 -17 -26 7 r = 2 x 9.0 x 10 x 3.2 x 10 x 1.28 x 10 / 6.4 x 10 x (1.5 x 10 ) -15 r = 5.1 x 10 m

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alpha particle scattering m v

nucleus gold

alpha particle

Task 13: an alpha particle with a kinetic energy of 500keV and has a head on collision with a nitrogen atom of charge 7e. If the radius of a -15 nitrogen nucleus is 8.0 x 10 m, what does the closest approach distance suggest? Key points -the mass of nuclei is measured using a mass spectrometer. -the nuclear mass values provide evidence for isotopes. 2b. The mass spectrometer -an accurate value of atomic masses is found with a mass spectrometer. -atoms of an element are put in a gaseous form in a discharge tube. -a voltage is put across the tube and via collisions the atoms become ions. -some ions enter a tube where there are crossed perpendicular electric and magnetic fields. Only ions of a specific velocity pass through undeflected. -these ions enter a second chamber with a vertical magnetic field. -these ions are deflected in circular paths, the radius r of which depends on their charge q, mass m, velocity v and field strength B via the formula r = mv/qB. (this comes from centripetal force F = mv/r and F = Bqv) -as charge, field and velocity are constant the radius depends only on the mass. the larger the mass, the larger the radius: r m -the ions move in circles until they hit a photographic sheet. -the more intense the image the greater the number of atoms with that mass. -for a given element, several lines appear on the photo at integer intervals. -this is evidence for the existence of isotopes of an element. -the position of the lines on the photograph gives the mass -the intensity of the lines gives the percentage of each isotope the mass spectrometer photograph

discharge tube ionising voltage

chamber with B field crossed fields (velocity selector)

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photographic results of a mass spectrometer 102 105 106 110 111 114 (mass)

-a photograph from a mass spectrometer is shown above. -each line corresponds to an isotope of the element. Intensity-mass graph of a mass Int spectrometer

102

105 106

110 111

114 mass

-an intensity-mass plot from a mass spectrometer is shown above. -the size of each peak indicates the amount of each isotope in the element. -as an example, chlorine has two main isotopes, 75% being mass 35, 25% being mass 37. The mean mass is (35 x 75/100) + (37 x 25/100) = 35.5 -this is why chlorine is given a mass of 35.5 in periodic tables. Key points -the mass of nuclei is measured using a mass spectrometer. -the nuclear mass values provide evidence for isotopes. Task 13 ans: the alpha particle enters the nucleus! In this case, the interaction releases a proton and an oxygen atom is created. 2c. Evidence for nuclear energy levels -alpha particles and gamma rays have specific energies for a given nucleus. -this suggests there are energy levels in the nucleus of an atom. -with this and other evidence the nucleus fits the following model: -the nucleus of an atom behaves as if it has energy levels. -these energy levels are similar to electron levels in an atom -each level can contain two protons and two neutrons maximum. -most energy levels are below zero (i.e. have negative) potential energy. -in some atoms there are positive energy levels. -beyond the radius of the nucleus, there is the normal coulomb field. -if a shell of two protons and two neutrons (i.e. a soon-to-be alpha particle) is in a level above zero, it is possible for them to escape the nucleus. -this is due to the alphas probability wave extending outside the nucleus. -the potential energy they have above zero becomes kinetic energy. -the alpha particle leaves the nucleus at a high velocity. -as the nuclear particles can only exist at specific levels, they can only leave with specific energies. -if a proton or neutron is in a level above an empty level, it can fall down. -as it falls, the energy lost by lowering its potential becomes a gamma ray. -as nucleons can only exist at certain levels, gamma rays will have very specific values (nucleons are protons and neutrons).

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production of and -rays KE

or -ray energy spectrum

PE Int discrete lines zero energy level gamma ray PE E = hf energy

Key points -protons and neutrons can only exist at certain energy levels in a nucleus. -they can jump to different levels by taking in/giving out specific gamma rays. -an alpha particle in a high enough level leaves a nucleus with specific energy. 2d. Beta decay and the neutrino -an isolated neutron is unstable with a half-life (see below) of about 11 mins. -it decays to a proton, electron and a neutral particle called an antineutrino. -such an electron is called a beta particle and the process beta decay. n p + e + + energy -n is a neutron, p a proton, e an electron but the symbol is also used to represent an electron produced in beta decay. is an antineutrino. beta decay -a diagram of such decay is shown. -a neutron becomes a proton, electron and antineutrino with energy. -later it will be seen that this is not the complete story. p
+ + -

proton electron

e n neutron

anti neutrino

-if an atom has too many neutrons, beta decay also occurs. -the escaping electron does not carry away all the lost nuclear energy. -the anti-neutrino carries away the rest of the energy. -the beta particles energy spectrum is continuous up to a maximum value. -the existence of the anti-neutrino accounts for the missing energy. -under certain conditions a proton can decay into a neutron, a positive electron (called a positron) and a neutrino. This is called + decay. -this happens in the centre of the sun when two protons collide and fuse to become deuterium, the heavy isotope of hydrogen: a proton and a neutron. energy + p+ n + e+ + -the neutrino and antineutrino are almost massless. They have recently been found to have a mass of 0.36eV. -neutrinos are extremely weak interacting particles and can pass through light years of lead before reacting with matter!

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electron

beta particle energy spectrum Int max energy

antineutrino neutron proton atomic nucleus energy of beta particles

Key points -a neutron decays into a proton, electron and antineutrino (- decay). -a proton can decay into a neutron, a positron and neutrino (+ decay). -a neutrino is a weakly interacting particle with no charge or mass, created in beta decay. -its anti-particle the antineutrino carries away some beta energy. 2e. The decay constant -radioactive emission, though random, follows an exponential decay law. -the rate of emission is proportional to the number of radioactive atoms. -if N is the number of atoms and dN/dt is the emission rate, then: dN/dt -N -the negative sign shows the emission is decreasing the number of atoms. -removing the proportional sign and adding a constant: dN/dt = -N - is the decay constant. It indicates what fraction of atoms decay/second. -it can be modelled on the chance of a dice throw, for example. -if there are 100 dice, there is a 1/6 chance of each rolling a six, in other words on average 1/6 of the dice will show a six. In this case about 16. -of the 84 dice left, there is still a 1/6 chance of each throwing a six. -so for dice, the decay constant is 1/6. Remember this is only a model. -if I0 is the initial amount or count rate of a radioactive sample and I is the amount left after a time t, then they are related via I = I0 e- t (mass, count rate and No. of molecules all follow this formula)

-note this comes from integrating dN/dt = -N from 0 to t and from I0 to I -a graph of count v time shows an exponential decay (see graph left) count 1 ln I grad = -
1/8

log graph

t t 2t 3t time

-taking the natural log on both sides, ln I = ln I0 - t (NB: ln is written loge) -a graph of the natural log In vs time gives a straight line (see graph right). -as y = mx + c ln I0 is the y-intercept and m the gradient is -.

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2f. Half life -the half-life of a radioactive material is the time taken for the amount to decrease to half of its original value. -the amount could be the mass left or the count rate, or number of atoms. -for example the half life of protactinium is about 72 seconds. -if there is 40g initially, then 72 seconds later there will only be 20g left. -after a further 72 seconds, there will be 10g, then 5g left after another 72sec and so on. -if there were 24 counts/sec initially then 72s later there will be 12c/s etc. -the half-life can be read from a count or mass vs time graph as above. -there is a simple relation between half-life and the decay constant. - t -taking the formula I = I0 e and making I = I0 / 2 the time becomes the half life t - t I0 / 2 = I0 e cancelling I0 and taking the natural log on both sides ln (1/2) = - t -0.693 = - t t = 0.693 / 2g. Decay problems Task 14: take the dice model as an example. 100 dice are rolled. Those that show six are removed. The remaining dice are rolled again. This is repeated five times and the results are shown in the table throw 0 1 2 3 4 5 Dice left N 100 84 70 58 48 40 loge (N) Plot a graph of N vs throws and find the half-life. Complete the loge (N) column of the graph. Plot a ln N vs throw graph and find the gradient. Find t from the decay constant and compare with the previous value.

5.0

4.0 40

Task 15: 2.0ml of a radioactive isotope, half life 15mins and count rate -1 400cs , are injected into a human to find the total volume of blood. 50 -1 mins later a 2.0ml sample of blood is taken and 0.016cs is recorded. What is the total blood volume? HARD! Clues below if needed. clues-find decay constant , cs after 50 mins, how many times smaller is 0.016 to prediction, thats how many times more blood there must be! 2h. Measuring short and long half-life -there is a different technique for measuring short or long half-lives. -a short half-life involves measurable changes in count rate (e.g. up to days). -for a short half-life, less needs to be known about the sample. -a long half-life is long compared to a human life span (e.g. years)
-1

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Short half-life Count every 20 sec For 3 mins

Long half-life m Count for 3 mins

2r Counter GM tube sample counter GM tube R

-NB b/g is short for background radiation. -in both cases the b/g is measured then subtracted from all readings. -for a short half-life sample, the count is taken at regular short intervals. -if the half-life is a minute, the count is taken every 20 sec for 3 minutes. -for a graph of count vs time, the life is read in many places and averaged. -from a ln graph of count vs time, the life is found from the decay constant. Task 16: radon is taken and the count rate measured every 20 sec for 3min. Time (s) 0 20 40 60 count 56 45 36 29 -b/g Time (s) 80 100 120 500 count 23 18 14 4 -b/g Subtract b/g, plot a graph of the corrected count and find half-life. -for a long half-life isotope, the count is found over several minutes. -the distance from source to the GM tube, R, and the tube radius r, are found. -the mass of the sample M and % composition are needed. -m is the mass of the radioactive content of the sample. -the count rate dn/dt entering the GM tube is total count/total time. -this is only a fraction of the count leaving the sample dN/dt. -the ratio (dn/dt) / (dN/dt) is equal to the ratio of the tube window area to the surface area of a sphere at that distance centred on the sample a = r A = 4R

so a/A = (dn/dt) / (dN/dt) r/4R = (dn/dt) / (dN/dt) = r/4R -N the total number of radioactive atoms using molar mass Mr -N = m /Mr x NA where NA is Avogadros number. -knowing N and dN/dt, the decay constant and half life t can be found: dN/dt = -N and t = 0.693 /

-example potassium-40 is a long half-life radioactive isotope of natural potassium and makes up 0.20% by composition. -example, a sample of potassium has a mass of 1.20g and is 5.0cm from a GM tube of window radius 1.0cm. -a count of 150 counts is found over three minutes with the source in place. -when no source is there 60 counts are measured in three minutes. -first subtract b/g then find dn/dt = 150 60 = 90 counts in 3 mins -this is dn/dt = -90 / 180 = -0.50 cs-1 -as r = 1.0cm and R = 5.0cm then r/4R = 1/4x5 = 0.01

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-so dN/dt = (dn/dt) / 0.01 = 50cs-1 -the mass m of K-40 = 0.2/100 x 1.2 = 0.0024g -the molar mass of K-40 is Mr = 40g so the number of atoms N is 23 N/NA = M/Mr N = NA M/Mr = 6x10 x 0.0024 / 40 23 N = 0.0144 / 40 = 0.00036 x 10 = 3.6 x 1019 atoms 19 -using dN/dt = -N = 50/3.6 x 10 -18 -1 = 1.39 x 10 s -18 -using t = 0.693/ = 0.693/1.39 x 10 17 10 t = 5 x 10 s = 1.6 x 10 y Task 14 Ans: about 3.7 from 1st graph, about 3.8 from 2nd graph.

Key points -radioactivity is random, but follows an exponential decay law. -the half life is the time taken to reduce to half the initial value of activity.

Task box 17 : so youve looked inside the nucleus of the atom and what have you found ? Fill in the gaps below then check back: (1) scattering of (2) particles showed that an atom contains most of the (3) and all the (4) charge in a small space, the (5). A (6) spectrometer shows the existence of (7). Alpha and gamma radiation show (8) spectra, demonstrating the existence of (9) in the (10). The energy missing in (11) decay is explained by (12), which have no (13) and are probably (14). The (15) is the time taken for a sample to fall to (16) of its initial value of activity.

Task box 17 1. ________ 2. ________ 3. ________ 4. ________ 5. ________ 6. ________ 7. ________ 8. ________ 9. ________ __________ 10. _______ 11. _______ 12. _______ 13. _______ 14. _______ 15. _______ __________ 16. _______

Task 15 answer: 5.0 litres

Task 16 answer: 53-59s

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3. Common exam mistakes

-units. No units are included or incorrect units given. WRONG. Apart from ratios, all quantities in physics have units. They can be determined from the units in the formula. For example KE = eV = CJ/C = J. -units not converted into correct form for calculation. WRONG. Energy comes in different units such as J, or kJ, MJ and in this section it is often -19 given in eV, or keV or MeV. Remember the conversion 1eV = 1.6 x 10 J. Not only that, but use metres, kg and seconds unless otherwise stated! -answers not rounded. WRONG. The final answer should be no more or less figures than the least significant quantity given in the question and remember, dont round up too soon either! -the wave theory limitations in the p.e. effect are confused. WRONG. Make sure it is clear which observations can and cannot be explained by the wave theory. Intensity independence time delay and threshold frequency cannot be explained by waves. -energy levels are reversed in atomic spectra. WRONG. Free electrons have a positive energy, so the more negative the level, the lower the level. -students cannot identify wavelengths in the visible part of the spectrum. -7 WRONG. Remember it goes from 4 to 7 x 10 m and it is important to recognise the other parts of the spectrum as well, gamma, X, UV, IR, micro and radio. Learn them! -students think electrons can absorb photons of more energy than a given jump. WRONG. This only happens if it frees the electron, otherwise the photon energy must be exactly that of an energy jump or else it will not be absorbed. -students are unable to recall how to calculate closest approach in particle scattering. WRONG. There is no easy way. Familiarise yourselves with the electrostatic potential and potential energy equations. -decay problems are impossible to do. WRONG. The commonest mistake is manipulating the negative signs with the decay constant or not using natural logs (but using log base 10 instead). Vigilance needed! -students confuse the nuclear symbols for particles. WRONG. Some have more than one symbol e.g. an electron and beta particle are the same thing e- and - (even written -10e, or -10), the helium nucleus and alpha particle He and and the proton and hydrogen nucleus H and p. Similarly positive and negative signs are omitted or reversed. Double check your working and try to find such mistakes. -in annihilation only one photon is created. WRONG. Due to conservation laws there must be two of equal energy in opposite directions. Similarly, one photon only is involved in pair production. In both cases the particles may have kinetic energy which must be part of the radiation energy. -in particles, students confuse the names of each type of particle. WRONG. Yes, there are so many names of particles, its almost as bad a biology and naming species or irregular verbs in French, but they have to be learnt and an examiner is not impressed to see incorrectly named particles like hardons, morons and bozos! And some have more than one name like gauge bosons and exchange particles (even force carriers).Learn them!
Task 17 Answers 1. Rutherfords 2. alpha. 3. mass. 4. positive. 5. nucleus. 6. mass. 7. isotopes. 8. line. 9. energy levels. 10. atom. 11. beta. 12. neutrinos. 13. charge. 14. massless. 15. half life. 16. half.

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4. Questions
1. What aspects of the photoelectric effect cannot be explained by the wave theory of light? 2. Blue light of wavelength 450nm falls on sodium of work function 2.1eV. What is the velocity of the escaping electrons? 3. Potassium has a work function of 2.0 x 10 J. If light of wavelength 4.0 x -7 10 m shines on it in a phototube, what would be the stopping potential? 4. Light from a red bulb of wavelength 560nm is focussed onto a phototube of caesium (work function 2.5eV). How many electrons escape? 5. For a phototube of lithium the following data was obtained: Wavelength /nm Vs/V 400 450 2.00 500 550 600 650 1.00
-19

Use the values given to determine the value of Plancks constant h, the work function , then fill in the missing voltages in the table. 6. A latex sphere of diameter 1.2m has a density 1200kg m-3. What is the maximum velocity it could have and still be diffracted? 7. Why is it possible to see diffraction of protons, but not footballs? 8. A neutron is diffracted through a crystal of atomic spacing 0.40nm. What is the speed of the neutron? 9. A muon has a mass 207 times that of an electron. It is unstable and decays after 2.2s. What velocity will it have if the distance it travels before decaying is equal to its wavelength? NB ignore relativity. 10. A voltage of 5200V is used to accelerate electrons in a cathode tube. What is their wavelength? 11. What are the two postulate of the Bohr model of the atom? 12. How does Schrodingers model of the atom differ from Bohrs? 13. The singly ionised helium atom has energy levels in eV given by the formula E = -54.4/n, where n is an integer. Find from which part of the spectrum the photon created comes when an electron falls form the first excited state to the ground state. Which is the first jump between consecutive levels that will create a visible photon? 14. An atom has the energy levels 9.6eV, 6.9eV, -4.6eV, -2.4eV. List all the possible photon energies created by this atom between these levels. 15. The 1 state of hydrogen is 3.4eV. A red photon of wavelength 622nm is created. What is the energy level of the 2nd excited state? 16. A 125keV alpha particle is fired at a gold nucleus (charge 80). Find the closest approach of the alpha particle. 17. What was the conclusion of the Rutherford scattering experiment?
st

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18. Why do gamma rays and alpha particles have discrete energy spectra? 19. What did the mass spectrometer give evidence for? 20. Using the intensity-mass graph on page 18 and assuming the height of the peaks gives the amount of each isotope (in arbitrary units) calculate the mean mass of the sample. 21. Why dont electrons in beta decay all have the same energy? 22. A neutron decays to a proton, electron and anti-neutrino. Ignoring relativity, what is the maximum velocity possible for the electron. 23. A shroud that contained 1.2g of C-14 now contains 1.0g. If C-14 has a half life of 5700y, how old is the shroud? 24. In a half-life exp, the following data was obtained time (s) 0 30 60 90 120 150 count (Bq) 50 30 18 11 7 4 find the half life using the graph below. Check using the formula.

25. Platinum contains a radioactive isotope with a half-life of 2.4 x 10 y. If Pt has a Mr of 222 and 0.025% of natural Pt is radioactive, what is the count rate from a 6.0g sample of Pt?

11

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5. Answers
1. Intensity does not affect KE of electrons, frequency does, theres a threshold frequency. 3 -1 -31 2. 4.7 x 10 ms . Use mv = hf - , where m = 9.1 x 10 kg, -34 -19 h = 6.63 x 10 Js and turn 2.1 eV into joules (x by 1.6 x 10 C) and find v. 3. 1.9V. Use eV = hf - . Convert the wavelength to m, then into a frequency using f = c/, c = 3 x 108 and e = 1.6 x 10-19 C. 4. None, its below the threshold frequency. 5. 6.64 x 10-34 Js, 1.65, 1.37, 1.14, 0.79V, work function 1.13eV. 6. 5 x 10-13 ms-1. Use eV = hf - . e = 1.6 x 10-19 C, h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js. 7. The wavelength of moving footballs is much smaller than their size. 8. 990ms-1. Use = h / mv, h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js, m = 1.67 x 10-27 kg -1 9. 1.3ms . Use = h / mv, then v = s/t, m = 207 x 9.1 x 10-31 kg, -11 10. 1.7 x 10 m. use = h / (2meV). 11. Electrons only exist in orbits with integer wavelengths; they jump between orbits absorbing/emitting radiation. 12. Electrons position controlled by a probability wave in three dimensions. 13. UV, between n = 3 and n = 4. Use E = -54.4/n where n = 1 then n = 2, find the difference in energy levels and use E = hf and f = c/ to find the -7 wavelength which is below 4 x 10 m, the upper limit for UV light. 14. 2.2, 2.3, 2.7, 4.5, 5.0, 7.2eV. 15. 1.4eV. Use E = hf and f = c/ and convert the energy of the photon to eV -12 16. 2.5 x 10 m. Use mv = kQq/r. 17. Most of the mass and all positive charge in the nucleus 1/10000 size of the atom, the electrons spinning round. 18. Nucleons can only exist at certain energy levels in the nucleus. 19. Isotopes. 20. 108.1. Measure the height of each peak, add them together find the total then calculate the % of each isotope. Multiply each isotopes mass by its % and the sum will give the mean mass. 21. The remaining energy is taken by anti-neutrinos. + 22. n = p + e- + 23. 1500yr. Use t = 0.693 / to find the decay constant then put in I = I0 e- t or rather the log version ln I = ln I0 - t. 24. About 40 sec. Find out when the count drops from 50 to 25 or 40 to 20 etc. -1 25. 3700cs . Use dN/dt = -N and t = 0.693 / to get the decay constant 23 (time in seconds note!) 6g is 6/222 moles of Pt 1/37 which is x 6 x 10 atoms and taking 0.025% of that gives N the number of radioactive atoms. So all thats left to do is find dN/dt. THE END

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