Hydrological Studies

17

Hydrological Studies
S.N. RAI*

National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad - 500 007 The mean annual rainfall over India is about 105 cm and exceeds the global average rainfall of 70 cm. Even then, about 80% of the Indian territories fall under semi-arid conditions. This is because of spatial and tempral distribution of rainfall, overall variabilities of monsoon, topographic variations, prevailing semi-arid to arid climatic conditions and varied nature of hydrogeology. Hydrogeologically, the Indian territories can be divided into four major groups. The first group comprises, unconsolidated formations of the Indo-Gangetic plains in the north, Thar desert in the north-west and coastal alluvium of Quaternary to Recent ages characterized with the primary inter-granular porosity. Coastal alluvium is spread along the Bay of Bengal in the east, Indian Ocean in the south and Arabian Sea in the west. The Indo-Gangetic plain is traversed by major Himalayan rivers like Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Yamuna and their tributaries. Waters flowing in these rivers are the main sources of groundwater recharge of Indo-Gangetic plain which is one of the largest repositories of groundwater in the world. The second group comprises semi-consolidated Proterozoic, Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments distributed all over the country. The third group comprises the western and central India covered by consolidated formation of basaltic Deccan Traps and covers approximately half a million km2 area. The fourth group comprises consolidated formations of granites and granitic gneisses that mostly occur in southern Indian peninsula. The weathered zones, fractures and joints serve as a potential groundwater reservoir in both consolidated geological formations. Like any other country of the world, India has also derived great socio-economic benefits by making use of water supply to meet the ever-increasing demands for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses. Consumption of water has increased manifold since the onset of green revolution in late sixties. As a result, scarcity of water supply and deterioration of water quality is seen in many parts of the country. To cope up with such problems, it was the nations endeavour to promote the activities of sustainable development, management and governance of water resources to achieve the goals of safe and secured water supplies and to maintain the pace of developments in agricultural and industrial sectors. Several institutions of federal and state governments such as Central Groundwater Board (CGWB), Central Groundwater Authority (CGWA), Central Water Commission (CWC), National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), National Institute of Hydrology, State groundwater departments, Civil and Earth science departments of universities, Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), NGOs and other institutions are engaged in assessment, development and management of surface/ground-water resources to meet the demands of water supply from available water resources. This report
* E-mail: snrai@ngri.res.in

presents a brief account of works during the reporting period (2003-2007) in different disciplines of hydrology. RAINFALL, RUNOFF, FLOOD, SEDIMENTATION AND GLACIAL HYDROLOGY The areas of heavy rainfalls are the Eastern Himalayas (500 cm) and seaward sides of the Western Ghat (600 cm). Cherrapunji in the Eastern Himalayas receives approximately 1142 cm annual rainfall which is the highest in the world. The annual rainfall over the Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya is 1000 cm while towards north, in the Brahmaputra valley, the rainfall drops to 200 cm. In the Western Himalayas, rainfall drops to 280 cm. Similarly towards the leeward side of Western Ghat, the rainfall comes down to 50 to 60 cm. In the northern plains, rainfall decreases from 150 cm in West Bengal to merely 15 cm in the desert region of the western Rajasthan (CGWB, 2002). Such is the diversification in the rainfall pattern over Indian continent. A study to assess the runoff, soil loss and subsequent nutrient losses from different prominent land uses in the Bhetagad watershed in Kumaon hills of Central Himalaya which represents hydrometeorological conditions of the middle mountains over the Hindu Kush was taken up. The findings will lead towards devising better conservation/management options for mountain land use system (Kothyari et al., 2004). An approach for modelling daily flows during flood events using Artificial Neural Network was developed (Rajurkar et al., 2003). A GIS-based Gama Geomorphologic Instantaneous Unique Hydrograph (GGIUH) model for the prediction of surface runoff was developed and applied in the Ajay river basin at Jamtara in the States of Bihar and Jharkhand (Sahoo et al., 2005). A Digital Elevation Model (DEM)-based overland flow routing model was developed for computation of surface runoff for isolated storm events (Jain and Singh, 2004). Measurement of sediments being transported by a river is important for planning and designing of various water-resources projects. Variations in water discharge and sediment loads of Narmada River and its tributaries and the probable causes for these variations are investigated (Gupta and Chakrapani, 2005). A distributed parameter segment delivery model was developed to facilitate preparation, examination and analysis of spatially distributed input parameters and to link the sediment delivery from a micro-scale to the granite basin-scale (Sharma, 2006). A study was made to determine the sedimentation pattern and rate for Mansar lake, a natural lake located in the Himalyan foothills of Jammu and Kashmir. The lake is receives sediment at the rate of 892.8 m2 km-2 year-1, which is higher than for all the Lesser Himalayan lakes. This high rate reveals that the Siwalik terrain of the Himalayan foothills, consisting of sandstone, mudstone, siltstone and clay is eroding out at a faster rate than the Lesser Himalaya terrain (Ahmed et al., 2003; Rai, et al., 2007).

18 Estimation of water balance and sediment yield pertaining to two forest watershed, namely Upper Peppara and Upper Neyyar in Kerala State was carried out as part of the forest conservation program. A fuzzy technique was applied to model the stage-discharge-sediment concentration relationship. The technique was also applied to two gauging sites in the Narmada basin (Lohani et al., 2007). An understanding of sediment and carbon transport through overland flow is important for policy decisions and management of soil and carbon losses, due to its sensitivity to land use/cover changes. A study on sediment and carbon transports in a Himalayan watershed located in the Sikkim state was carried out (Sharma and Rai, 2004). The impact of warmer climate on melt and evaporation was studied for rain-fed, snow-fed and glacier-fed basins in the western Himalaya. Hydrological processes were simulated under current climatic conditions using a conceptual hydrological model that accounts for the rainfall-runoff; evaporation losses, snow and glacier melt (Singh and Lars Bengtsson, 2004). Suspended sediment samples and discharge data near the Gangotri Glacier snout (4000 m) were analysed to estimate suspended sediment concentration, suspended sediment load, sediment yield, erosion rate and melt runoff in the glacier melt stream Bhagirathi (Haritashya et al., 2006; Singh, 2006a, b, c, d). A study was undertaken with the objective of investigating the performance of the physically based distributed parameter Areal Non-point Source Watershed Environment Response Simulation (ANSWERS) model for simulation of runoff, peak flow and sediment yield by considering a field example of 16.13 km2 small watershed in Eastern India (Singh, et al., 2006). Geochemical studies on the Dankar, Thinam and Gete lakes in the Spiti valley of Higher Himalaya was carried out to understand the nature of lithology and the type of weathering at the source (Das and Dhiman, 2003). ASSESSMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER RESOURCES Ground water plays an important role in augmenting water supply to meet the ever-increasing water supply demands in India. Share of groundwater supply for domestic use in rural area amounts to > 80%. Over 50% of irrigation and industrial requirements are met from groundwater resources. In all probability the future expansion of groundwater uses will continue because of population growth and corresponding growth in agricultural and industry. Delineation of aquifers is the pre-requisite for the assessment of regional/local groundwater potential. Delineation of aquifers and subsequently their groundwater potential assessment were carried out in different part of the country by using different geophysical, geological, geochemical, remote sensing and GIS methods depending on the local hydro-geological conditions. Some examples are: Peddavanka watershed in Anantpur district of A.P. (Gowd, 2004), Gadchandur near Maratha Cement Works in Maharastra (Singh et al., 2004b), Catchment area of Himayat Sagar near Hyderabad city (Sankaran, et al., 2005), the fluoride-affected Wailapally and Maheshwaram watershed (granitic terrain) in A.P (Marechal et al., 2004a, 2004b; Dutta et al., 2005; Saxena et al., 2005; Dewasis et al., 2006; Reddy et al., 2006), Ghatia watershed (basaltic terrain) in M.P.

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India (NGRI Annual Report, 2005-06), Sadra in Tamil Nadu, coastal regions of Mahanadi basin in Orissa, Bapatla in coastal region of A.P (Muralidharan et al., 2004), Talchar coal field in Mahanadi basin (Singh et al., 2004a), Neil island of Andaman and Nicobar groups of islands (Singh et al., 2005), Bhatsa and Kalu river basins of Thane districts in Maharastra (Ravi Shankar and Mohan, 2006), Subarnarekha river bed aquifer, Ranchi District (Gurunadha Rao et al., 2006b), etc. Classification and interpretation of piezometer well hydrographs in parts of southeastern peninsular India were carried out to assess the groundwater potential zones (Raj, 2004). A new hydrochemical technique based on EC logs was developed for the delineation of waterbearing fractures in hardrock areas and tested in the Maheshwaram watershed (Saxena et al., 2005). Electrical resistivity, groundwater level, borehole and remote sensing data were integrated in the GIS analysis for hydrogeological zoning in the piedmont zone of Himalayan foot hills region of Uttaranchal (Israil et al., 2006). An integrated study was carried out in Bairasagara watershed in Karnataka to investigate the subsurface conditions in hard rock environment with the aim of identifying zones with groundwater potential (Chandra et al., 2006). Significance of Dar-Zaruck parameters in establishing an easily decipherable vision about the occurrence and distribution of fresh and saline aquifers was illustrated by Singh et al. (2004a). A detailed hydrogeological investigation was carried out in parts of the Central Ganga Plain to assess the aquifer framework and its resource potential (Umar, 2005). Studies were carried out using hydrological, hydrogeological and geophysical methods in various islands of Lakshadweep for to understand the complex hydrogeological environment of islands. This was done to develop a prognostic model of fresh groundwater lenses so that a sustainable management of the freshwater resource could be planned for the islands (Varma, 2005). Hydrogeomorphological, hydrogeological and geophysical investigations were carried out in the Pageru river basin of Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh (Sreedevi et al., 2003, 2005). A case study was reported on the importance of subsurface check dams constructed in the Swarnmukhi river basin to harvest the base flow infiltrating into sandy alluvium and thereby into sea to increase groundwater potential for meeting future demands (Raju et al., 2006). An integrated investigation comprised of geoelectrical survey, remotely recorded data and pumping test data was made to delineate groundwater potential zones in crystalline terrain of Guntur district, A.P. (Subba Rao, 2003). Electrical resistivity, groundwater level, borehole and remote-sensing data were integrated in the GIS analysis for hydrogeological zoning in the piedmont zone of Himalayan foothills region of Uttaranchal (Israil et al., 2006). Modified Occams inversion technique was applied for the inversion of resistivity data to delineate aquifers (Dimri, 2004). An attempt was made for delineation of aquifer geometry and surface and sub-surface fault in Ganga Plain by integrating remote-sensing and well log data. The study area falls between longitude 7030 to 7815 E and latitudes 2935N and 2945N (Samadder et al., 2007). Sea-water ingression study along the Guhagar coast of Maharastra with reference to the harmonious water resources development was carried out. The pros and cons of

Hydrological Studies constructing engineering structures for preventing sea-water ingress and strategy to enhance groundwater recharge for increasing fresh-water column in the lower reaches of creeks, tidal inlets and their tributaries, without causing harm to the delicate mangrove ecosystem were analysed (Umrikar and Thigale, 2007). Characteristic responses to pumping in hard-rock fracture aquifers of Trissur, Kerala were analysed for their hydrogeological significance (Kukillaya, 2007). Evaluation of groundwater development prospect in the Kadalundi Basin in Malapuram district of Kerala was done by analysing the pattern of water level fluctuation in different physiographic regions, the depth to water level and saturated thickness in different seasons, hydrogeological properties of the rocks within the basin, the groundwater assessment, the groundwater quality etc. (Narasimha Prasad et al., 2007). Lineament density modelling was done to identify high potential aquifers in hard rock areas of Nawapara and Kalahandi districts in Orissa state (Sikdar et al., 2007). An assessment of groundwater availability and impact of sealevel rise on the aquifer of Kavarathi and Bengaram islands were carried out by making use of Ghyben-Herzberg equation and Brunes rule respectively (Sunderesan, 2006). WATER QUALITY Water samples from six reservoirs of Damodar river basin were analysed to study the weathering and geochemical processes controlling the water quality (Singh et al., 2005). A geochemical analysis of surface and subsurface waters of Rewalsar lake in Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh was carried out to understand weathering processes controlling the chemistry of the water (Das and Kaur, 2007). Arsenic (As) problem in groundwater in West Bengal was reported in late 1980s. Since then this problem of West Bengal is being continuously investigated and results are being reported from time to time. Presently, elevated concentrations of As exist in groundwater of nine districts of West Bengal, namely Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, North and South 24 Paraganas, Bardhman, Howrah, Hugli and Kolkata. Nearly 50 million people in West Bengal alone living in 3200 villages covering 38865 km2 are exposed to drinking water containing Arsenic above the permissible limit fixed at 50 mg/l in India (WHO recommends lowering this limit to 10 mg/l). More recently, elevated concentration of Arsenic was reported from Ballia districts of Uttar Pradesh, Bhojpur and Buxar districts of Bihar, Shahebgunj district of Jharkhand, and parts of Ambagarh-Chowki block in Chhattisgarh. In northeastern India, As was detected in 21 of the total 24 districts of Assam, three districts in Tripura, six districts in Arunachal Pradesh, two in Nagaland, and one in Manipur. These areas mainly belong to GangesBrahmaputra river basins (Acharya et al., 2005; Chatterjee et al., 2005; Acharya, 2006; Singh, 2006a,b,c; Acharya and Shah, 2007; Sengupta et al., 2004). Fluoride-led contamination of groundwater is another major problem and is reported from different parts of the country, especially from hard-rock regions spread over in Karnataka, A.P., Maharastra and M.P. states. Geochemical investigation of groundwater from 58 selected fluoride-rich areas in different parts of the country that include eight districts was carried out to deduce the chemical parameters

19 responsible for the dissolution activity of fluoride in groundwater (Saxena and Ahmed, 2003). The origin of high fluoride in a regional alluvial aquifer system under water stress in the North Gujarat Cambay Region was also investigated. This region is severely affected by endemic fluorosis due to ingestion of groundwater containing excessive fluoride (Gupta et al., 2004). Hydrogeological investigations in the rural parts of Yavatmal district of Maharastra state reveal high fluoride concentration in deeper aquifers compared to shallow aquifers. Physicochemical conditions like decomposition, dissociation and subsequent dissolution along with long residence time might be responsible for leaching of fluoride into groundwater (Madhnure et al., 2007). Concentration of fluoride in the groundwater of southeastern part of R.R. district A.P. is reported in the range of 0.7 to 4.8 mg/l and from 0.4 to 4.20 mg/l during the pre-and post-monsoon seasons, respectively (Sujatha, 2003). Fluoride in groundwater from Anantpur district was investigated by Subba Rao and Devadas (2003). Instances of high concentrations of nitrate in groundwater in most parts of the country with the exception of Jammu-Kashmir and North-Eastern states are being reported. Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajesthan, West Bengal, Haryana and Punjab are the states with high concentration of nitrate in the groundwater. Strategies for combating nitrate pollution were by Prakasa Rao and Puttana (2006). Groundwater pollution with respect to nitrate, Cl and fluoride was reported from the southeastern part of the R.R. district A.P. and attributed to the extensive use of fertilizers and disposal of large scale of municipal waste into open drainage systems (Sujata and Reddy, 2003). Principal Component Analysis of the chemical variables of groundwater samples collected from the Guntur urban area in A.P. state is employed for identification of contaminated zones which helps in implementation of the appropriate management measures to improve the quality of the groundwater of the region (Subba Rao et al., 2007). Quality of groundwater from Vaippar river basin in Tamil Nadu was analysed with reference to drinking, agriculture and industrial uses (Pandian and Sankar, 2007). Groundwater chemical quality studies were carried out in parts of Nalgonda district of A.P. where fluoride incidence had earlier been reported (Jagannadha Rao et al., 2007). Quality of groundwater from Panvel Basin of Raigarh district in Maharastra was mapped using GIS (Anbazhagan and Nair, 2004). An attempt was made to decipher chemical variations in groundwater from a region of Krishni-Yamuna basin in Muzaffarnagar district of U.P. (Umar and Ahmed, 2007). Hydrochemical analysis of groundwater from Devak and Rui watershed in Jammu & Kashmir was carried out to ascertain the suitability of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes (Jasrotia and Singh, 2007). Groundwater quality assessment of shallow aquifer using GIS in part of Chennai city, Tamil Nadu was carried out. From the higher TDS and Cl/HCO3 ratio, it is inferred that the sea water has intruded into a considerable area adjoining the coast due to overexploitation of groundwater (Singh and Lawrence, 2007). Surface, subsurface and mine water collected from rural, urban, industrial and coalmining areas

20 of Dhanbad district in Jharkhand state were analysed to assess the major ion chemistry, the weathering and geochemical processes controlling the water composition and suitability of water for domestic industrial and agricultural uses (Singh et al., 2007a, or b. A hydrochemical study was carried out to identify the fresh-water zone in Potharlanka island in Krishna district, A.P. (Saxena, et al., 2003). Sediments from the interfluves of the Ganga and Ramganga in Moradabad area had higher level of pollution posing threat to the groundwater quality of the area (Sharma, 2003). An attempt was made to study the cumulative effects of the sea water intrusion on water quality, extent of salinity and change in crop production in Meghal basin of Saurastra region after construction of sea-water intrusion preventive structures (Parekh and Patel, 2004). A study is being carried out for estimating groundwater pollution source location using ANN models (Kumar et al., 2006). Distribution of iron in the groundwater of East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh was reported by Rao (2007). In addition to abovementioned quality-related studies, several other studies pertaining to geochemical analyses of groundwaters from different part of the country were carried out to determine their chemical/physical/biological characteristics and to estimate the level of pollution and the suitability of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses (Rajesh and Murthy, 2004; Ghosh et al., 2004; Rajmohan and Elango, 2004, 2005; Kaplay et al., 2004; Subramani., et al., 2005; Mondal et al., 2005; Subba Rao et al., 2005; Gowd, 2005; Singh, 2005; Tiwary et al., 2005; Subba Rao, 2006; Umar et al., 2006; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2006; Manish Kumar et al., 2006; Dhiman and Keshari, 2006; Srinivasa Rao, 2006). MONITORING OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY AND QUANTITY Groundwater resources are subjected to change in space and time domains due to natural and anthropogenic causes. Hence, periodic monitoring of its quantity and quality conditions are essential to identify the groundwater regime in terms of quality and quantity (on the day of observation), identification of problems (if any and ascertaining the causes); assessment of socio-economic effects on users; selection of suitable management scheme to cope up with the prevailing groundwater related problems, etc. The CGWB website indicates that groundwater levels are being regularly monitored four times a year during January, April/May, August and November by it through a network of about 15,000 observation wells in the country in different hydrogeological environments. Further, 1200 digital water level recorders have been installed at selected wells to acquire high frequency water level data so as to monitor short-term changes in groundwater regime. Samples are collected through these observation wells once a year during April/May to evaluate the status of groundwater. Groundwater monitoring was carried out by many state groundwater departments also. For example, a close network of piezometers was established in eleven cities viz. Lucknow, Kanpur, Allahabad, Agra, Varanasi, Aligarh, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Shaharanpur, Noida and Barili in UP to regularly monitor the water levels and the quality of groundwater in urban sprawls. As per Government directives, 28

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India industries have installed piezometers to monitor water level/quality of groundwater (Arya et al., 2006). In simple terms, management of water resources aims at maintaining sustainable quality water supply through a set of decisions related to the development and operational schemes of water resources such as locations, time and duration of recharging and pumping in case of groundwater resources. The following sub-sections describe works related to the management activities. NATURAL/ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGING Rainfall is the main source of groundwater recharge and surface water storage during rainy season from June to September. The annual replenishable recharge from rainfall in the zone of watertable fluctuation was estimated as 433 billion cubic metres (BCM), out of these, 399 BCM is available for utilization, leaving aside 34 BCM unutilized natural discharge in the form of sub-surface flow into the oceans, rivers, streams, etc. (Romani, 2006). A study on characterization of recharge processes and groundwater flow mechanisms in weatheredfractured granites of Hyderabad using isotopic and environmental chloride variations of the groundwater system was carried out (Sukhija et al., 2006). Groundwater recharge amounting to 57 MCM in a year in the lower Koyana river basin through vertical percolation of rain water was estimated (Naik et al., 2003). A new method for the estimation of groundwater recharge is presented using a surface resistivity method and isotope technique. This technique is based on the linear relationship obtained between the resistivity of the unsaturated top layer and the recharge estimation using a tritium tagging method. This technique was used for recharge estimation in piedmont zone in the Himalayan foothill (Israel, 2003). Natural groundwater recharge is estimated using the injected tracer technique in the Bairasagara watershed of Kolar district, Karnataka. An attempt was made to get empirical relationships between recharge versus depth to basement, and recharge versus water-level fluctuation (Ramesh Chand et al., 2004). Daily Sequential Water Balance Method (BALSEQ), developed at the National Laboratory of Civil Engineering, Lisbon, was used to estimate aquifer recharge and surface runoff to a coastal watershed in Goa (Chachadi et al., 2004). Groundwater recharge in Hayat Nager micro-watershed near Hyderabad is estimated from the measurements of soil-moisture variation using neutron moisture probe and water-level fluctuation (Ramesh Chand, et al., 2005). Groundwater recharge from waterstorage structures in two micro-watersheds located in the Kheda district of Gujarat state was estimated by employing watertable fluctuation and chloride mass balance methods (Sharda, 2006). A waterbudget approach is developed to jointly estimate natural recharge and specific yield in an unconfined aquifer with significant seasonal water table fluctuations. This method is applied for recharge estimation in the granitic Maheswaram watershed (Marechal et al., 2006). Recharge was estimated in the Neyveli basin in Tamil Nadu using isotope injection method (Rangrajan et al., 2005). Groundwater recharge for the entire Musi river basin

Hydrological Studies was estimated by using GIS and water-table fluctuation method (Venkaateswara Rao et al., 2006) Artificial recharging of groundwater is the most effective measure to reverse the declining trend of groundwater level and to protect its quality from the encroachment of pollutants from surrounding regions (if necessary). A total of 0.45 million km2 area spread over different parts of the country is identified by CGWB which needs artificial recharging of groundwater. It is also estimated that annually about 36.4 BCM runoff can be recharged to augment the groundwater (Romani, 2006). Artificial-recharge projects were executed at Seelaiagaripalli village in the Chittoor district, A.P. Integrated hydrogeological investigations followed by suitable runoff conservation measure were implemented for the purpose of reducing the level of fluoride concentration in the groundwater of Gummalbavigudem village in Chityal mondal of Nalgonda district within permissible limit of potable water. Artificial recharge experiments were carried out at three places, namely Kolwan Valley in Maharastra, Satlasana in Gujarat and Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu (DFID KAR Project Report, 2006). Recharge structures were constructed by several State Groundwater Departments. For example, in Uttar Pradesh, so far 9314 ponds were rejuvenated/constructed in rural areas where as in urban areas 140 ponds were rejuvenated for the purpose of groundwater recharge. In total 16,634 check dams of various dimensions were constructed. Several artificial recharge programme were executed by CGWB in different parts of the country. An ambitious groundwater scheme named as Adarsh Jalashay Yojana was launched in the State (Arya et al., 2006). Remote sensing and GIS approaches were applied for artificial recharge study in Ayyar basin, Tamil Nadu (Anbazhagan, 2005). An NGO, Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS), has played crucial role in reviving the traditional practice of water conservation in Alwar district of Rajasthan by promoting construction of Johads (a kind of check dam) with the help of villagers. As a result of these efforts availability of groundwater has improved to such an extent that it is not only sufficient to fulfill the local demands of water supply but also in converting Arwari river into a perennial river, that had nearly dried up (Singh, 2006). This experiment was extended to the neighbouring Jaisalmer, Ajmer, Udaipur and Bharatpur districts. Over 5600 Johads have been constructed so far. Using GIS and remote sensing as analysis tools, an artificial groundwater recharge plan for the construction of recharge structures in the Bijnore district of northern U.P., where the groundwater table has the trend of depletion, been worked out (Roy et al., 2006). The origin and natural recharge zones of groundwater in parts of Upper Ganga catchments were investigated using isotope technique. The close resemblance in altitude effect of groundwater and precipitation confirmed that the source of groundwater recharge is precipitation only (Rai et al., 2006). IDENTIFICATION OF AQUIFER PARAMETERS An understanding of the quantitative and qualitative changes in groundwater system because of existing and proposed hydrologic stresses is a prerequisite for their

21 proper management. Mathematical models are used for assessing the future behaviour of groundwater in terms of both quantitative and qualitative, in response to various operating or proposed development schemes related to recharging, pumping, waste disposal, etc and in making judicious selection of a sustainable development scheme out of many proposed schemes without resorting to expensive field experiments. For modelling purpose and for assessing the potential of a well-yield capacity, one needs numerical values of aquifer parameters such as hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, specific yields, etc. Dugwells are in common use for minor irrigation purpose in hard-rock terrains. Estimation of transmissivity and Storage coefficient values for shallow aquifers in the basaltic Koyna region were carried out by using drawdown and recovering data from some dug wells (Naik and Awasthi, 2006). An optimisation based on nonlinear least square is developed for the identification of aquifer transmissivity and two storage coefficients; one for pumping phase and the other for the recovery phase using only residual draw downs at an observation well (Singh, 2006). A simple method and an optimization method for explicit estimation of specific dispersivity and injected mass due to instantaneous injection of a solute have been proposed. Using this method, the data for different flow rates and injected masses can be analysed simultaneously (Singh, 2006). Transient state semi-analytical solutions were developed for a discharging, partially screened, fully penetrating well installed in a multiple semiconfined confined aquifer system to predict the pumping levels and yield of multi-aquifer wells (Vashisht, 2006). MATHEMATICAL MODELLING A 3-D mathematical model is developed to simulate groundwater flow in the Lower Palar Basin in Tamil Nadu (Senthilkumar and Elango, 2004). The aquifer modelling study was carried out for the estimation of canal seepage to the groundwater system in Ganga-Kali sub-basin, a part of central Ganga Basin (Ala Eldin et al., 2006). Numerical models were developed to simulate groundwater flow and solute transport in and around Gujrat refinery, Vadodara (Gurunadha Rao, 2006b), Hindalco-Belgaun works watershed (Gurunadha Rao, 2006a), Patancheru Industrial area in Nakkavagu watershed near Hyderabad (Gurunadha Rao, 2006c), Upper Palar Basin, Tamil Nadu (Gurunadha Rao, 2006d), solid waste disposal site in Hyderabad (Gurunadha Rao et al., 2006c), Ravada watershed, A.P. (Vinod Rao and Gurunadha Rao, 2006b), Ludhiana and Muktsar districts in Punjab (Gurunadha Rao, 2006a, b, c, d or e), Lower Tandava River Basin in East Godavari district of A.P. (Vinod Rao and Gurunadha Rao, 2006a, or b), Wagarwadi Watershed in Parbhani district, Maharastra (Gore and Gurunadha Rao, 2006). Aquifer modelling and hydrogeologic system analysis were carried out in limestone terrain, Gadchandur in Maharastra (Singh et al., 2004). Solutions for unsteady piezometric distribution and rate of recharge into the aquifer under constant and variable surface ponding conditions were developed for two cases, namely flow from gravity well and constantrate injection well. The solutions were verified with the field data at Tabageria village of Shaldahari watershed (Singh and Shakya, 2006).

22 A new generation of analytical mathematical models were developed to simulate water table fluctuations in the presence of transient recharge, pumping and seepage from any number of recharge basins, wells and leakage site of different dimensions. Time varying recharge and withdrawal were approximated by use of linear elements of different lengths and slope depending on the nature of variations of these processes. Applications of the models were demonstrated with the numerical examples (Manglik et al., 2004; Rai and Singh, 2005; Rai et al., 2006). The coupled partial differential equations for saturated aquifer and variably saturated aquitard are solved numerically using Galerkin Finite Element Methods. Sensitivity analysis of unsaturated soil parameter and thickness of the unsaturated zone indicate that these parameters have significant effect on water-table drawdown while the deeper aquifer drawdown is not affected much (Hariprasad et al., 2005). Universal Kriging has been applied to the command area of a set of canal irrigation projects in Rajasthan State for optimal contour mapping of groundwater levels which in combination with the ground that elevation map may be used for estimation of waterlogged areas or prone to waterlogging (Kumar, 2007 a, or b). OTHER MANAGEMENT SCHEMES A strategy for managing a part of a shallow aquifer through a systematic well-schedule that is based upon the characteristics of the aquifer and their variability in space through community participation has been proposed. This is being tried in Neemkheda village from the tribal dry lands of Bagli tehsil in Dewas district of Madhya Pradesh (Kulkarni et al., 2004). The project proposal of the highly ambitious river-linking mega project of India, its involvement and impact not only on the States of India, but also on its neighbouring nations, linked with India through the water ways and share the common climatic conditions and economics were analysed in detail by Misra et al. (2007). Integrated water-management schemes with four components viz, groundwater, roof water harvesting, desalination for Lakshadweep Islands using waste heat and solar desalination has beeen proposed by Najeeb (2007). Several waste-water treatment plants were made operational in some cities such as Hyderabad, Coimbatore, etc to reduce the stresses on conventional sources of water supply. Treated waste water is used for gardening, industrial uses and diverted into percolation tanks for groundwater recharging throughout the year. More such water treatment plants have been planned. Desalinized sea water is the other alternative source of potable water. A pilot project of desalinization is already operational in Lakshadweep (Gupta, 2007). AWARENESS AND GOVERNANCE Because of invisible character of groundwater resources, a widespread lack of awareness among stakeholders about limitation of their water storage capacity, disadvantages of their misuses, their links with the other components of hydrological cycle, ways and means of their replenishment, possible sources of their pollution under prevailing hydrogeological conditions, exists. Awareness helps in convincing the users and policy makers about the need of

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India implementation of management and governance measures for safe and secured water supply. Awareness programme have been promoted through mass contact, education, electronic and print media. The CGWB has been organizing mass awareness programme throughout the country and provides training to different stakeholders on sustainable management of groundwater resources. Through this measure only, Tarun Bharat Sangh, an NGO, has effectively created awareness among villagers from several villages in drought prone Aravalli region and other adjoining regions in Rajasthan State about the significance of conservation of water into aquifer systems, execution and monitoring of demand driven self made management and governance measures to make best use of available water. In addition to this, several training courses sponsored by Government departments like Department of Science & Technology, Ministry of Water Resources, etc. were organized at various centres to train the groundwater professionals in the field of development and management of groundwater resources. Lecture notes of these courses were published for the benefit of students, teachers and groundwater professionals (Rai, 2004; Suresh Babu et al., 2005; Palanisami et al., 2005; Ghosh and Sharma, 2006). The Indian National Committee on Hydrology (INCOH) organized a national seminar on the theme Groundwater Governance: Ownership of Groundwater and Its Pricing during November 14-15, 2006 to generate awareness and to arrive at a consensus among stakeholders, planners, managers and environmentalists on the issues of groundwater governance, its ownership and incentives including its pricing (Romani et al., 2006). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks are due to Prof. A.K. Singhvi for his invitation to write this chapter of national report and to Dr. V.P. Dimri for his permission to publish it. REFERENCES
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Governance:, Capital Publ. Co., New Delhi, p. 361-368. Ala Eldin M.E.H, Umar, R. and Gurunadha Rao, V.V.S., 2006, Estimation of canal seepage to the groundwater system in Ganga-Kali sub-basin, a part of Central Ganga Basin, in: Vinoda Rao, T., eds., Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling: Allied Publ., New Delhi, p. 186-199. Anbazhagan, S., Ramasamy, S.M. and Das Gupta, S., 2005, Remote sensing and GIS for artificial recharge study, runoff estimation and planning in Ayyar basin, Tmailnadu, India, Envi. Geol., v. 48, p.158-170. Anbazhagan, S. and Nair, A.M., 2004, Geographic Information System and groundwater quality mapping in Panvel Basin, Maharashtra, India: Envi.Geol., v. 45, p. 753-761. Arya, A., Ansari, M.M., Tribhuwan and Sinha, R.S., 2006, Groundwater governance in Uttar Pradesh issues, initiatives and actions, in Romani, S., et al., eds., Groundwater Governance: Capital Pub. Co., New Delhi, p. 1-9. CGWB, 2002, Boucher of Hydrological map of India, II Edition, pp. 23. Chandra, S., Rao, V.A., Krishnamurthy, N.S., Dutta, S. and Ahmad, S., 2006, Integrated studies for characterization of lineaments used to locate ground water potential zones in hard rock region of Karnataka, India, Hydrogeol. Journal, v. 14, p. 1042-1051. Chatterjee, D., Roy, R.K. and Basu, B.B., 2005, Riddle of arsenic in groundwater of Bengal delta plain role of non-inland source and redox traps: Envi. Geol., v. 49, p. 188-206. Das, B.K. and Kaur, P., 2007, Geochemistry of surface and subsurface waters of Rewalsar Lake, Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh: constraints on weathering and erosion: J. Geol. Soc. India, v., p. 1020-1030. Das, B.K. and Dhiman, S.C., 2003, Water and sediment chemistry of Higher Himalayan lakes in the Spiti Valley: control on weathering, provenance and tectonic setting of the basin: Envi. Geol., v. 44, p. 717-730. Dewashis Kumar, Krishnamurthy, N.S., Nayak, G.K. and Ahmad, S., 2006, Utility of magnetic data base in delineation of groundwater potential zones in hard rock terrain. Current Science, v. 91, p. 1456-1458. DFID KAR Project R8169, 2006. Augmenting groundwater resources by artificial recharge. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottinghan; p. 77. Dhiman, S.D. and Keshari, A.K., 2006, GIS assisted inverse geochemical modeling for plausible phase transfers in aquifers: Envi. Geol., v. 50, p. 1211-1219. Dimri, V.P., 2004, Non-linear inversion of resistivity data: Occams approach, in Rai S.N., eds., Role of mathematical modeling in groundwater resources management: lecture note volume of DST training course, December 13-23, p. 309-317. Ghosh, N.C. and Sharma, A., 2006, Groundwater governance: few pertinent issues relating to availability and possible threat, in Romani, S., eds., Groundwater Governance: Capital Publ. Co., New Delhi, p. 297-310. Ghosh, N.C. and Sharma, K.D. (Eds), 2006, Groundwater modeling and management Capital Publ. Co., New Delhi, 594 pp. Ghosh, N.C. and Sharma, K.D., eds., 2006. Groundwater modeling and management. Capital Pub. Co., New Delhi, pp. 594.

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Gore, K.P. and Gurunadha Rao, V.V.S., 2006, Assessment of impact of water harvesting structures on groundwater resources in Wagarwadi watershed, Parbhani District, Maharashtra, in: Vinod Rao, T., eds., Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling: Allied Publ., New Delhi, p. 200-205. Gowd, S., 2004, Electrical resistivity surveys to delineate groundwater potential aquifers in Peddavanka watershed, Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh, India: Envi.Geol., v. 46, p. 118-131. Gowd. S., 2005, Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes: a case study of Peddavanka watershed, Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh, India: Envi. Geol., v. 48, p. 702-712. Goyal, R.K., 2006, Groundwater scenario under changing climate: Rajasthan, inRomani, S., Groundwater Governance: Capital Publ. Co., New Delhi, p. 115-124. Gupta, H. and Chakrapani, G.J., 2005, Temporal and spatial variations in water flow and sediment load in Narmada River Basin, India: natural and man-made factors: Envi. Geol., v. 48, p. 579-589. Gupta, H.K., 2007, Presidential address. 94th Indian Science Congress, January, 3-7. Gurunadha Rao, V.V.S., 2006a, Impact of red mud stacking on groundwater regime in the HINDALCO- Belgaum works Watershed, Karnataka, in Vinod Rao, T., eds., Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling: Allied Publ., New Delhi, p. 250-255. Gurunadha Rao, V.V.S., 2006b, Assessment of groundwater contamination around Gujarat Refinery, Vadodara, in Vinod Rao, T., Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling: Allied Publ., New Delhi, p. 242-249. Gurunadha Rao, V.V.S., 2006c. Prediction of groundwater contamination migration from Patancheru IDA in Nakkavagu Watershed, A.P. In: Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling (Ed. T. Vinoda Rao), Allied Publ., New Delhi, 267-275. Gurunadha Rao, V.V.S., 2006d,Groundwater pollution due to tannery effluents in Upper Palar basin, Tamilnadu, in Vinod Rao, T., Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling: Allied Publ., New Delhi, p. 276-280. Gurunadha Rao V.V.S., Mahesh Kumar, K. and Prakash, B.A., 2006a, Estimation of groundwater recharge using soil water infiltration model (SWIM), in Vinod Rao, T., Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling: Allied Publ., New Delhi, p. 172-177. Gurunadha Rao, V.V.S., Prakash, B.A., Krupanidhi, K.V.J.R., Mahesh Kumar, K., Ramesh, M., Pavan Kumar, N. and Krishna Kumar, K., 2006b, Design of sustainable water supply for Hindalco-Muri works in Subamarekha Riverbed aquifer, Ranchi District, Jharkhand, in Romani, S., et al., eds., Groundwater Governance: Capital Publ. Co., New Delhi, p. 83-92. Gurunadha Rao, V.V.S., Sankaran, S. and Mahesh Kumar, K., 2006c, Assessment of likely Impact of hazardous solid waste disposal site (Hyderabad TSDF) on groundwater: Mass transport modeling, in Vinod Rao, T., Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling: Allied Publ., New Delhi, p. 281-287. Gurunadha Rao, V.V.S., Sankaran, S., Prakash, B.A. and Mahesh Kumar, K., 2006d, Computation of lake waterGroundwater interaction in Mir-Alam Tank: Hyderabad,

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A.P., in Vinod Rao, T., Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling: Allied Publ., New Delhi, p. 216-221. Gurunadha Rao, V.V.S., Sankaran, S., Prakash, B.A., Mahesh Kumar, K. and Yadaiah, P., 2006e, Simulation of pesticide residues in groundwater: PESTAN model, in Vinod Rao, T., Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling: Allied Publ., New Delhi, p. 304-313. Hari Prasad, K.S., Mohan Kumar, M.S. and Sekhar, M., 2005, Analysis of saturated-unsaturated flow near a pumping well in an aquifer-water table aquitard system: Hydrology Jour., v. 28, p. 19-32. Haritashya, U.K., Singh, P., Kumar, N. and Gupta, R.P., 2006, Suspended sediment from the Gangotri Glacier: quantification, variability and associations with discharge and air temperature: Journal of Hydrol., v. 321, p. 116130. Israil, M., Mufid Al-hadithi, M. and Singhal, D.C., 2006a, Application of a resistivity survey and geographical information system (GIS) analysis for hydro geological zoning of a piedment area, Himalayan Foothill region, India, Hydrogeology Journal, v. 14, p. 753-759. Israil, M., Mufid Al-hadithi, M. and Singhal, D.C., 2006b, Groundwater recharge estimation using a surface electrical resistivity method in the Himalayan foothill, Hydrogeology Jour., v. 14, p. 44-50. Jagannadha Rao, M., Durgaiah, B., Saradhi, B.V., Jaisankar, G., Pundarika Rao, D. and Ganesh, K.M., 2007, Spatial variability of groundwater chemical quality in part of Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh: J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 983-988. Jain, M.K. and Singh, V.P., 2004, DEM-based modelling of surface runoff using diffusion wave equation: Journal of Hydrol., v. 302, p. 107-126. Jasrotia, A.S. and Singh, R., 2007. Hydrochemistry and groundwater quality around Devak and Rui watersheds of Jammu Region, Jammu and Kashmir: J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 1042-1054. Kothyari, B.P., Verma, P.K., Joshi, B.K. and Kothyari, U.C., 2004, Rainfall-runoff-soil and nutrient loss relationships for plot size areas of Bhetagad watershed in Central Himalaya, India: Journal of Hydrol., v. 293, p. 137-150. Kukillaya, J.P., 2007, Characteristic responses to pumping in hard rock fracture aquifers of Thrissur, Kerala and their hydrogeological significance: J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 1055-1066. Kulkarni et al., 2004, Kumar, J., Jain, A. and Srivastava, R., 2006, Neural network based solutions for locating groundwater pollution sources: J. Hydrol., v. 29, p. 55-66. Kumar, M., Ramanathan, A.L., Rao, M.S. and Bhishm Kumar, 2006, Identification and evaluation of hydrogeochemical processes in the groundwater environment of Delhi, India: Envi. Geol., v. 50, p. 1025-1039. Kumar, V., 2007a, Spatial Interpolation of Groundwater Levels by Kriging: J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 996-1004. Kumar, V., 2007b, Optimal contour mapping of groundwater level using universal krigging a case study: Hydrol. Sci. J., v. 52, p. 1038-1050. Lohani, A.K., Goel, N.K., Bhatia, K.K.S., 2007. Deriving stagedistribution sediment concentration relationship using fuzzy logic. Hydrol. Sci. J., 52(4), 793-807.

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Madhnure, P., Sirsikar, D.Y., Tiwari, A.N., Rajan, B. and Malpe, D.B., 2007, Occurrence of fluoride in the groundwater of Pandharkawada area, Yavatmal district, Maharashtra, India, Current Science, v. 70, p. 976-986. Manglik, A., Rai, S.N. and Singh, V.S., 2004, Modelling of aquifer response to time varying recharge and pumping from multiple basins and wells: Journal of Hydrol., v. 292, p. 23-29. Marechal, J.C., Dewandel, B. and Subrhmanyam, K., 2004a, Use of hydraulic tests at different scales to characterize fracture network properties in the weatheredfractured layer of a hard rock aquifer: Water Resour. Res., v. 40, p. 1-17. Marechal, J.C., Wyne, R., Lachassagne, P. and Subrahmanyam, K., 2004b, Vertical anisotropy of hydraulic conductivity in the fissured layer of hard rock aquifers due to the geological patterns of weathering profiles, J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 63, p. 545-550. Misra, A.K., Saxena, A., Yaduvanshi, M., Mishra, A., Bhadauriya, Y. and Thakur. A., 2007, Proposed river-linking project of India: a boon or bane to nature: Envi. Geol., v. 51, p. 1361-1376. Mondal, N.C., Saxena, V.K. and Singh, V.S., 2005, Assessment of groundwater pollution due to tannery industries in and around Dindigul, Tamilnadu, India: Envi. Geol., v. 48, p. 149-157. Mukhopadhyay, B., Mukherjee, P.K., Bhattacharya, D. and Sengupta, S., 2006, Delineation of arsenic-contaminated zones in Bengal Delta, India: a geographic information system and fractal approach: Envi. Geol., v. 49, p. 10091020. Muralidharan, D., Rangrajan, R., Prabhakar Rao, Y. and Murthy, J.V.S.N., 2004, Efficiency of skimming wells in saline groundwater region of N.G. Ranga, Agricultural University campus, Bapatla, A.P. geophysical and tracer evaluation: Tech report: NGRI-2004-GW-441. Naik, P.K. and Awasthi, A.K., 2003, Groundwater resources estimation of the Koyna river basin, India. Hydrogeol. Journal, v. 11(5), p. 582-594. Naik, P.K. and Awasthi, A.K., 2007, Estimation of sallow aquifer parameter from large diameter wells in basalts, J. Geol. Soc. India., v. 69, p. 949-958. Najeeb, K. Md., 2007, Integrated water management schemes for Lakshadweep islands, v. 69, p. 1005-1010. Narasimha Prasad, N.B., Shivraj, P.V. and Jegatheesan, M.S., 2007, Evaluation of the groundwater development prospects in Kadalundi river basin. J. Geolo. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 1103-1110. NGRI Annual Report, 2005-06, pp. 200. Palanisami, K., Thangrajan, M., & Sinha, A.K. (eds), 2005. Groundwater flow and mass transport modeling for assessment and management of aquifers. Lecture note volume of a training course; 13-30 October, Coimbatore, 470p. Pandian, K. and Sankar, K., 2007, Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater quality in the Vaippar river basin, Tamil Nadu: J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 970-982. Parekh, V.P. and Patel, A.S., 2004, Effect of see water intrusion preventive structures in Meghal basin of Saurastra region: Hydrology Jour., v. 27, p. 79-90.

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Rai, S.N. and Singh, V.P., 2005, Artificial recharge of unconfined aquifer, inLehr, J., Keeley, J. and Kingry, B. T. III, eds., Water Encyclopedia-Groundwater: John Wiley & Sons, p. 11-17. Rai, S.N. (ed.), 2004. Role of mathematical modeling in groundwater resources management, Lecture notes volume of a training course, 13-23 December, Hyderabad, p. 448. Rai, S.P., Kumar, B., Jacob, N., Navada, S.V., Verma, S.K., Garg. P. and Rawat, Y.S., 2006, Origin and recharge zones of groundwater in a Himalayan catchment: An Isotopic Approach, in Romani, S., et al., Groundwater Governance: Capital Publ. Co., New Delhi, p. 65-72. Rai, S.P., Kumar, V. and Kumar, B., 2007, Sedimentation rate and pattern of a Himalayan foot hill lake using 137Cs and 210Pb: Hydrological Sci. J., v. 52, p. 181-191. Raj, P., 2004, Classification and interpretation of piezometer well hydrographs in parts of southeastern peninsular India: Envi. Geol., v. 46, p. 808-819. Rajesh, R. and Murthy, T.R.S., 2004, Groundwater quality and its change over a decade: an analysis of a coastal urban environment from the west coast of India: Envi. Geol., v. 45, p. 978-981. Rajmohan, N. and Elango, L., 2005. Nutrient chemistry of groundwater in an intensively irrigated region of southern India: Envi. Geol., v. 47, p. 820-830. Rajmohan, N. and Elango, L., 2004, Identification and evolution of hydrogeochemical processes in the groundwater environment in an area of the Palar and Cheyyar River Basins, Southern India: Envi. Geol., v. 46, p. 47-61. Raju, N.J., Reddy, T.V.K. and Munirathanam, P., 2006, Subsurface dams to harvest rain water-A case study of the Swarnamukhi River Basin, Southern India: Hyderogeol. J., v. 14, p. 520-531. Rajurkar, M.P., Kothyari, U.C. and Chand, U.C., 2004, Modeling of the daily rainfall-runoff relationship with the artificial neural network (ANN), J. Hydrol., v. 285, p. 96-113. Ramesh Chand, Hodlur, G.K., Prakash , M.R., Mondal, N.C. and Singh,V.S. 2005, Reliable natural recharge estimates in granite terrain. Current Science, v. 88, p. 821-824. Rangarajan, R., Muralidharan, D., Deshmukh, S.D., Hodlur, G.K. and Gangadhara Rao, T., 2005, Redemarcation of recharge area of stressed confined aquifers of Neyveli groundwater basin, India, through tritium tracer studies: Envi. Geol., v. 48, p. 37-48. Rao, N.S., 2007, distribution of iron in the sub-surface and groundwater of East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, India: Env. Geol, v. 52, p. 1455-1465. Ravi Shankar, M.N. and Mohan, G., 2006, Assessment of the groundwater potential and quality in Bhatsa and Kalu river basins of Thane district, Western Deccan Volcanic Province of India: Envi. Geol., v. 49, p. 990-998. Reddy, D.V., Sukhija, B.S., Nagabhushanam, P., Reddy, G.K., Kumar, D. and Lachassagne, P., 2006, Soil gas radon emanometry: a tool for delineation of fractures for groundwater in granitic terrains: Journal of Hydrol., v. 329, p. 186-195. Romani, S., 2006, Groundwater management emerging challenges, in Romani, S., et al., eds., Groundwater Governance: Capital Publ. Co., New Delhi, p. 1-18.

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Romani, S., Sharma, K.D., Ghosh, N.C. and Kaushik, Y.B., 2006, Groundwater Governance. Capital Publ. Co., New Delhi, p. 514. Sahoo, B., Chatterjee, C. and Raghuwanshi, N.S., 2005, Runoff prediction in ungauged basins at different basin map: Hydrology Jour., v. 28, p. 45-58. Samadder, R.K., Kumar, S. and Gupta, R.P., 2007, Conjunctive use of well-log and remote sensing data for interpreting shallow aquifer geometry: J. Geol. Soc. India, v.69, p. 925-932. Sankaran, S., Rangarajan, R. and Dhar, R.L., 2005, Delineation of hydraulic connectivity across a dolerite dyke through hydrogeological, geophysical and tracer studies a case study: Envi. Geol., v. 48, p. 411-419. Saxena, V.K. and Ahmed, S., 2003, Inferring the chemical parameters for the dissolution of fluoride in groundwater: Envi. Geol., v. 43, p. 731-736. Saxena, V.K., Singh, V.S., Mondal, N.C. and Jain, S.C., 2003, Use of hydrochemical parameters for the identification of fresh groundwater resources, Potharlanka Island, India: Envi.Geol., v. 44, p. 516-521. Saxena, V.K., Mondal, N.C., Singh, V.S. and Kumar. D., 2005, Identification of water-bearing fractures in hard rock terrain by electrical conductivity logs, India: Envi. Geol., v. 48, p. 1084-1095. Sengupta, S., Mukherjee, P.K., Pal, T. and Shome, S., 2004, Nature and origin of arsenic carriers in shallow aquifer sediments of Bengal delta, India: Envi. Geol., v. 45, p. 1071-1081. Senthil Kumar, M. and Elango, L., 2004, Three dimensional mathematical model to simulate groundwater flow in the lower polar basin, southern India. Hydrogeology Jour. v. 12, p. 197-208. Sharda, V.N, Kurothe, R.S., Sena , D.R., Pande, V.C. and Tewari, S.P. 2006, Estimation of ground water recharge from water storage structure in the semi-arid climate of India, J. Hydrology, v. 329, p. 224-243. Sharma, K.D., 2006, A distributed special sediment delivery model for the arid zone: Hydrology Jour., v. 29. Sharma, P. and Rai, S.C., 2004, Streamflow, sediment and carbon transport from a Himalayan watershed: Journal of Hydrol. v. 289, p. 190-203. Sikdar, P.K., Adhikari, S.K. and Bhattacharya, B.B., 2007, Lineament density modelling to identify high potential aquifers in hard rock areas, J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 1118-1131. Singh, A.K., 2006a, Chemistry of arsenic in groundwater of Ganges-Brahmputra basin: Current Science, v. 91, p. 599-606. Singh., A.K., Mondal, G.C., Singh, P.K., Singh, S., Singh, T.B. and Tewary, B.K., 2005. Hydrochemistry of reservoirs of Damodar River basin, India: weathering processes and water quality assessment: Envi. Geol., v. 48, p. 1014-1028. Singh, A.K., Mondal, G.C., Singh, S., Singh, P.K., Singh, T.B., Tewary, B.K. and Sinha, A., 2007a, Aquatic geochemistry of Dhanbad, Jharkhand: source evaluation and quality assessment: J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 1088-1102. Singh, A.P., Ghosh, S.K. and Sharma, P., 2007b, Water quality management of a stretch of river Yamuna: an interactive fuzzy multi objective approach: Water Resour. Manag., v. 21, p. 515-532.

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Singh, D.A.H. and Lawrence, J.F., 2007, Groundwater quality assessment of shallow aquifer using Geographical Information System in part of Chennai City, Tamil Nadu: J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 1067-1076. Singh, J.P. and Shakya, S.K., 2006, Drainage of ponded land through irrigation well in a leaky aquifer: Journal of Hydrol., v. 321, p. 377-389. Singh, P., Haritashya, U.K., Kumar, N. and Singh, Y., 2006a, Hydrological characteristics of the Gangotri glacier, Central Himalayas, India: Journal of Hydrol., v. 327, p. 55-67. Singh, P. and Bengtsson, L., 2004, Impact of warmer climate on melt and evaporation for the rainfed, snowfed and glacierfed basins in the Himalayan region: Journal of Hydrol., v. 330, p. 140-154. Singh, R., Tiwari, K.N. and Mal, B.C. 2006b, Hydrological studies for small watershed in India using the ANSWERS model: Journal of Hydrol., v. 318, p. 184-199. Singh, V.S., Nanda Kumar, M.V., Sarma, M.R.K. and Dimri, V.P., 2005, Change in the groundwater regime at Neil Island (South Andaman) due to earthquake and tsunami of 26 December, 2004, Current Science, v. 88, p. 1984-1987. Singh, R., 2006, Water conservation, in Romani, S., et al., eds., Groundwater Governance: Capital Publ. Co., New Delhi, p. 477-488. Singh, R., Jhorar, R.K., Van Dam, J.C. and Feddes, R.A., 2006c, Distributed ecohydrological modelling to evaluate irrigation system performance in Sirsa district, India II: Impact of viable water management scenarios: Journal of Hydrol., v. 329, p. 714-723. Singh, R., Kroes, J.G., Van Dam, J.C. and Feddes, R.A., 2006d, Distributed ecohydrological modelling to evaluate the performance of irrigation system in Sirsa district, India: I current water management and its productivity: Journal of Hydrol., v. 329, p. 692-713. Singh, R.M. and Das, B., 2007, Artificial Neural Network modeling for identification of unknown pollution sources in groundwater with partially missing concentration data: Water Resour. Manag., v. 21, p. 557-572. Singh, S. and Jaiswal, C.S., 2006, Numerical solution of 2-D free surface to ditch-drains in presence of transient recharge and depth dependent ET in sloping aquifer, Water Resou. Manag., v. 20, p. 779-793. Singh, S.K., 2006, Estimating dispersivity and injected mass from breakthrough curve due to instantaneous source: Journal of Hydrol., v. 329, p. 685-691. Singh, S.K., 2006, Identification of aquifer parameters from residual drawdown: an optimization approach: Hydrological Sci. J., v. 51, p. 1139-1148. Singh, U.K., Tewari, R.K. and Singh, S.B., 2005, One dimensional inversion of geoelectric resistivity sounding data using artificial neural network a case study: Computer & Geosciences, v. 31, p. 99-108. Singh, U.K., Das, R.K. and Hodlur, G.K., 2004a, Significance of Dar-Zarrouk parameters in the exploration of quality affected coastal aquifer systems, Envi. Geol., v. 45, p. 696-702. Singh, V.S., Maurya, A.K. and Singh, A.K., 2004b, Aquifer modeling and hydrogeologic system analysis in limestone terrain, Gadchandur, Maharastra, NGRI-04-GW-460.

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Singh, V.S., Ratnakar, D. and Negi, B.C., 2004c, Estimation of aquifer parameters in Talcher coal field area, Talcher, Orissa, NGRI-04-GW-437. Sreedevi, P.D., Subrahmanyam, K. and Ahmed, S., 2005, The significance of morphometric analysis for obtaining groundwater potential zones in a structurally controlled terrain: Envi. Geol., 4v. 7, p. 412-420. Srinivasa Rao., N., 2006, Nitrate pollution and its distribution in the groundwater of Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh, India: Envi. Geol., v. 51, p. 631-645. Subba Rao, N. 2003, Groundwater prospecting and management in an agro-based rural environment of crystalline terrain of India: Envi. Geol., v. 43, p. 419-431. Subba Rao, N. 2006, Groundwater potential index in a crystalline terrain using remote sensing data: Envi.Geol., v. 50, p. 1067-1076. Subba Rao, N., Prakasa Rao, J. and Subrahmanyam, A., 2007, Principal Component Analysis in groundwater quality in a developing urban area of Andhra: J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 959-969. Subba Rao, N. and Devadas, D.J., 2003, Fluoride incidence in groundwater in an area of Peninsular India: Envi. Geol., v. 45, p. 243-251. Subba Rao, N., Saroja Nirmala, I. and Suryanarayana, K., 2005, Groundwater quality in a coastal area: a case study from Andhra Pradesh, India: Envi.Geol., 4, v. 8, p. 443-450. Subramani, T., Elango, L. and Damodarasamy, S.R., 2005, Groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and agricultural use in Chithar River Basin, Tamil Nadu, India: Envi. Geol., v. 47, p. 1099-1110. Sujatha, A., 2003, Fluoride levels in the groundwater of the south-eastern part of Ranga Reddy district Andhra Pradesh, India: Envi.Geol., v. 44, p. 587-591. Sujatha, A. and Reddy, B.R., 2003, Quality characterization of groundwater in the south-eastern part of the Ranga Reddy district, Andhra Pradesh, India. 44: Envi. Geol., v. 69, p. 579-586. Sundaresan, I., 2006, Groundwater perspectives of small islandsLakshadweep islands, India in Romani, S., et al., eds., Groundwater Governance: Capital Publ. Co., New Delhi, p. 125-132. Suresh Babu, D.S., Thangarajan, M. and Sinha, A.K. (Eds.) 2005, Numerical simulation of groundwater flow and mass transport for effective management of aquifers, Lecture note volume, pp. 534. Tiwary, R.K., Dhakate, R., Ananda Rao, V. and Singh, V.S., 2005, Assessment and prediction of contaminant migration in groundwater from chromite waste dump: Envi. Geol., v. 48, p. 420-429. Umar, 2005. Umar, R., Muqtada, M., Khan, A. and Absar, A., 2006, Groundwater hydrochemistry of a sugarcane cultivation belt in parts of Muzaffarnagar district, Uttar Pradesh, India: Envi. Geol., v. 49, p. 999-1008. Umar, R. and Ahmed, I., 2007, Hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater in parts of Krishni- Yamuna basins, Muzaffarnagar district, U. P.: J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 69, p. 989-995. Umrikar, B. and Thigale, S.S., 2007, Sea Water ingress study along the Guhagar coast of Maharashtra with

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