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(Week -4)
Chapter 2
Contents
What is permeability Applications of soil permeability Factors affect on soil permeability Ground water flow Laboratory measurement of permeability coefficient (k) Field measurement of k Permeability of stratified soils
Total head at a point (h) = Velocity head + Pressure head + Elevation head
h total head
v2 u h= + +z wg w
Degree of saturation:
h =
+ z
Pore water pressure at P, u P = ( H Z ) w u ( H Z ) w Pressure head at P, = = H Z w w P Elevation head at P, Z = Z Total head at P, hP = pressure head + elevation head = (H - Z) + Z = H
2m 1m X
Datum
u P = 4 w
ZP = 1
hP = 4 w
1m Impermeable stratum
5m
+1 = 5 m
Head
The value of the head depends on the choice of datum Differences in total head are required for flow (not pressure)
u X = 1 w
ZX = 4
1m X
hX =
w +4=5m w
P 1m Impermeable stratum
2 m It can be helpful to consider imaginary standpipes 5 m (piezometers/manometers) placed in the soil at the points where the head is required
The total heads at P and X are identical. Thus this imply that the total head is constant throughout the region below a static water table.
The total head is the elevation of the water level in the standpipe (piezometers/manometers) above the datum
Datum
2m 5m
1m
u P = 4 w
Z P = 4
X P
Soil Sample
1m Impermeable stratum
L Darcy found that the flow (volume per unit time -q) was
hP =
4 w
4=0
proportional to the head difference h (q h ) proportional to the cross-sectional area A ( q A ) inversely proportional to the length of sample l (q 1/L)
Darcys law
q = kA h L
(2a)
2m 5m
1m
u X = 1 w
Z X = 1
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity. Equation (2a) may be written as
X P
1m Impermeable stratum
hX = w 1 = 0 w
q = kAi
or where i = h/L v = q/A
v = ki
(2b)
Again, the total head at P and X is identical, but the value is different defending on the datum
Example 1 (cont..)
Step 4: Determine the flow rate, q
v = ki
The average velocity, v, calculated from the above equation is for the cross sectional area normal to the direction of flow. However, flow through soil occurs only through the interconnected voids. The velocity through void spaces is called seepage velocity, v
Q = 1 cm 3 , t = 10 sec
Q 1 = = 0 . 1 cm 3 / sec t 10
v v' = n
where n the porosity of the soil
v = A=
q A
= 78 . 5 cm 4 4 0 .1 v = = 0 . 0013 cm / sec 78 . 5
d 2
10 2
Example 1
A soil sample 10 cm in diameter is placed in a tube of 1 m long. A constant supply of water is allowed to flow into one end of the soil at A and the outflow at B is collected by a beaker (see the following figure). The average amount of water collected is 1cm3 for every 10 sec. Determine, Hydraulic gradient Flow rate Average velocity Seepage velocity if e = 0.6 Hydraulic conductivity
Example 1 (cont..)
Step 6: Determine seepage velocity, v if e=0.6
v'=
v n
n =
e 0 .6 = = 0 . 38 1 + e 1 + 0 .6
v'=
Example 1 (cont..):
Step 1: Define the datum position: top of the table Step 2: Find the total dead at A (hA) and B (hB):
u A = 1 w = w ZA =1 hA = uA + ZA =
uB = 0 w = 0 Z B = 0 .8
w +1= 2 m w
hB =
uB
+ ZB =
+ 0 .8 = 0 .8 m
Indirect methods and empirical equations
h = h A h B = 2 0 .8 = 1 .2 m l = 1 .0 m h 1 .2 i= = = 1 .2 l 1
In-situ (field) methods: Pumping well test
Example 2
In a falling-head permeability test the initial head of 1.00 m dropped to 0.35 m in 3 h, the diameter of standpipe being 5 mm. The soil specimen was 200 mm long by 100 mm in diameter. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the soil
Standpipe
inlet
Area - a
k = 2.3
al h log 0 At1 h1
measurement
h0
lL h 1
a =
ql k= Ah
OUTFLOW
h0
l h 1
Prior to running the test, fully saturate the specimen (apply a vacuum to the specimen, use de-aired water) The stand pipe is filled with water and water drains into a reservoir of constant level
hin hiout
SOIL
k = 2.3
h0
al h log 0 At1 h1
l h 1
OUTFLOW
For more accurate results, a series of tests should be run using different values of h0 and h1 and/or standpipes of different diameters (a)
hin hiout
SOIL
Empirical methods (based on research finding): For sand, Hazen (1892) showed that the approximate value of k is given by
ir =
dh dr
At distance r from the well the area through which seepage takes place, A
2 k (m / sec) = 10 2 D10
D10 is effective diameter in mm
h1
h2
H
A = 2rH
From Darcys law,
q = kAi q = k 2rH dh dr
r1
r2
k=
Example 3
If the pumping rate from the well, q is 0.01 m3/sec, what is the average permeability of soil
k=
h1
h2
r1
r2
k=
ir =
dh dr
At distance r from the well, the area through which seepage takes place, A
A = 2rh
h1
h2
r1 r2
k=
Effect of Temperature
Permeability varies with viscosity of water, which is temperature dependent. Lab k normally specified at 20C kT = k20/(T/20) T/20 = temperature correction factor which is a ratio of viscosity values, can be obtained from a chart or table
H1
k1
k2
H2
k2
kx =
kz =
kx
H1 + H 2 H1 H 2 + k k 1 2
kz
kx =
kz =
kz
kx
Example 4
A layered soil is shown in the following figure
T/20
z x
H1 = 1 m
k1 = 1 10 4 cm / sec
H 2 = 1.5 m
H3 = 2 m
k 2 = 3.2 10 2 cm / sec
k 3 = 4.1 10 5 cm / sec
kx
kx kz
kz
Example 4 (2)
The equivalent permeability coefficient in horizontal direction
H1 = 1 m
k1 = 1 10 4 cm / sec
z
H 2 = 1 .5 m
kx =
k 2 = 3.2 10 2 cm / sec
H3 = 2 m
k3 = 4.1 10 5 cm / sec
k1 k2
kx =
H2
k2
If the layers are anisotropic, k1 and k2 represent the equivalent isotropic coefficients for the layers
kx =
Example 4 (3)
* The equivalent permeability coefficient in vertical direction
H1 = 1 m
k1 = 1 10 4 cm / sec
z x
H 2 = 1 .5 m
k 2 = 3.2 10 2 cm / sec
H1 + H 2 + H3 kz = H1 H 2 H3 k + k + k 1 2 3
z x
k1
H1
k1
k2
H2
k2
H3 = 2 m
k3 = 4.1 10
cm / sec
When the flow is parallel to soil layers, the hydraulic gradient is the same at all points
kz =
ix = i1x = i2 x
Flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the flow through each of the layers
kz =
4.5
qx = q1x + q2x
Example 4 (4)
* The ratio of horizontal to vertical equivalent permeability, R
H1 = 1 m
k1 = 1 10 4 cm / sec
z x
H 2 = 1 .5 m H3 = 2 m
k 2 = 3.2 10 2 cm / sec
ix = i1x = i2 x
From Darcys law, q=Aki
qx = q1x + q2x
k1 H1 k1
k2
k3 = 4.1 10 5 cm / sec
H2
k2
kx =
kx
Summary
Soil permeability Factor affect on soil permeability Bernoullis equation and Darcys law Laboratory determination of permeability coefficient (k) Field determination of k k of stratified soils
z x
k1
H1
k1
k2
H2
k2
When the flow is normal to soil layers, the vertical velocity in each layer is the same
v z = v1 z = v2 z
From Darcys law, v=ki
kz
h h h = k1z 1 = k 2 z 2 ( H1 + H 2 ) H1 H2
h is the total head loss, h1 and h2 are the head losses in each of the layers
kz
h h h = k1 1 = k 2 2 ( H1 + H 2 ) H1 H2
For flow normal to soil layers, the head loss in the soil mass is the sum of the head losses in each layer.
h = h1 + h2
h =
kz =
kz hH 1 k hH 2 + z k1 ( H1 + H 2 ) k 2 ( H1 + H 2 )
kz
is the equivalent permeability coefficient in vertical direction
H1 + H 2 H1 H 2 + k k 1 2