Conchology, branch of zoology that concentrates on the study of the shells of soft-bodied animals called mollusks.

Although the term conchology is sometimes applied to the study of both animal and shell, the term malacology has been accepted in many quarters to designate study of the entire organism, including the animal inside. Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Entomology, branch of zoology dealing with insects. Although insects were studied as early as the 4th century bc, particularly by Aristotle, the modern science did not begin to develop until the 17th century ad. The science of entomology received great impetus in the 19th century, largely as a result of the publication of On the Origin of Species (1859) Charles Darwin, which showed how the study of insects illuminates certain aspects of evolution. In the 20th century, entomological research was further stimulated by successes in the search for solutions to medical and economic problems involving insects. Today, there is more research done and literature published annually in this field than in any other branch of zoology. See Insect. Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. helminthology [hlmin thlljee] noun study of parasitic worms: the scientific study of parasitic worms There are many research areas in parasitology practiced by different types of specialists. Microbiologists and virologists primarily work with parasitic bacteria, rickettsiae, and viruses. Plant pathologists work with fungi, nematode parasites of plants, and other plant parasites. Animal parasitologists work with parasitic protozoans, worm groups, and arthropod parasites. Those who specialize in parasitic protozoans are called protozoologists whereas those who study parasitic worms are called helminthologists. Others who examine parasitic insects of humans are called medical entomologists. Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Herpetology (Greek herpetos, creeping), branch of zoology concerned with all aspects of the study of amphibians and reptiles, including their taxonomy (classification), systematics, ecology, behavior, anatomy, life history, and distribution. Many herpetologists specialize, studying a single living group or fossils of extinct species. The science is increasingly involved in the conservation and protection of species. See also Amphibian; Reptile. Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Ichthyology, field of zoology devoted to the study of fishes (see Fish). The name derives from the Greek ichthys, for fish. Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. malacology [mll klljee] noun study of mollusks: the branch of zoology that involves the study of mollusks

[Mid-19th century. < French < modern Latin Malacozoa "soft-bodied creatures" < Greek malakos (see malaco-)] Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. mammalogy [m mlljee, ma mlljee] noun study of mammals: the branch of zoology that deals with the study of mammals Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Ornithology, the scientific study of birds; a branch of zoology. Ornithologists examine both wild and domestic birds, investigating their anatomy, behavior, evolutionary development, ecology, classification, and species distribution. Much of today's knowledge of birds also comes from amateur bird-watching, which is not only an enjoyable hobby but has also contributed valuable data on the behavior and migration of birds. As a result of such activities, many organizations have been formed to educate the public in the protection and consideration of bird life, including the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in the United Kingdom and the National Audubon Society in the U.S. The International Ornithological Congress, which originated in Vienna in 1884, is held every four years for amateur birdwatchers and professionals alike. See Bird. Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

parasitology [prrssi tlljee, prr s tlljee] noun study of parasites: the scientific study of plants and animals that live as parasites Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. z lljee] noun study of protozoans: the branch of zoology that studies protozoans Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. mycology mycology [m klljee] noun 1. study of fungi: a branch of botany that specializes in the scientific study of fungi 2. fungi of particular area: the fungi that live in a particular area 3. characteristics of individual fungus: the characteristics of a particular fungus Scientists have long disagreed about how to classify fungi, and the classification systems are still developing. The first description of fungi was published in 1729 by Italian botanist Pier Antonio Micheli. Fungi were initially classified in the Plant Kingdom, and the field of fungus study, or mycology, developed as a branch of botany. Recognition of the unique characteristics of fungi led mycologists to establish a separate kingdom, Kingdom Fungi, in the late 1960s. More recently, some mycologists have noted that some organisms, such as slime molds, downy mildews, and water molds, have characteristics that place them in the Kingdom Protista rather than the fungi. Unlike true fungi, some slime molds have a mobile, multinucleate feeding stage similar to amoebas. Downy mildews and water molds produce motile cells for part of their life cycle, have hyphal walls that lack chitin, and make an egg cell and sperm nuclei. Some scientists have proposed that downy mildews and water molds deserve to be classified in a separate kingdom, called Kingdom Stramenopila. Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. phycology study of algae: the branch of botany concerned with the scientific study of algae. origin of life 1998: Biology: New Theories Advanced for Origins of Life Two studies published in the July 31, 1998, issue of the journal Science advance new theories about how life on Earth might have begun 4 billion years ago. One looked to outer space, while the other focused on the conditions found near volcanoes and deep-sea vents. Based on observations from the Anglo-Australian Telescope at Siding Spring Observatory near Coonabarabran, Australia, researchers from Australia, the United Kingdom, and elsewhere discovered large amounts of circularly polarized infrared light emanating from the Great Orion Nebula, a gas cloud 1500 light-years from Earth. Circularly polarized light is created when light is trapped in an electric field that rotates in a circular direction. A light-year is the distance that light travels in one year, approximately 9.5 trillion km (5.9 trillion mi).

This finding could be the key to a mystery that dates back 150 years. In 1848 French chemist Louis Pasteur discovered that almost all life on Earth is made up of molecules that twist in one direction, also known as being either left-handed or right-handed. For example, amino acids, the building blocks of protein, are almost exclusively left-handed, while sugars are right-handed. But when naturally occurring molecules were created in the laboratory in later experiments, equal numbers of left- and right-handed

molecules were formed. Scientists were puzzled about why nature seemed to prefer either lefthandedness or right-handedness.

Almost 70 years ago, scientists found that circularly polarized ultraviolet light can destroy one type of molecule, either the left-handed molecules or the right-handed ones, depending on which way the light is polarized. But there was no known source of circularly polarized light when life on Earth began. Where did this one-sided orientation come from?

In 1997 scientists studying the Murchison meteorite, a meteorite rich in organic materials that fell to Earth in 1969, found an excess amount of left-handed amino acids. Since meteorites are fragments of asteroids left over from the formation of the solar system, scientists believe their properties resemble those of the early solar system. The left-handedness of amino acids might have originated when Earth was bombarded by comets and meteorites in its early history. The circularly polarized light findings from the Great Orion Nebula, which astronomers believe is a star-forming region resembling the one in which the Earth's solar system was formed, make the case even stronger. Skeptics, however, note that only circularly polarized infrared light was found, not the ultraviolet type that has been shown to create onehandedness in molecules.

The other study could explain how these space-transported molecules may have developed into the first living cells. The study was headed by German chemists Claudia Huber of Munich Technical University and coauthor Gnter Wchtershuser. In this study they attempted to show how amino acids could have formed peptides, short chains that are an essential step toward protein formation and the development of life.

Huber and Wchtershuser proposed that peptide formation took place not in the warm pools of the early Earth's surfaceoften referred to as the primordial soup theorybut in hot, mineral-rich areas such as those in volcanoes or deep-sea hydrothermal vents. In the laboratory, the scientists were able to recreate that type of environment by mixing amino acids in a solution of iron ore, nickel, and the volcanic gases hydrogen sulfide and carbon monoxide. The experiment successfully produced peptides. However, critics questioned the study, arguing that the building blocks of life could not survive long at the high temperatures found in this kind of environment. Microsoft Encarta 2009. 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.