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To prepare lay out on a metal sheet by marking and prepare rectangular tray, shaped
To prepare lay out on a metal sheet by marking and prepare rectangular tray, shaped components e.g. funnel. Material Required: - G.I. (galvanized iron) sheet 26 SWG. Tool Required:- Scale, scriber, snip, bench shearing machine, mallet, surface plate, rail line, pipe stake, combination plier, bench vice, funnel stake, setting hammer, Ball peen hammer.

Procedure for Tray making:(1) Sheet of required size is cut and smoothened by using mallet. (2) Layout of the tray is drawn on the sheet as per pattern using the scriber. (3) Four corners are cut as per marking using straight snip. (4) Edges are folded to make the beading on all four sides. (5) Bending of all four sides are done at right angles opposite the beading and bend corners using mallet. (6) Then the tray is finished.

Procedure for Pipe making:(1) The sheet of required size is cut and market for lock grooved joint. (2) Edges are folded for joint. (3) Bending of the piece is done using pipe stake and mallet.

(4) The job is finished using mallet, combination plier and setting hammer.

Precautions:Be careful and attentive while working on metal sheet. Wear, apron, shoes, gloves and tight fitted clothes. Use proper tools for each operation.

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Civil Engineering Engineering Materials Metals used in Engineering

Engineering Materials Metals

Metals used in Civil Engineering

All metals used for engineering works are classified into

A. Ferrous metals B. Non-Ferrous metals: Wherein iron is not the main constituent (C Aluminum, Zinc and lead etc)
A) Ferrous metals:

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Wherein iron is the main constituent (Cast iron, wrought iron and dif of steels) Ferrous metals not directly obtained from iron ores
A-1) PIG IRON:

From iron ore impure form of metal Pig iron It is the pig iron which further yields Ferrous metals Pig iron is not suitable for any mechanical use unless it is converted iron, wrought iron or steel
A-2) CAST IRON:

Pig iron re melted with limestone and coke and poured into moulds of desired shapes and sizes to get pure known as cast iron Carbon content in cast iron varies from 2 to 5% During re melting of pig iron scrap iron may also be added for economy
Properties of Cast Iron

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
USES

It is brittle, non ductile, non malleable and cracks when subjected to shocks It cannot be magnetized It does not rust It is strong in compression but weak in tension and shear Its melting point is 12000C Its specific gravity is 7.5

Weak in tension therefore cannot be used in construction Can be used for parts of pumps, motors, engines etc Because of corrosion resistance can be used for pipes to some extent A-3) WROUGHT IRON

When pig iron is melted in such a way as to remove all of the carbon and other impurities, the result is wroug

Good quality wrought iron contains 99.5 % iron, less than 0.1 % of Silicon, 0.01 % of Sulfur, 0.07 % of phos 0.03 % of manganese
Properties of Wrought Iron

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Wrought iron is very malleable and ductile Its tensile strength is 20-26 tons /in2 It is strong in compression but not so strong as steel It can be easily worked, welded and is tough Its melting point is 28000F Wrought iron became pasty and very plastic at red heat and could be easily forged at about 16500F

USES:

Since mild steel has replaced the wrought iron, therefore it is no longer produced in large extent. Still in use f sheets, wires and metal ornaments etc
A-4) STEEL

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Pure irons strength remarkably increases when alloyed with carbon. The strength increases with increasing carbon content but the ductility reduces. Steel having its properties because presence of carbon alone is called Plain carbon steel PLAIN CARBON STEEL can further be classified as

1. Low carbon steel or mild steel: The carbon content does not increases 0.25% Soft and ductile mostly used for construction purpose Uses Sheets, rods, wires, pipes, hammers, chains, shafts etc 2. Medium-carbon steel :

The carbon content is 0.25 to 0.5 % Stronger than the mild steel slightly less ductile Uses Shafts, connecting rods and rails etc 3. High- carbon steel : Carbon content is above 0.5% Harder and stronger than mild steel and medium carbon steel Uses Keys, knifes, drills etc
Properties of Mild Steel

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Ductile and malleable It corrodes quickly It can be permanently magnetized It is tough and more elastic than cast iron and wrought iron and withstands shocks and impacts well It is equally strong in tension, compression and shear Its specific gravity is 7.8 It is not much affected by Saline water

Properties of High-carbon Steel

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Its structure is granular It is more tough and elastic than mild steel It is easier to harden and then to weld It is more difficult to forge and then to weld It can be permanently magnetized Comparatively it is stronger in compression than in tension or in shear It withstands vibration and shocks better

MANUFACTURE OF STEEL

Three basic raw materials are needed in large quantities for the production of steel

1. Iron Ore
2. Coal 3. Lime stone

The first step in the steel manufacture begins at the blast furnace. To separate iron from iron ore coke (substance when gas is tak limestone and dolomite are charged into the blast furnace

Temperature raised to 1600oF. This high temp causes the coke to burn and melt the iron. This red hot iron drained at an opening at furnace. Natural gas is often injected to reduce the amount of coke consumed. The dolomite and limestone combine with the non-fe of the ore to form a slag, which floats on the top of the molten iron and is removed separately. The product of the blast furnace is kn

Iron the basic ingredient of steel

It takes 2 tons of iron ore, 2/3 ton of coke, ton of limestone, 4 tons of air to make 1 ton of Pig iron. Some of the pig iron goes to t make iron castings, but the vast majority is re melted and used in the production of steel in steel furnace. Several types of furnaces production of steel including
Open Hearth Furnace Bessemer Furnace Electric Furnace New Oxygen Furnace

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There are a relatively small number of thermoset polymer types that can be utilised in the fabrication of a composite. However, it must be remembered that within each class many grade variations exist. The starting components for these polymers are two or more low molecular weight telechelic reactive oligomers combined with appropriate catalysts and hardener. Solidification and formation of the polymer begins when these components are mixed at either ambient or elevated temperatures. The subsequent polymerisation reaction (curing) produces a rigid, highly cross-linked network. During curing, there are various intermediate stages from liquid to gel and finally vitrified state which can be characterised by timetemperature-transformation (TTT) isothermal cure diagrams. From these rheological, or dynamic mechanical data, curing characteristics of thermosetting polymers can be optimised. The common resins available include:

Polyester
Polyester usually dissolved in styrene to reduce its viscosity for ease of fabrication. A catalyst such as organic peroxide is added to produce polymerization (solidification) with the application of heat around 100C to 160C. The material exhibit significant mould shrinkage, which can be reduced by the addition of a thermoplastic additive. Polyester is a widely used matrix material, generally in conjunction with glass fibre reinforcement. It is used primarily for low performance applications and has limited high temperature performance. Strong bonding between the matrix and glass fibre can be achieved provided a silane coupling agent is used. Other types of reinforcement fibre are generally not used because of inadequate bonding to the resin.

Vinyl Ester
Vinyl esters are dissolved in styrene in order to reduce viscosity and facilitate fabrication into a composite structure. Catalysts are required to cure the material. No additional agents are required in order to produce high adhesion to glass fibres. The product has more flexibility and greater fracture toughness than a polyester resin. Heat deflection temperatures up to 200C can be obtained.

Epoxy
A liquid resin which is cured by the addition of a curing agent at room or higher temperature conditions. Epoxy resins have a wide range of properties. They can be rigid or flexible with different temperature resistance, with some able to withstand continuous use up to 250C. Advantages of epoxy resins over polyester and vinyl ester resins include lower mould shrinkage, low volatility during curing, good environmental and solvent resistance, and very good adhesion to most reinforcement materials. They are widely used in structural aerospace applications.

Bismaleimide
Bismaleimide can exist in solution or hot-melt resin form. These materials have high temperature resistance and withstand temperatures of 300C. When used with carbon fibre reinforcement they are considered to be advanced composites because they have superior performance to epoxies in hot/wet conditions, but there are limitations. They are normally very brittle and prone to micro-cracking, although, as with epoxies, this tendency can be reduced by the incorporation of a thermoplastic component.

Polyimide
Polyimide exhibits better performance than bismaleimide in high temperature, wet conditions, and appear to be the most widely used resins for high temperature applications. It should be noted that service temperature will depend strongly on the nature of the application with some grades capable of sustained periods at temperatures over 300C. The limitation of polyimide is that it is very brittle. The curing mechanism is a condensation reaction. This tends to produce voids in the cured component. Additional reactions can be used instead to reduce or eliminate this problem.

The graph below gives an appreciation of the costs for some of the polymers reviewed. Clearly, there a many variants within each generic polymeric family, some of which may exceed in price beyond the upper bound shown. Generally the mechanical properties and environmental resistance, particularly temperature resistance, increase with increasing cost.