Flag-waving and Fin De Sicle: Themes of nationality, authenticity and pre-millennial angst in the work of Blur.

Abstract

Blur are widely considered to be one of the seminal British bands of the 1990s and are responsible, along with others in the resurgence of interest in British music during this era. Their music soundtracked a period of political upheaval in the UK as the country emerged from the bleak back-drop of Thatcherism during the 1980s which had born witness to the crushing of the Unions, poll-tax riots and a widening of the class-divide; the difference between the haves and the have-nots. In the period pre-1995 if the Conservatives could be considered to signify the middle and upper classes then the Labour Party was firmly considered the champion of the working classes; representing the interests of the working-man. However, with Thatchers resignation in 1990 and John Majors premiership there began a shift in attitudes towards the Conservative Party and Labours popularity began to rise again. The death of Labour leader John Smith in 1994 opened the door for a new breed of Labour politician and as Tony Blair took the party helm the party was unofficially rebranded New Labour. Their 1996 draft manifesto entitled New Labour New Life For Britain placed emphasis on the need for renewed pride in the UK and proposed many policies beneficial to the improvement of working and living conditions for the less well off in the country, such as the national minimum wage and the addressing of youth-unemployment. The Conservative party had also been in strong support of American foreign policy: a return to Labour had the potential for Britain to step away from America and reassert Britain as a stand-alone ethically-driven force on the world-stage once again. However, juxtaposing the traditional image of a political party once again fighting for the rights of the working-classes was a new style of politics and labour politician, the roots of which were firmly planted in the privileged echelons of the privately educated middle-class and time under Blairs

government was to show that, in many areas, New Labours champagne socialism was not that dissimilar to Conservatism, especially in the area of foreign policy and attitudes towards Britains special relationship with Washington. At the same time the UK along with much of the Western world looked forward with a mixture of anticipation and trepidation to the ever-approaching new millennium. Celebratory projects such as the Millennium Dome and Millennium Wheel were over-shadowed by fears of the so called Millennium Bug and Y2K problem which was thought to potentially have the capabilities of sending the computerised-world into a state of virtual melt-down. This sense of trepidation towards the end of an age can be observed in the beliefs of many Millenarianistic movements throughout the centuries and whereas, in previous centuries and millennia, this was predicated by religious belief, the concerns arising when approaching the year 2000 were driven by technology, which many have since debated is the new religion of the 21st century. With these issues in mind the purpose of this study will be to examine how the music of Blur, and specifically the period encompassing their 2nd and 5th studio albums (Modern Life Is Rubbish, Parklife, The Great Escape and Blur), mirrors the themes of nationality and class-authenticity which arise from the emergence of New Labour as a political force and also reflects the sense of pre-millennial angst prevalent at the time. The band, whose members all experienced middle-class upbringings, widely played with workingclass imagery and both lyrically and instrumentally through the use of genre synecdoche imbued their music with a very definite sense of place. By lead-singer Damon Albarns own admission much of the music on these earlier albums was written in direct challenge to the wave of American grunge-music that was flooding Britain at the time and attempted to reify the British musical traditions that had developed with British bands such as The Beatles, The Kinks and The Small Faces during the 1960s. I propose that it is also possible to identify a definite awareness of an end of an

age or fin de seicle running throughout these works; dissatisfaction with the here and now and apprehension towards the future.

Flag-waving and Fin De Sicle: Themes of nationality, authenticity and pre-millennial angst in the work of Blur.

Literature Review.
I have chosen, for my dissertation topic, to consider themes of nationality and pre-millennial angst running evident in the works of Britpop band, Blur during the middle-period of their career. Rather than focussing solely on sociological and historical perspectives I hope to be able to demonstrate these links primarily my examining the lyrical content of Blurs songs as well as through the investigation of aspects of the bands choices of instrumentation and compositional techniques. In parallel to this I will also explore the concurrence between the rise in popularity of New Labour and Blurs popularity and in doing so again discuss the themes of nationality and fin de seicle as well as that of class perception and the apparent dichotomy that presents itself when considering this issue in relation to both Blur and New Labour. There has been much written in recent years regarding Britpop. However, much of this literature contextualises Britpop within the sociological and political framework of the time rather than from a wholly musicological perspective. The music of the era is primarily discussed in relation to the possible catalysts behind its production (the why) rather than undertaking an in-depth examination into what features of the music itself present this to the listener (the how). This may be due to the difficulty in succinctly identifying unifying features of the Britpop sound. A comparison of the two biggest-selling Britpop-labelled bands, Blur and Oasis, highlights many disparities between the approach to and execution of the song writing process which is not only audibly evident but also made apparent through examinations of interviews with each bands main songwriters. Therefore, in reviewing a selection of the literature I will be referring to during my research I have chosen to focus

on examples dealing with each theme I will discuss; nationality, pre-millennial angst and politicalparallels respectively. Andy Bennetts essay Village Greens and terraced Streets: Britpop and representations of Britishness discusses the issue of nationality in regard to 1990s Britpop. By splitting his article into three distinct sections he is able to examine the overall issue of music and nationality, non-specific to Britpop, the historical influences of British 1960s bands such as The Kinks and The Small Faces on the Britpop bands of the 90s and lastly to explore, from a sociological perspective, themes and images of Britishness identifiable in the works of various Britpop artists. As an overview of the relationship between themes of nationality and Britpop this article provides a good starting point upon which to base further research. It touches upon several theories that reinforce my own assertions as set out in my dissertation proposal; that Britpop emerged partially due to an artistic backlash against American grunge music as well as citing factors such as the decline of British industry, youth unemployment as possible causes prompting a resurgence, either consciously or subconsciously, in the feeling of the need to reify a sense of national identity. However, in so far as my own research is concerned; discussing these topics within the context of the music of Blur, the article is fairly non-specific. Bennett chooses only to analyse 2 songs within this text, namely Parklife by Blur and Common People by Pulp. Even when doing this more focus is placed upon the relationship between the music lyrically and the accompanying imagery of the respective music videos for each song. Referring to the themes explored within the songs of Blur and Pulp he notes that lyrically the songs portray a harsher, more satirical picture of Britain than what might be considered to be the more rose-tinted song narratives of 1960s bands such as The Kinks and The Small Faces that Britpop bands were said to emulate. Although he dismisses these revisions as, in his opinion, largely peripheral and refers to the pastiche nature of the accompanying music videos which show positive or nostalgic imagery to support this assertion, I feel that this presents another interesting dichotomy which becomes apparent when considering Blurs music; that it is

considered to be nationalistic while representing negative aspects of modern British culture. This provides another starting point from which I will consider the contradictory nature of this subject. Although Britpop-era band, The Divine Comedys 1998 album employs the term as its title, in regard to the relationship between the music of Blur and representations of fin de sicle I have, as yet, been unable to source any literature that directly makes a connection between the two. The term fin de sicle is most commonly used in reference to a period of cultural development in late 19 th century France. It literally translates as end of the century. However, the Tate Gallery definition notes that the term has also been used to describe any creative work that expresses apocalyptic sense of end of a phase of civilisation. I have chosen to use this idiom in describing the sense of pre-millennial angst audible within the works of Blur partly due to the direct reference to the terms literal translation in the title of the third track taken from the bands third album Parklife, entitled End of A Century but also because of the expressions connotations of decadence (another late 19th century artistic movement with which the phrase is associated) and how this phrase might aptly evoke the well-documented excesses of the Britpop era. I have also been able to find very few direct references to Britpop and the term pre-millennial angst. Trip-hop artist, Trickys 1996 album, entitled Pre-Millennium Tension more or less alludes to the same idea and some articles make a passing use of the term in reference to the work of bands such as Pulp, Massive Attack and Radiohead, however I can find no literature that explores this theme in any depth and certainly not in relation to the work of Blur. This fact presents the opportunity for a potentially innovative area of research and will allow me to explore a previously academically neglected facet of Blurs music. In examining the connection between Blur and New Labour John Harris book The Last Party: Britpop, Blair and The Demise of English Rock provides an invaluable insight into the relationship between Britpop and the politics of the era. As a pop-cultural history of the 1990s it charts the rise of Britpop in tandem with the rise of New Labour and considers how the political and social climate

influenced the British music scene during the last years of the twentieth century. John Harris is a music journalist and accordingly this text is written in a journalistic style and therefore, although it stands as a reliable historical account of the period, it is also influenced by the writers own opinion of events of the time. Similarly, Harris earlier book Britpop: cool Britannia and the spectacular demise of English rock also addresses these issues, drawing from contemporary interviews with artists, industry professionals and politicians of the time. Although these accounts do not specifically deal with the relationship between Blurs career and New Labour, rather considering the Britpop scene as a whole and its political associations, they do provide a wealth of information from which to draw a more succinct perspective on the analogous nature that becomes apparent when considering the two. Finally, Andy Bennett and John Strattons anthology of academic writings on the subject, Britpop and the English music tradition contains essays dealing with specific issues arising from a consideration of the subject including those of Britpop and Gender, Britpop and its influences and Britpop and laddism. As a resource these texts are very useful as, on the surface, they give a broad overview of all the relevant issues surrounding this sub-genre but also present an in-depth academic contemplation of the subject as a whole. Most relevant to my area of research is the essay written by Dr Rupa Huq, senior lecturer in sociology at Kingston University entitled Labouring the point: The politics of Britpop in New Britain. This text considers to what extent the movements of Britpop and New Labour influenced each others successes and how reliant one was upon the other. It also points out the semiotic dichotomy of New Labour in terms of class and political motivations and goes on to suggest that it is possible to identify many parallels between 1960s Britain and the Britpop era not only musically, as has been pointed out by numerous writers including John Harris and Andy Bennett, but politically as well. Dr Huq draws the conclusion that the music of Britpop lacked any political motivations unlike the protest-based sentiments of the earlier Indie movement. However, it seems that in any discussion of Britpop, the music will always be inextricably linked with the political climate of the time. Although the essay does not specifically discuss Blur in relation to

politics this essay provides a pertinent sociological examination of the Britpop period and the inception and development of New Labour and the partys policies and ideologies and will provide a framework from within which I will be able to explore the congruent elements between the two in a more detailed manner. During this essay I will discuss the thematic thread of these albums and in focusing on analysis of lyrics and instrumentation on certain tracks contained within each album demonstrate the symbiotic relationship between Blurs music and the sociological and political change occuring during the mid90s.

Flag-waving and Fin De Sicle: Themes of nationality, authenticity and pre-millennial angst in the work of Blur.

A review of much of the literature available dealing with the subject of Britpop reveals that seemingly, the majority of discussions regarding the UK music scene during the mid 1990s will inevitably also discuss the political issues of the time. It is evidently taken as given that the popularity of Britpop as a genre and the rise of the political phenomenon that was to become known as New Labour were indeed inextricably linked. However, a major problem with this assumption seems to be that Britpop as a genre or movement, at least in so far as the main protagonists were concerned, appears not to have existed. Several factors can be used to argue the relegation of Britpop to a category of non-genre. For example, none of the bands referred to as Britpop were remotely keen to apply the moniker to themselves: It was a Britpop truism that nobody ever admitted to being Britpop. As a musical movement it was Spartacus reversed.1 Philip Norman goes even further, suggesting that, None of the bands themselves ever thought of themselves as *Britpop+, and all quickly came to despise the term.2 Secondly, the disparity between the music of the bands gathered under this label is more than audibly apparent both compositionally and lyrically. It could be said that the main commonality between these groups was a period of time; other apparent similarities, when examined more closely, appear tentative. For a movement so often viewed in conjunction with the contemporary political climate in comparison to other genres whose musics have become synonymous with political movements or motivations it is easy to note the disparity between the political agendas of these genres and that of
1

Cavanagh. My Magpie Eyes Are Hungry For The Prize.Virgin, London, 2000, p622

Norman, P. Britpop:The Beat Goes Off. The Times Online. [Online] February 17, 2003.

Britpop. For example, the folk music revival of the 1960s voiced an openly anti-war and civil-rights based agenda and exponents including Bob Dylan, Joan Baez and Pete Seeger explicitly addressed these issues lyrically through their music. Similarly, the Punk movement is commonly associated with liberal, left-wing or anarchistic rhetoric and 80s Hip-Hop with the anti-racism and blackempowerment. Within the genres noted above and others like them it is also noted that there was often co-operation and open ideological discourse between many of the exponents. Although, it has been shown that individually, certain figures of the era, perhaps most vocally Noel Gallagher of Oasis,3 were forth-coming in expressing their personal political preferences, none of the above mentioned traits associated with politically vociferous genres can be said to be a prevalent factor in the development of the music labelled as Britpop; the music itself promoted neither an openly political message nor did the bands involved specifically work together in furthering a political cause. The groups that functioned under the Britpop banner all worked independently of themselves.4 In fact the open animosity, rivalry and discord between several of the leading characters in the Britpop story is well-documented.5 Nevertheless, despite Britpop bands failure to exhibit the perceived structures of genre-ideology of other accepted politically-implicated musical movements, it would appear that most critical analysis continues to consider the music and politics of this period (and specifically New Labour) as having a symbiotic relationship. In recognizing the seemingly inseparable nature of both entities we raise a number of questions. For example, what elements, in light of the fact that political sentiment is not immediately apparent in much of the music of Britpop, lead commentators to link the two and when the bands considered to be Britpop were for the most part ideologically non-collaborative, unwilling to label themselves as belonging to the genre and sharing

Gallagher, Noel. Acceptance Speech. The Brit Awards. s.l. : ITV, January 1996.

(Dr), Huq. R. The Politics of Britpop in New Britain. [book auth.] A Stratton, J Bennett. Britpop and the English Music Tradition . Ashgate 2010, p93

Gallagher, Noel Interview with Amanda Sawyer, The Observer, September 17 1995.

only a surface musical commonality, how then can an entire movement be considered in relationship to a political ideology? In answering the above questions it can be argued that labeling bands such as Oasis, Suede and Pulp Britpop could be considered an imprecision within the definition of the term and that only one band of the era can truly be regarded as embodying the appellation, namely, Blur. Even for those who would disagree with this statement it is possible to counter that if Blur cannot be considered the only true Britpop band then they can justifiably be viewed as the official Britpop act and this might provide an insight into the reasoning behind the association so often made between Britpop and New Labour as an examination of the work of the band and the background of its members shows remarkable parallels between Blurs career and the rise of New Labour and in the concerns and sentiments expressed by both.

Blur: The Real Britpop Band?

In validating either rationale it is first necessary to define what features are commonly held to characterize the Britpop sound and in what way these aspects apply to Blur and their contemporaries. Britpop has been described as being a defiantly nationalistic anti-grunge movement, as having a perky, cockney/patriotic style6 and as an outer-suburban, middle-class fantasy of central London streetlife, with exclusively metropolitan models7 If we consider these definitions in relation to the acts most frequently referred to as Britpops key players; Blur, Oasis, Pulp and Suede, then it is possible to assert that Blur are the only group who can be said to fill all the criteria. Unquestionably, the term cockney is only relevant to Blur; an examination of the other groups musical and lyrical style easily demonstrate the unsuitable nature of this description. While all the groups embraced a regional accent (or perhaps more accurately, chose not to affect an
6 7

Shuker, R. Popular Music: The Key Concepts. London : Routledge, 1998. p36 Savage, Jon. Letter From London: Britpop. Artforum. . October, 1995.

American accent), Suede; south of England, Pulp and Oasis; northern-England, the use of Cockney imagery can only be said to be true of Blur. Similarly the depiction of Britpop as a middle class fantasy of central-London streetlife... can really only be said in reference to the music of Blur. Oasis and Pulp came from firmly working-class backgrounds and while admittedly Suede were from more middle-class stock, none of these bands rooted their music specifically in London. His and Hers, A Different Class and This is Hardcore, Pulps albums spanning the first wave of Britpop, contain only two passing references to the city, namely St Martins College and Soho. Similarly there can be found only one reference to London in the lyrics of Suedes first 3 albums and none whatsoever in Oasis first 3 releases. In contrast, during the course of the firmly middle-class Blurs first 4 studio albums it is possible to find no less than 6 songs that are set within the capital and also the overriding presence of Albarns faux-Cockney accent. Furthermore, if we are to take the premise that Britpop was born out of a nationalistic reaction against the American grunge movement and more specifically Nirvana, we can see that this ethos is most true of Blur. Certainly many of the above acts were reported at the time as expressing antiAmerican sentiments; Brett Anderson of Suede speaking to the NME in 1992 is quoted as saying It pisses me off immensely that America has hi-jacked British music and I find the idea of British bands singing in American accents as horrifying8 However, Suede guitarist Bernard Butler was certainly uncomfortable with the bands perceived back-lash against America; ...all this stuff about quintessential Englishness. I didnt get it all.9 Having been formed in 1978, some 15 years before the inception of Britpop, the music of Pulp cannot be said to be specifically founded in a reaction against American music. Perhaps most tellingly, Noel Gallagher of Oasis, Blurs biggest rivals cited Nirvana front-man, Kurt Cobain as the only person I have any respect for as a songwriter over the last 10 years.10 Contrastingly Damon Albarn stated: If punk was about getting rid of hippies, then I'm

8 9

Harris, J. The Last Party: Britop, Blair and The Demise of English Rock. London : Harper Perennial, 2004, p77 Ibid p75 10 Gallagher, Noel. Top Of The Pops. Guitar World. s.l. : Cawes, M, May 1996.

getting rid of grunge.11 The album that Albarn hoped would do this, Modern Life Is Rubbish has been cited as arguably the first record in the genre that was to become Britpop.12 Record executive and Blur confidante, Mike Smith, recalls the period; It *Modern Life is Rubbish+ was all bound up in the vehemence of *Albarns+ reaction to grunge.13 Bass player, Alex James describes the album as being a fucking big two fingers up to America.14 If Blurs rhetoric was a rejection of America then their vocalisation of this sentiment was through an embracing of British culture. Beginning with the release of this, their second album, and on subsequent albums, Parklife and The Great Escape, Blur persistently returned to themes of Britain and Britishness not only through their lyrical narratives but also through their choice of instrumentation and compositional techniques, as will be discussed in greater detail later. Although the bands contemporaries did include some culturally-specific references within their music, none did so to the extent of Blur. An exploration of the subject matters addressed by Pulp and Suede during this period shows that the main thematic thrust of their music does not directly deal with Britain or the concept of Britishness, but rather demonstrates a preoccupation with sex and also, in the case of Suede, drug-use. Therefore it can be shown that although Blurs contemporaries may have initially expressed similar sentiment they, for the most part, failed to reify this with their actions. From this, it could be inferred that Blur can most accurately be described as the quintessential Britpop act and from this it is possible to explore the deeper links between Britpop and New-Labour.

The Veil of Authenticity

Since its inception in 1900, the Labour Party had held strong links with the trade unions and espoused a strongly socialist manifesto, representing the interests of the working classes and had traditionally drawn its members and politicians from trade-union or public-sector backgrounds.

11 12 13 14

Harris, J. "A shite sports car and a punk reincarnation.". NME. April 10th, 1993. Cavanagh. My Magpie Eyes Are Hungry For The Prize p583
Harris, J. The Last Party: Britop, Blair and The Demise of English Rock. London : Harper Perennial, 2004, p77

James, Alex. Britpop a decade on. s.l. : Under The Radar Magazine, Summer 2005.

However, the Labour leadership contest of July, 1994, could be said to have marked a turning point in the history of the party, with the election of Tony Blair as shadow Prime-minister. Tony Blair did not hail from the usual expected background of the Labour politicianhe had none of the Labour attributes of humble origins or even a history of crusading for the underprivileged15 In fact, Blairs background had been very privileged having studied at Edinburghs exclusive public school Fettes College and was firmly entrenched in conservatism; Blairs father Leo, had been chairman of the Durham Conservative Association and had planned to run as a Conservative MP before he suffered from a stroke.16 At this time in British politics the Conservative government had been in power for 15 years. Throughout this time there had been periods of civil unrest stemming from the working-classes dissatisfaction with Tory policy, such as the miners strike of the early 1980s and the Poll Tax Riots which ushered in the 1990s. The first years of this decade bore witness to deep economic recession and accompanied by ever increasing media claims of Tory sleaze the Conservatives popularity began to dwindle and paved the way for a resurgence in support for Labour. However, the nations rejection of right-wing Conservatism that took the form of a re-embracement of a party that had traditionally symbolised socialist ideals and championed the cause of the working-classes, would unwittingly lead to the election of a party, which under the leadership of Blair has subsequently been described as more right-wing than the Tories17, and the most rightwing *government+ since the second world war.18 Political commentator Matthew Dankona, reflecting upon Blairs seemingly conservative ideologies asserts that Blair had stolen all the best bits. He had taken all the presidentialism of Thatcher. He had taken the One Nation spirit of Conservatism. He spoke as an
15

(Dr), Huq. R. The Politics of Britpop in New Britain. [book auth.] A Stratton, J Bennett. Britpop and the English Music Tradition .
16

Ryle, S. Leo senior's rise from slum boy to successful barrister. The Guardian. [Online] May 21st, 2000. [Cited: May 10th, 2011.] http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2000/may/21/tonyblair.politics4. 17 Reece, B. No Doubting Thomas. Socialist Review. [Online] March 1999. [Cited: May 4th, 2011.] http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/sr228/reese.htm.
18

Monbiot, G. This government has been the most rightwing since the second world war. The Guardian. [Online] May 20th, 2008. [Cited: April 9th, 2011.] http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/may/20/labour.guardiancolumnists.

English public schoolboy he didnt really leave the Tory Party with much.19 Similarly Conrad Russell, writing in the New Left Review in 1999, observed that he [Blair] seems to believe that the alternative to socialism is conservatism.20 This could be interpreted as Tony Blair and New Labour wearing the mantle of authenticity afforded to them by the semiotic connotations of (Old) Labour which in turn disguised many of the movements right-wing political leanings that were to reveal themselves in the following course of years. A reoccurring theme within the history of British popular music has been that of the perceived authenticity of working-classes in opposition to the supposed artistry of the middle-classes.21 Comparably to New Labour, with their appropriation of working-class imagery, middle-class artstudents, Blur also sought to imbue themselves with a similar air of authenticity. They attempted this both through blatant borrowing of imagery but also by more subtle means. Features such as Albarns faux-Cockney accent or the album art work for Parklife that was inspired by and partly shot at Walthamstow dog track; greyhound racing being a pastime synonymous with the working classes are just two of the more obvious examples of this appropriation. However, others are more shrewdly inter-laced into the fabric of the bands work and presentation. A comparison of two photographs that accompanied the release of Modern Life Is Rubbish (MLIR) entitled British Image No 1 and British Image No 2 by Paul Spencer is a case in point.22 The first photograph shows a whitewashed wall upon which is emblazoned the images title. Albarn, dressed in Fred Perry t-shirt, half-mast jeans and cherry Dr Marten boots, stands in the foreground holding the leash of a large mastiff dog, his band mates relegated to the background of the picture. In the second picture the band, now in the front of the image, with Albarn consigned to the back, are
19

Dankona, M. The Jam Generation Take Power. s.l. : McEllvoy,A, May 10th, 2011.

20

Russel, C. New Labour: Old Tory Writ Large. New Left Review. September-October, 1996.

21

Wiseman-Trowse, N. Performing Class in British Popular Music. . New York : Paulgrave Macmillan, 2008.
22

See appendix i

shown in a domestic setting, posed on or around a Chesterton settee in a sitting room of oddly skewed perspective. They sport side-partings, Oxford blazers and unsettling make-up which accentuates lips, cheeks and eyes and is reminiscent perhaps of early cinema but also evokes the features of old-fashioned puppets. Although the first image is not particularly colourful its subdued yellow and washed out blue lighting stands in contrast to the eerie black and white of its partner. By itself British Image No 1 firmly speaks of the bands desire to project a working-class persona. The working-class status symbol that is the aggressive dog is a familiar British sight. Albarn adopts the uniform of the Oi!-Punk and Skinhead movement, a uniform viewed as a reassertion of solid, male, working-class, toughness23 which itself had taken many of its cues from the working-class creation
24

that was the Mod movement of the 1960s; sub-cultures which also valued authenticity - although

image played an important role, adherence to a central ethos was equally important, if not more so. The use of such symbolism could be seen as seeking to portray Blur as possessing similar qualities. Furthermore, the milieu and construction of the image has threatening undertones. The urban setting, graffiti and stances of the subjects, to the viewer might hint at inner-city disaffected youth; of gangs and delinquency which have long been debated to be consequences of normal workingclass values.25 Even the composition reflects a working-class concern; that of masculinity and the man who stands with and yet apart from his peer-group. British Image No.2 stands in contrast to the former. Although the main components are still visible, namely, the band members and motto, this is a very different picture. We are transported to a scene of domesticity in which the surroundings and bands attire speak of middle and upper class leanings. Although tea is a drink which is stereotypically associated with the British in general, the way in which it is consumed can be viewed as a class-signifier. The image of band-members consuming tea from dainty china cups and the inclusion of a tea-pot can be seen to hold middle-class connotations.

23 24

Mungham, G Pearson, G. Working Class Youth Culture. London : Routledge and Keegan Paul Ltd. , 1976, p6 Ibid, p7 25 See Walter Millers Focal Concerns Theory.

That these images are designed to portray different class strata can be easily recognized. However, the nature of each portrayal serves to reinforce certain ideas of each. The prim stances, unnatural make-up and old-fashioned, stuffy clothing of the second picture, coupled with the unusual geometry of the room and perhaps most tellingly, the positioning of the title imbue the image with a sense of the undesirable. The odd angles hint at a nightmarish Escheresque scenario. The wooden poses and puppet-like make-up might symbolize a class not in control of their own destiny. In this image the addition of make-up itself feminizes the band and when viewed in comparison to the masculine-virility of its counterpart, could be said to represent the perceived emasculation of the middle-class male. The desaturation of the image might signify a life lacking colour or the outdatedness of middle-class ideals. Finally, if British Image No.2 symbolizes the middle-classes then this motto within the picture is seemingly not fit for display, rather to be strewn upon the floor; something perhaps to wipe ones feet on? The idea of British Image No.1 as a positive depiction of working-class ideals and Blurs alliance to those ideals is further reified and distilled by the negativity of its accompanying image. More than this though, these images serve as allegorical accounts of authenticity and artifice. From the release of MLIR and throughout Parklife and The Great Escape this theme is continuously revisited. Even if the song does not outwardly promote working-class life, such as in tracks Sunday Sunday and Parklife, Blur continued with their critique of the British middle-class life-style. Parading through these works are characterisations of middle class men who are (or the band feel should be) either dissatisfied with their life or who are portrayed in a negative manner. This concept first emerges on MLIR with the appearance of Colin Zeal. Colin is painted as a smug and self-satisfied business man. He is the common aggressor and a modern retard. The lyric concludes that Colin is ill. The disdain with which Zeal is held is almost palpable. Parklife character, Tracy Jacks is the protagonist in a tale of middle-class discontent. Tracy is a civil-servant who one day snaps and suffers a very public breakdown which concludes with the bulldozing of his own house. Fellow Parklife character, Bill Barrat, similarly dreams of escaping his life by going to Magic America. By

The Great Escape we are introduced to Mr Robinson the corrupt quango official and Ernold Same, the commuter who leads a life of repetitive drudgery. Although not specifically dubbed we can see further similar characterisations in tracks such as T.O.P.M.A.N and Country House. The over-riding message of these songs is a condemnation of pretence and pretentiousness; Zeal is a fraud, Jacks conforms to a life he is unhappy with, Barrat is blinded by the falseness of America, Robinson presents a facade of respectability which belies his hypocrisy. Often, and in contrast to their firstperson portrayals of working class life, this commentary is conveyed through the use of third-person narrative, further separating the band from the subject with which they are dealing: they are observers, removed from the artifice they seek to expose.

The Importance of Being British.

Going hand in hand with Blurs quest for authenticity is the nationalistic theme running through much of these albums. Although again they address this through their lyrics, the notion of nationality (as well as authenticity) is also conveyed through the use of what Tagg refers to as Genre Synecdoche: A musical synecdoche [is] a set of musical structures inside a given musical style that refer to another
(different, 'foreign', 'alien') musical style by citing one or two elements supposed to be typical of that 'other' style when heard in the context of the style into which those 'foreign' elements are imported. By citing part of the other style, the citation then alludes not only to that other style in its entirety but also potentially refers to 26 the complete genre of which that other musical style is a subset.

It can be observed that Blurs music contains many instances of synecdoche, in the use of both instrumentation and compositional devices. The term pop is a relatively modern expression and was not in use a generic term until the 1950s.27 Hence, just as the term classical might signify the

26

Tagg, P. Towards a Sign Typology. Tagg.Org. [Online] [Cited: March 12th, 2011.] http://www.tagg.org/articles/xpdfs/trento91.pdf.
27

Gammond, P. The Oxford Companion to Popular Music. Oxford : Oxford University Press., 1992, p457

use of orchestral instruments, it could be seen that the term has come to be associated with certain, more modern, instrumentation such as the electric guitar or synthesiser. Although the core of Blurs music is based on the accepted pop/rock line-up of drums, bass, guitar, vocals and additional keyboards, there are also many instrumentational choices within the music that appear incongruous within the pop-idiom. The inclusion of string, brass and woodwind sections and less common instruments such as the harpsichord and flugelhorn could be seen to have semiotic resonance on several different levels. For example these instruments are most commonly thought of as members of the orchestral family and as such, might be thought to refer to or signify western-art music or in laymans terms, classical music. In connoting classical or western-art music Blur could be seeking to ally themselves with a musical-tradition rooted in European and British culture. This desire could be viewed as an embracement of an anglo-centric aesthetic and in turn, the rejection of America. Furthermore, this could convey and idea of the high-brow. It could be argued that in referencing aspects of high-brow culture in their music, Blur are in fact at odds with their advocacy of workingclass culture, which is stereotypically perceived as low-brow, thereby revealing the middle-class artistry and true nature of the band. However, it could be contested that, rather than serving as a contradiction, this implies that working-class culture and authenticity does not necessarily signify low-brow art. Synecdoche is also used to refer to more recent British cultural traditions. For example there are at least three within the music of MLIR track Sunday Sunday. For example the brass arrangement which appears in the mid-section is reminiscent of traditional colliery bands. However, this gives way to an accelerated section featuring a Wurlitzer style organ which evokes a sense of the British seasside holiday and end of the pier entertainment. Underlying this is a drum-beat that is redolent of The Stripper, a 1962 hit for Dave Rose. Although this composition is not particularly British in itself it does have strong cultural-resonance as a track which frequently appeared in classic 1960s and 1970s British comedy such as in the Carry On series, Monty Pythons Flying Circus and perhaps most

notably in the iconic Morecambe and Wise Breakfast Sketch. In the final verse this reference is further strengthened by the addition of solo trumpet which mimics the main melodic vocal-line, played in a style which is, again, a prominent feature of The Stripper. However, Blur repeatedly also reach even further back into British musical traditions in anchoring themselves to an anglo-centric aesthetic, most audibly on the album Parklife. A perfect example of this is track 5, Badhead, which is heralded by a horn fanfare, the arrangement of which uses parallel fifth intervals. Parallel or consecutive fifths were a common feature in Gregorian chant and plainsong28 and sets out a medieval feel from the beginning. As well as the common rock and pop instruments an organ is also present which could be said to sound not unlike an organetto; an early portable-organ often used in medieval liturgical music.29 The organ imitates the guitar in an almost canonical form. Further on in the track in the musical breakdown between the second chorus and an instrumental section two recorders can be heard. The recorder is also an instrument whose history stretches back into the middle-ages30 and the use of this instrument could be thought to convey a sense of ancient English folk-tradition. Melodically the chorus also evokes a sense of the medieval as does the choice of chord progression during the chorus (Am, D, F, A). A melodic comparison might be made to ancient plainsong such as O Pastor Animarum by 12th century nun, Hildegard von Bingen. In the same way, MLIR track, Blue Jeans employs similar instrumental and melodic devices which gives the track an underlying feel of the traditional. This Is A Low the last track on the Parklife album also has a similar melodic feel and striking similarities can be heard between this track and the feel of Robin: The Hooded Man by Clannad, which was composed as the theme to the 80s television programme Robin of Sherwood and reflects the programmes medieval folk-lore theme.
28

Anonymous. Musica enchiriadis. [Online] [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://www.chmtl.indiana.edu/tml/9th11th/MUSENCI_TEXT.html.

29

[Online] [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/organeto.htm.

30

[Online] [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/recorder.htm.

This compositional choice underpins the songs overall theme which takes much of its lyrical content from sea areas referred to in the Radio 4 shipping forecast; a British institution. At around the same time as Blur were concerning themselves with the concept of Britain and Britishness, so too were New Labour. What was to become known as the heritage debate had been raging in Britain since the late 1980s. The de-industrializing effects of Thatcherite economics policy were taken as the harbinger of a dreary post-industrial future.31 This, coupled with the image of Britain as a nation coming painfully to terms with its European future after an imperial past32 led many to argue that the tendency of some, and primarily southern and middle-class elements, to revel in the past, especially in the tradition-laden rural and gentlemanly past33 was primarily an attempt to avoid change by recalling nostalgic and romanticised presentations of the past.34 Concurrently, in the wake of the high number of Conservative political scandals public confidence in politicians had fallen hugely. In November 1994, a massive 73 per cent of voters - including large numbers of Conservatives - agreed that the [Conservative] party gave "the impression of being very sleazy and disreputable.35 This could be argued to have a knock-on effect across the board in regards to the publics opinion of politicians in general. New Labours solution to this was to flip the heritage debate on its head and reinforce the notion of national heritage and national-identity; an upbeat characterization of the nation...might help make people feel good about their politicians by making them feel good about themselves.36 For the younger generation this began with New Labours courting of the British music-industry. Speaking in 1994 at the Q Awards ceremony Blair

31

Mandler, P. The English national character: the history of an idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair. s.l. : Yale University Press, 2006, p234
32

Corsane, G. Heritage, museums and galleries: an introductory reader. . New York : Routledge, 2005, p16

33

Mandler, P. The English national character: the history of an idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair. s.l. : Yale University Press, 2006, p233
34 35

Corsane, G. Heritage, museums and galleries: an introductory reader. . New York : Routledge, 2005, p15

King, Anthony. Public confidence in politicians falls as 'sleaze' factor returns to haunt Labour. The Telegraph. [Online] November 29, 2004. [Cited: May 13, 2011.] http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1477750/Public-confidence-in-politicians-falls-as-sleaze-factorreturns-to-haunt-Labour.html. 36 Mandler, P. The English national character: the history of an idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair. s.l. : Yale University Press, 2006, p234

pronounced that Rock and Roll is not just an important part of our culture; it is an important part of our way of life.37 New Labour also attempted to woo Blur as part of their youth-oriented campaigning, inviting Albarn to meet with Blair and deputy prime minster John Prescott at Westminster in early 1995 as well as choreographing informal drinks at the Houses of Parliament between Alex James and Mo Mowlam.
38

Although for a time there was to be the briefest of

flirtations between band and political party, Labours strategy was ultimately to fail. By 1997 Albarn was expressing his reservations regarding Blair and New Labour. Quoted in Q magazine in the spring of that year Albarn announced, Blair has a worryingly Conservative streak and hes taken his own personality so far into the arena of appeasement that hes no longer a valid leader of a socialist party, prompting headlines such as The Indepedents Blur turn against Blair in new battle of the bands.39 However, regardless of Albarns proclamations, New Labours championing of the British national identity was to pay off and by late 1996 the phrase Cool Britannia had been coined, Blair could be found to appearing in the pages of Vanity Fair and London was declared to be the coolest city on the planet. Under the banner of New Labour, New Britain, Blair would go on to become prime minister, winning the May election in a landslide victory. Blairs 2007 resignation speech reflects the nationalism which had underpinned much of New Labours rhetoric in the preceding years; This country is a blessed country. The British are special. The world knows it, we know it. This is the greatest country on earth."40

The End of a Century

37

Harris, J. The Last Party: Britop, Blair and The Demise of English Rock. London : Harper Perennial, 2004, p101

38

Harris, J. The Last Party: Britop, Blair and The Demise of English Rock. London : Harper Perennial, 2004, p198

39 40

Harris, J. The Last Party: Britop, Blair and The Demise of English Rock. London : Harper Perennial, 2004, FIND PAGE

Tempest, M. Blair to stand down on June 27. The Guardian. [Online] May 10, 2007. [Cited: May 12, 2011.] http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2007/may/10/tonyblair.labour.

Politically, this period of time saw a shift to a post-ideological mood. New Labour, in an effort to distance itself from ... hard and antagonistic values, long ago ceased to elaborate on any ideological dimension to its policy-making.41 Blair justifies this in his 1999 Doctrine of International Policy.
The political debates of the 20th century - the massive ideological battleground between left and right - are over. Echoes remain, but they mislead as much as they illuminate.
42

However, the lack of any substantial New Labour ideology could be argued to explain Labours keenness to ingratiate the party with the current musical zeitgeist as they searched for a way to connect with the voting public. Blurs music similarly lacked in a defined ideology; it could be argued that Blur and many of their contemporaries, in signing to subsidiary arms of major record labels, had brought guitar-music, previously the mainstay of the Indie scene into the mainstream, thereby removing the protest element of British independent music.43 The idea that Britain was moving into a post-ideological period was often referred to in the same breath as The End Of History.44 This term originally arose from the title of a 1989 paper and later, 1992 book by Francis Fukuyama in which he argues that the world could at that point be witnessing the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.45 This was also a concept embraced by New Labour.

41

Turnbull, E Blomfeld,M. Post Ideology: New Labour and the politics of behaviour . Battle Of Ideas. [Online] 2010. [Cited: May 12, 2011.] http://www.battleofideas.org.uk/index.php/2010/battles/871/. 42 The Blair Doctrine. PBS Online. [Online] April 1999. [Cited: May 11, 2011.] http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/international/jan-june99/blair_doctrine4-23.html. 43 (Dr), Huq. R. The Politics of Britpop in New Britain. [book auth.] A Stratton, J Bennett. Britpop and the English Music Tradition . 44 Dankona, M. The Jam Generation Take Power. s.l. : McEllvoy,A, May 10th, 2011. 45 Fukuyama, F. The End Of History. University of Essex. [Online] 1989. [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://courses.essex.ac.uk/GV/GV905/IR%20Media%20201011/W4%20Readings/Fukuyama%20End%20of%20History.pdf.

Look back and we see centuries marked by conflict, hardship, even hatred among the people of these islands. Look forward and we see the chance to shake off those heavy chains of history. Tony Blair, 2007
46

Although this was Blair speaking in 2007 it is representational of much preceding Labour rhetoric. Blair believed that the government was achieving the end of history.47 The idea of things drawing to a close seemed ingrained at the time; the end of history, the end of ideology, the end of the century, the end of the millennium.

Bearing in mind that the approach of the new millennium was increasingly at the forefront of the national psyche with talk of the millennium project and the millennium bug, (Labours 1997 party manifesto directly refers to the approaching millennium no less than 7 times in its pages48) it is possible to perceive a similar sense of Fin De Sicle in Blurs music. For example, the first track from MLIR, For Tomorrow gives an early indication of this theme with its narrative that implies a yearning to break out of the struggle of the present and desire to move forward into a future which never comes. Other examples include the title of Parklife track End of a Century which stands as a direct reference although the following line its nothing special intimates a sense of anti-climax; resignation rather than trepidation The Universal , taken from The Great Escape similarly opens with line this is the next century which again stands to highlight this pre-occupation and expresses a sense of apprehension towards the future which is further reinforced by the video accompanying the single which was based on Stanley Kubriks film A Clock Work Orange. 49 So too He Thought of Cars, again taken from The Great Escape, which also conveys a sense of anxiety towards the future.

46

Bongiorno, F. New Labour and History. Australian Policy and History. [Online] [Cited: May 12, 2011.] http://www.aph.org.au/files/pdfs/newLabour.pdf. 47 ibid 48 Party, Labour. Labour Party 1997 Manifesto. [Online] [Cited: May 5th, 2011.] http://www.politicsresources.net/area/uk/man/lab97.htm. 49 The screen play for this film was based on Anthony Burgess 1964 work, A Clockwork Orange which is set in a dystopian society somewhere in the not so distant future.

A Special Relationship.
Released in February 1997, two months before New Labours election to government, Blurs eponymous fifth album, marked a departure in style and ethos for the band. Blur dispensed with the formula of their previous three albums which drew so profoundly on themes of class and nationality and by-gone British musical traditions. Against all odds, given the earlier vehemence of the bands reaction towards American exports, Albarn and guitarist Graham Coxon had become vociferous fans of U.S acts such as Beck and Pavement50, the lo-fi sound of the latter influencing much of the recording of Blur. Alex James recalls The music was deliberately unprettified. Positively, pro-actively made less pretty. Not just done and left as an unpolished thing, but done and scuffed up.51 It can be argued that the track that most reveals this change of direction is Look Inside America which contains the line looked inside America and shes alright, shes alright. Again James recalls, ...it had to be included on the album. Look inside America is exactly what Britpop is urging you not to do.52 This u-turn can be seen to foreshadow Labours similar re-cultivation of relationships with America. Labours rhetoric of the importance of national identity and British culture may have been viewed as an indicator of the partys attitude towards relations with the U.S. After the period of Thatcher and Reagans special relationship during the cold war where American foreign policy shaped UK foreign policy many felt that stepping from under Americas shadow might help to return to a period of ethical foreign policy. However, although Robin Cooke as foreign secretary, held a strong commitment to foreign assistance, international law and the influence of Britain within regional and

50

Harris, J. The Last Party: Britop, Blair and The Demise of English Rock. London : Harper Perennial, 2004, p285

51

Ibid, p286

52

Ibid, p324

global institutions,53 both Blair and his predecessor Jack Straw placed an emphasis on strengthening Britains relationship with the United States and forging a close alliance with Washington. By choosing the Anglo-American 'special relationship', Blair and Straw have relegated the ethical dimension of foreign policy to a supporting role.54 In the following years the importance of this Anglo-American alliance can be seen to have shaped recent British history, especially in Labours decision to invade Afghanistan and also instigation of the war in Iraq at the behest of America. In conclusion it has been possible to draw many parallels between Blurs career and that of Tony Blair and New Labour, both in similarities between each groups rhetoric and in their actions. Whether any of these parallels arise from a cross-pollination of ideas is unclear, however it can be shown that similar issues can be identified in shaping both the political and cultural landscapes of Britain during the 1990s.

53

Jackson, I. The creation of Labour's foreign policy 1900-1951. BNET. [Online] [Cited: May 13, 2011.] http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1669_286/ai_n13247725/. 54 ibid

Appendix i

Works Cited Within Text

[Online] [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/organeto.htm. [Online] [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/recorder.htm. Anonymous. Musica. [Online] [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://www.chmtl.indiana.edu/tml/9th11th/MUSENCI_TEXT.html. Bongiorno, F. New Labour and History. Australian Policy and History. [Online] [Cited: May 12, 2011.] http://www.aph.org.au/files/pdfs/newLabour.pdf. Cavanagh. D My Magpie Eyes Are Hungry For The Prize. Virgin,2000 Corsane, G. Heritage, museums and galleries: an introductory reader. . New York : Routledge, 2005. Dankona, M. The Jam Generation Take Power. s.l. : McEllvoy,A, May 10th, 2011. Davis, D. The Jam Generation Takes Power. s.l. : McEllvoy,A, May 10th, 2011. Fukuyama, F. The End Of History. University of Essex. [Online] 1989. [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://courses.essex.ac.uk/GV/GV905/IR%20Media%20201011/W4%20Readings/Fukuyama%20End%20of%20History.pdf. Gallagher, Noel Interview with Amanda Sawyer, The Observer, September 17 1995. Gallagher, Noel. Top Of The Pops. Guitar World. s.l. : Cawes, M, May 1996. Gallagher, Noel. Acceptance Speech. The Brit Awards. s.l. : ITV, January 1996. Gammond, P. The Oxford Companion to Popular Music. Oxford : Oxford University Press., 1992. Harris, J. "A shite sports car and a punk reincarnation.". NME. April 10th, 1993. Harris, J. Britpop!: Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock. . s.l. : Da Capo Press, 2004. Harris, J. The Last Party: Britop, Blair and The Demise of English Rock. London : Harper Perennial, 2004. (Dr), Huq. R. The Politics of Britpop in New Britain. [book auth.] A Stratton, J Bennett. Britpop and the English Music Tradition . Ashgate, 2010 Jackson, I.The creation of Labour's foreign policy 1900-1951. BNET. [Online] [Cited: May 13, 2011.] http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1669_286/ai_n13247725/. James, Alex. Britpop a decade on. s.l. : Under The Radar Magazine, Summer 2005. King, Anthony. Public confidence in politicians falls as 'sleaze' factor returns to haunt Labour. The Telegraph. [Online] November 29, 2004. [Cited: May 13, 2011.]

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1477750/Public-confidence-in-politicians-falls-as-sleazefactor-returns-to-haunt-Labour.html. Mandler, P. The English national character: the history of an idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair. s.l. : Yale University Press, 2006. Monbiot, G. This government has been the most rightwing since the second world war. The Guardian. [Online] May 20th, 2008. [Cited: April 9th, 2011.] http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/may/20/labour.guardiancolumnists. Mungham, G Pearson, G. Working Class Youth Culture. London : Routledge and Keegan Paul Ltd. , 1976. Norman, P. Britpop:The Beat Goes Off. The Times Online. [Online] February 17, 2003. Party, Labour. Labour Party 1997 Manifesto. [Online] [Cited: May 5th, 2011.] http://www.politicsresources.net/area/uk/man/lab97.htm. Reece, B. No Doubting Thomas. Socialist Review. [Online] March 1999. [Cited: May 4th, 2011.] http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/sr228/reese.htm. Russel, C. New Labour: Old Tory Writ Large. New Left Review. September-October, 1996. Ryle, S. Leo senior's rise from slum boy to successful barrister. The Guardian. [Online] May 21st, 2000. [Cited: May 10th, 2011.] http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2000/may/21/tonyblair.politics4. Savage, Jon. Letter From London: Britpop. Artforum. . October, 1995. Shuker, R. Popular Music: The Key Concepts. London : Routledge, 1998. Tagg, P. Towards a Sign Typology. Tagg.Org. [Online] [Cited: March 12th, 2011.] http://www.tagg.org/articles/xpdfs/trento91.pdf. Tempest, M. Blair to stand down on June 27. The Guardian. [Online] May 10, 2007. [Cited: May 12, 2011.] http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2007/may/10/tonyblair.labour. The Blair Doctrine. PBS Online. [Online] April 1999. [Cited: May 11, 2011.] http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/international/jan-june99/blair_doctrine4-23.html. Turnbull, E Blomfeld,M. Post Ideology: New Labour and the politics of behaviour . Battle Of Ideas. [Online] 2010. [Cited: May 12, 2011.] http://www.battleofideas.org.uk/index.php/2010/battles/871/. Wiseman-Trowse, N. Performing Class in British Popular Music. . New York : Paulgrave Macmillan, 2008.

Bibliography
Books
Cavanagh. D My Magpie Eyes Are Hungry For The Prize. Virgin,2000 Corsane, G. Heritage, museums and galleries: an introductory reader. . New York : Routledge, 2005. Childs, P. Storry, Mike. Encyclopedia of Contemporary British Culture. Routledge 1999 Evans, Liz. Girls Will Be Boys. Pandora 1997 Frith, S. Straw, W. Street, J. The Cambridge Companion to Pop and Rock. University Press, Cambridge 2001 Gammond, P. The Oxford Companion to Popular Music. Oxford : Oxford University Press., 1992. Harris, J. Britpop!: Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock. . s.l. : Da Capo Press, 2004. Harris, J. The Last Party: Britop, Blair and The Demise of English Rock. London : Harper Perennial, 2004. Stratton, A. Bennett, J Britpop and the English Music Tradition .Ashgate 2010 Maconie, S. 3862 Days: The Official History of Blur. Virgin 1999 Mandler, P. The English national character: the history of an idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair. s.l. : Yale University Press, 2006. Mungham, G. Pearson, G. Working Class Youth Culture. London : Routledge and Keegan Paul Ltd. , 1976. Shuker, R. Popular Music: The Key Concepts. London : Routledge, 1998. Wiseman-Trowse, N. Performing Class in British Popular Music. . New York : Paulgrave Macmillan, 2008.

Online Resources
[Online] [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/organeto.htm. [Online] [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://www.music.iastate.edu/antiqua/recorder.htm. Anonymous. Musica. [Online] [Cited: May 12th, 2011.] http://www.chmtl.indiana.edu/tml/9th11th/MUSENCI_TEXT.html. Bongiorno, F. New Labour and History. Australian Policy and History. [Online] [Cited: May 12, 2011.] http://www.aph.org.au/files/pdfs/newLabour.pdf. Jackson, I.The creation of Labour's foreign policy 1900-1951. BNET. [Online] [Cited: May 13, 2011.] http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1669_286/ai_n13247725/.

King, Anthony. Public confidence in politicians falls as 'sleaze' factor returns to haunt Labour. The Telegraph. [Online] November 29, 2004. [Cited: May 13, 2011.] http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1477750/Public-confidence-in-politicians-falls-as-sleazefactor-returns-to-haunt-Labour.html. Monbiot, G. This government has been the most rightwing since the second world war. The Guardian. [Online] May 20th, 2008. [Cited: April 9th, 2011.] http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/may/20/labour.guardiancolumnists. Norman, P. Britpop:The Beat Goes Off. The Times Online. [Online] February 17, 2003. Party, Labour. Labour Party 1997 Manifesto. [Online] [Cited: May 5th, 2011.] http://www.politicsresources.net/area/uk/man/lab97.htm. Reece, B. No Doubting Thomas. Socialist Review. [Online] March 1999. [Cited: May 4th, 2011.] http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/sr228/reese.htm. Russel, C. New Labour: Old Tory Writ Large. New Left Review. September-October, 1996. Ryle, S. Leo senior's rise from slum boy to successful barrister. The Guardian. [Online] May 21st, 2000. [Cited: May 10th, 2011.] http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2000/may/21/tonyblair.politics4. Tagg, P. Towards a Sign Typology. Tagg.Org. [Online] [Cited: March 12th, 2011.] http://www.tagg.org/articles/xpdfs/trento91.pdf. Tempest, M. Blair to stand down on June 27. The Guardian. [Online] May 10, 2007. [Cited: May 12, 2011.] http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2007/may/10/tonyblair.labour. The Blair Doctrine. PBS Online. [Online] April 1999. [Cited: May 11, 2011.] http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/international/jan-june99/blair_doctrine4-23.html.

Turnbull, E Blomfeld,M. Post Ideology: New Labour and the politics of behaviour . Battle Of Ideas. [Online] 2010. [Cited: May 12, 2011.] http://www.battleofideas.org.uk/index.php/2010/battles/871/.

Television & Radio

McEllvoy,A, The Jam Generation Take Power.: BCC Radio 4 May 10th, 2011. Gallagher, Noel. Acceptance Speech. The Brit Awards. s.l. : ITV, January 1996.

Magazine Articles
Gallagher, Noel Interview with Amanda Sawyer, The Observer, September 17 1995. Gallagher, Noel. Top Of The Pops. Guitar World. s.l. : Cawes, M, May 1996. Harris, J. "A shite sports car and a punk reincarnation.". NME. April 10th, 1993. James, Alex. Britpop a decade on. s.l. : Under The Radar Magazine, Summer 2005. Russel, C. New Labour: Old Tory Writ Large. New Left Review. September-October, 1996. Savage, Jon. Letter From London: Britpop. Artforum. . October, 1995.

Audio Resources
Blur
Leisure (Food 1991) Modern Life Is Rubbish (Food 1993) Parklife (Food 1994) The Great Escape (Food 1995) Blur (Food 1997)

Oasis
Definitely Maybe (Creation 1994) (Whats The Story) Morning Glory? (Creation 1995) Be Here Now (Creation 1997)

Pulp
Hin n Hers (Island 1994) A Different Class (Island 1995) This is Hardcore (Island 1998)

Suede
Suede (Nude 1993) Dog Man Star (Nude 1994) Coming Up (Nude 1996)

Audio referenced within text.

Clannad, Robin ,Legend, (RCA 1984) Abbess Hildegard of Bingen, performed by Sequentia ( Deutsche Harmonia Mundi 1995)

Bibliography
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