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Definitions
The branch of philosophy that analyzes inference Reasoned and reasonable judgment The principles that guide reasoning within a given field or situation A System of reasoning The Art of reasoning Science of reasoning The Science of thought The Science of the formal laws of thought The Science of the understanding in the pursuit of the truth. Use of ability in argument Science of the operation of the understanding that the subservient to the destination of the evidence for the process itself advancing from known truths to unknown and all other intellectual operations insofar as auxiliary to this. MILL.
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HISTORY
Many cultures have employed intricate systems of reasoning and asked questions about logic or propounded logical paradoxes. In India the Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig-Veda (RV 10.129) contains ontological speculation in terms of various logical divisions that were later recast formally as the four circles of catuskoti: "A", "not A", "A and not A", and "not A and not not A". Tharka, Vitharka & Kutharka are different forms of logic and argument. Chinese philosopher Gongsun Long (325 250 BC) proposed the paradox One and one cannot become two, since neither becomes two.
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The first sustained work on the subject of logic which has survived was that of Aristotle. Aristotle (384 312 B.C) can be called as the father of Logic . According to Aristotle Logic is the important Instrument for acquisition of genuine knowledge. Logic is an elaboration of methods in search of all knowledge and it is called as science of sciences. He was the founder of both Deductive and Inductive Logic. Logic is concerned with thought forms and thinking process to achieve truth. He was the first to conceive systematic treatment of correct inference. His method of Logic has been explained in his book Prior Analyticus.
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HISTORY
HISTORY
Lord Francis Bacon (1561 1626 A.D) formulated the new system of Logic in his book Novum Organum to highlight the importance of inductive logic . Before Lord Bacons time, Logic was used principally as an instrument for argument and disputation. Little or no attention were given to facts. He demolished innumerable false systems and restored Logic to its true place as the guide to truth. www.similima.com
HISTORY
George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (17701831) : One of His major work has been titled as Science of Logic. He emphasized on the part to whole relationship. He said any organic whole is more than mere sum of its parts. John Stuart mill (1806 1873 A.D) He succeeded bacon emphasizing the practical utility of inductive logic in his book titled Systems of knowledge
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TYPES
1. Deductive Logic [Formal Logic] 2. Inductive Logic [Logic of Reality or Truth / Material Logic]
Other Types: Informal logic: is the study of natural language arguments. The study of fallacies is an especially important branch of informal logic. The dialogues of Plato are a major example of informal logic. Symbolic logic: is the study of symbolic abstractions that capture the formal features of logical inference. Symbolic logic is often divided into two branches, propositional logic and predicate logic. Mathematical logic: is an extension of symbolic logic into other areas, in particular to the study of model theory, proof theory, set theory, and recursion theory.
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Deductive Logic
Reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect) A deduction is an argument in which the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. Aristotles deductive method is otherwise called as syllogism., which means computation Every syllogism consists of three parts: 1. Major premises 2. Minor premises 3. Conclusion Example: All men are mortal = major premise John is a man = minor premise John is mortal = conclusion
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Syllogism can be continued - the conclusion of one syllogism can be used as the premise for other syllogism. Basic principles never require premises. Types of deduction: Complete: a record in the conclusion follows obviously from premises. Incomplete: conclusion is not obvious. It requires adequate steps of reasoning between the premises and conclusions. Criticisms of Syllogism: How to derive a major premise? ( defect of system itself) the Over estimation of deduction ( Without following induction)
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Inductive logic
Reasoning from detailed facts to general principles. ( search for the cause) The Inductive method in Logic is the scientific method that proceeds by induction ie., by drawing universal conclusion from particular premises. Inductive logic does on concern itself with facts, with the reality.its primary purpose is to discovery and use of truth. The Inductive logic is the logic of Bacon, Mill, and Hahnemann . Requirement of Inductive logic : Soundness: The premises must be true( they should be valid observation of facts upon pure experimentation ) Consistency: which means that none of the theorems of the system contradict one another. Completeness: The induction must be complete without a break from premises to conclusion, Adequate knowledge on the subject.
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i. Exact Observation ii. Correct Interpretation: of the observed Facts with the view to iii.Rational Explanation of the facts by referring them to their real iv.Scientific Construction: by putting the facts in such co-ordination
cause or law that the system reached shall agree with the reality. For example; 1. Hahnemanns exact observations of the frequent failures to help sick patients by his method off treatment when being an allopath resulted a honest disappointment and made him quit his practice of medicine. While translating cullens materia medica the exact observation of the truth that the ability of cinchona bark to cure malaria was not the astringent property of it made him to experiment on himself. 2. Correct interpretation of the fact from the cinchona experiment that the diseases are cured by the properties of drugs which are capable of producing the similar disease in healthy persons. 3. Rational explanation of the phenomena of similia similibus curentur which was hinted at the time of ancient Hindu sages, by Hippocrates, Paracelsus, Stahl. 4. Scientific construction of the principles evolved from his inductive reasoning.
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Four methods of induction in search for the cause: 1. Method of agreement: in which a condition uniformly present is assumed to be probably a cause 2. Method of difference: in which the happening of an event when a condition is present and its failure when a condition is absent lead to the assumption of that condition as a cause. 3. Method of concomitant variation: In which the simultaneous variation In similar the degree of condition and event establishes a causal relation 4. Method of residues or of residual variations: where after subtracting from a phenomenon that part due to causes already established the remainder is held to be due to some other unascertained cause or to the known remaining causes.
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Utility of Logic
Logic furnishes scientific knowledge of the principles of correct thinking by the observance of which truth is attained errors detected and avoided. Logic is the science of sciences. Every science must conform to the general law of correct thinking with which Logic is concerned. Logic is an intellectual discipline. The study of Logic cultivates the power of abstract thinking and trains and develops the reasoning powers. In Logic the Homoeopathic Physician not only can conduct his daily works with ease and facility but also can solve his most difficult and important problems
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Principles
Similia similibus curentur: is a product of true
Logic originally deductive but conformed and verified by inductive method of reasoning.
Unless these answers are found, Homoeopathy will always be an occult science.
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Law of Minimum:
Its the principle, formulated from the experience by Hahnemann. Probably the concept of minimum dose came up when he was Treating a case of colicodynia in 1799. Four grain doses of veratrum alb Twice daily for two days were given and the patient had life threatening aggravation. In 1801 he advice 1: 100, 000 of one drop of belladonna mother tincture as a dose for cure prevention of scarlet fever
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Law of Cure: It is based on exact observations and verifications through number of cases from the experience of Hahnemann and other pioneers including Hering. Repertory: The works on repertories are the greatest master piece of analysis, comparison and generalization in our literature. Boenninghausens repertory is the outcome of true inductive reasoning and Kents repertory is mainly a deductive methodology inferred after an inductive work on facts. The prescriptions will be obviously scientific and more reasonable if they are based on an authentic repertorial reference. www.similima.com 23
R e fe re n c e s
The Genius of Homoeopathy Dr.Stuart close The principles and Art of cure by Homoeopathy Dr.H.A Roberts Prescribing methods Dr.Keith Souter A treatise on organon of medicine supplementary to part one Dr.Asok Kumar Das New Lights Dr.E.S Rajendran Lecture notes on philosophy - Dr.Abdu Rehiman www.wickepedia.com
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