1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION: In many parts of the world, economic, social and political problems have arisen following rapid industrial development and urbanization, resulting in adverse effects on the quality of life. Urbanization in general initially places pressure on and overstrains public amenities. However, long-term and wider issues would eventually also be encountered as industrialization and urbanization exert pressure on the larger resource base that supports the community. This larger resource base includes forestry, freshwater and marine resources, as well as space suitable for further development. The difficulties associated with environmental degradation often originate from industrial development. They are amplified by rapid urbanization that is responsible for the growth of many major cities. Rapid industrialization and its concentration in or near urban centers have placed very high pressures on the carrying capacity of the environment at specific locations. At these locations waterbodies such as rivers, lakes, and coastal waters have typically been severely affected. Freshwater is a vital natural resource that will continue to be renewable as long as it is well managed. Preventing pollution from domestic, industrial, activities is important to ensure the sustainability of the locales development. Undoubtedly the water pollution control efforts which have been underway in many countries have already achieved some success. Nevertheless the problems that are confronted grow in complexity and intensity. The pollution of freshwater bodies with the consequent deterioration in water quality can only worsen the situation. Such pollution has been brought about by the discharge of inadequately treated sewage and industrial wastewaters. This book focuses on the latter. Perhaps not unexpectedly, as the demand for more water is met, the volumes of wastewater can also be expected.

1.2 WHAT IS INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATER

It may be useful to compare industrial wastewater with domestic sewage since designers of wastewater treatment facilities often begin their careers and almost certainly their education in environmental engineering by looking at sewage and sewage treatment plants. The latter can then provide a familiar framework which the reader can use to compare industrial wastewater and its treatment. 1

Domestic sewage is wastewater discharged from sanitary conveniences in residential, office, commercial, factories and various institutional properties. It is a complex mixture containing primarily water (approximately 99%) together with organic and inorganic constituents. These constituents or contaminants comprised suspended, colloidal and dissolved materials. Domestic sewage, since it contains human wastes, also contains large numbers of microorganisms and some of these can be pathogenic. Waterborne bacterial diseases that can be present in sewage include cholera, typhoid and tuberculosis. Viral diseases can include infectious hepatitis. Inorganic constituents include chlorides and sulphates, various forms of nitrogen and phosphorous, as well as carbonates and bicarbonates. Proteins and carbohydrates constitute about 90% of the organic matter in domestic sewage. These arise from the excreta, urine, food wastes, and wastewater from bathing, washing, and laundering, and because of the latter, soaps, detergents, and other cleaning products can be found as well. Domestic sewage has a flow pattern which typically shows two peaks in the morning before the start of working hours and in the evening after the population has returned from work. Typically these hydraulic peaks would also become more distinct as the sewage flows considered come from smaller populations and consequently smaller sewer networks. Variations in sewage characteristics across a given community tend to be relatively small although variation across communities can be more readily detected. Notwithstanding these variations, the composition of domestic sewage is such that it lends itself well to biological treatment in terms of the availability of and balance between carbonaceous components and nutrients. The biodegradability of msewage can be estimated by considering its Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and the corresponding BOD (5 day BOD), The nitrogen, N, would typically be in the form of organic nitrogen and amonianitrogen. (Nitrates (NO3-N) would not be expected to be present as conditions in the sewers would be such that nitrate formation is unlikely while nitrate degradation because of anoxic reactions is likely. The phosphorous (P) would be a combination of organic and phosphate (PO4) forms. The pH of effluent would be within the range of 69 and this is generally considered suitable for biological processes. Examples of values of BOD5, TSS (Total Suspended Solids).Industrial wastewaters have very varied compositions depending on the type of industry and materials processed. Some of these wastewaters can be organically very strong, easily biodegradable, largely inorganic, or potentially inhibitory. This means TSS, BOD5 and COD .Unlike sewage, pH values well beyond the range of 69 are also frequently encountered. Such wastewaters may also be associated with 2

high concentrations of dissolved metal salts. The flow pattern of industrial wastewater streams can be very different from that of domestic sewage since the former would be influenced by the nature of the operations within a factory rather than the usual activities encountered in the domestic the characteristics of domestic sewage within a community, industrial wastewaters can have very different characteristics even for wastewaters from a single type of industry but from different locations. The cause of these differences has much to do with the operating procedures adopted at each site and the raw materials used therein. To further complicate matters, wastewater characteristics within a factory can also vary with time because it may practice campaign manufacturing, or it may practice slug discharges on top of its usual discharges. Apart from these events which occur on a regular basis, there would be spillages and dumping which may occur within the factory infrequently but can have very adverse impacts on the performance of the wastewater treatment plant. Consequently it would be prudent to assess an industrial wastewater, as well as its pretreatment and treatment requirements very carefully and not immediately assume that its wastewater characteristics and treatment requirements are similar to a previously encountered example. It would also be prudent to acquire some understanding of the nature of the factorys operations. On some occasions industrial wastewaters are discharged into a sewerage system serving commercial and residential premises. Such a combination of wastewater streams is known as municipal wastewater and the quality of such a mixture of wastewaters can vary depending on the proportion of industrial wastewaters in it and the type of industries contributing the industrial wastewater streams. Usually the domestic and commercial components in municipal wastewater can be expected to provide some buffering in terms of the characteristics of the combined flow. This is then expected to enable the combined wastewater to be treated easily compared to the treatment of the industrial wastewater on its own. However, even where the option of discharging into a sewerage system is available, some permamnt is frequently required at the factory before such discharge is permitted. Such pretreatment may include pH adjustment to 69 and BOD reduction to 400 mg L1). 1.3 INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT Industrial wastewaters are effluents that result from human activities which are associated with raw-material processing and manufacturing. These wastewater streams arise from washing, cooking, cooling, heating, extraction, reaction by-products, separation, conveyance, and quality 3

control resulting in product rejection. Water pollution occurs when potential pollutants in these streams reach certain amounts causing undesired alterations to a receiving waterbody. While industrial wastewaters from such processing or manufacturing sites may include some domestic sewage, the latter is not the major component. Domestic sewage may be present because of washrooms and hostels provided for workers at the processing or manufacturing facility. Examples of industrial wastewaters include those arising from chemical, pharmaceutical, electrochemical, electronics, petrochemical, and food processing industries. Examples of these, their recognition, and the efforts made to remedy the situations in theinclude the protection of coastal waters from refinery wastewater the River in where pesticides and heavy metals were discovered in the which was polluted by the pulp and paper industry The fact that water pollution due to discharges of inadequately treated industrial wastewater has occurred over decades in obviously means solutions have not been found for all such occurrences. as reported to have been so seriously polluted by paper-making, tanning and chemical fertilizer factories, farmers in Shenqiu County had fallen very ill after using the river water.Agro-industrial wastewaters, as a sub-class of industrial wastewaters, can have considerable impact on the environment because they can be very strong in terms of pollutant strength and often the scale of the industry generating the wastewater in a country is large, agro-industrial wastewaters had and in some instances still contribute very significantly to pollution loads. the BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) load generated per day respectively. On a positive note, however, economic development over the last few decades has enabled necessary managerial, financial, and technological capabilities to address problems of pollution and environmental degradation over the broad spectrum of factory sizes. There is also a growing realization that the cost (in terms of the human and economic costs) of cleaning up after the act is frequently more than preventing the pollution in the first place.

1.4 WHY IS IT NECESSARY TO TREAT INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER

All major terrestrial biota, ecosystems, and humans depend on freshwater (i.e. water with less than 100mg L1 salts) for their survival. The earths water is primarily saline in nature (about 97%). Of the remaining (3%) water, 87% of it is locked in the polar caps and glaciers. This would mean only 0.4% of all water on earth is accessible freshwater. The latter is, however, a 4

continually renewable resource although natural supplies are limited by the amounts that move through the natural water cycle. Unfortunately precipitation patterns, and hence distribution of freshwater resources, around the globe is far from even. Where precipitation does fall heavily, there are often difficulties with storage because of space constraints. Furthermore the available freshwater has to be shared between natural biota and human demands. The latter, aside from direct human consumption, includes water for agricultural, urban, and industrial needs. Freshwater shortages increase the risk of conflict, public health problems, reduction in food production, inhibition of industrial production expansion, and these problems threaten the environment.Freshwater shortages are, however, not only due to uneven distribution offreshwater resources and demand for freshwater but also, increasingly, due to the declining water quality in freshwater sources already in use. This declining water quality is primarily due to pollution. It should not be forgotten that in the wider context of resources associated with water, the marine environment is also included in the picture.While the latter was, in the past, primarily associated with the fisheries resource, it can also include tourism and the feed for desalination in the current context. Untreated industrial wastewaters would add pollutants into waterbodies freshwater and saline. These receiving waterbodies, freshwater and marine, can include ponds, lakes, rivers, coastal waters, and the sea. It would be useful to bear in mind that pollutants introduced into a river or some other freshwater waterbody do eventually end up in the sea, the ultimate receptacle for waterborne pollutants if these are permitted to find their way through the environment unimpeded. An example of riverine pollution are the rivers flowing through urban and industrial picking up pollutants such as heavy metals and organochlorine pesticides and herbicides. These pollutants reach the sea eventually and therein threaten the fisheries, for example, industries such as sugar refineries, paper mills, shipyards, and fertilizer plants accounted for about half the total wastewater generated and reaching the sea. This had resulted in incidences. Obviously then, inadequately treated industrial wastewaters discharged into rivers would not only affect the freshwater in these areas but also the receiving coastal and sea waters. Eventually coastal resources such as the mangrove and reef ecosystems, and thereafter fisheries would be affected. The discharge of inadequately treated industrial wastewaters can therefore have far-reaching consequences.In the last decade, the emergence of industrial pollution has been identified as a

trend in the coastal areas.The effects pollutants have on the water environment can be summarized in the following broad categories:

1.4.1 Physical effects:

These include impact on clarity of the water and interference to oxygen dissolution in it. Water clarity is affected by turbidity which may be caused by inorganic (Fixed Suspended Solids or FSS) and/or organic particulates suspended in the water (Volatile Suspended Solids or VSS). The latter may undergo biodegradation and thereby also have oxidation effects. Turbidity reduces light penetration and this reduces photosynthesis while the attendant loss in clarity, among other things, would adversely affect the food gathering capacity of aquatic animals because these may not be able to see their prey. Very fine particulates may also clog the gill surfaces of fishes and thereby affecting respiration and eventually killing them. Settleable particulates may accumulate on plant foliage and bed of the waterbody forming sludge layers which would eventually smother benthic organisms. As the sludge layers accumulate, they may eventually become sludge banks and if the material in these is organic then its decomposition would give rise to malodours. In contrast to the settleable material, particulates lighter than water eventually float to the surface and form a scum layer.While some of the latter may be organic in nature, there are many which are mineral oils. Not withstanding their organic or mineral nature, both types cause interference at the air-water interface and inhibit the transfer of oxygen. Apart from their interference to the transfer of oxygen. These raise the temperatures of the receiving water and reduce the solubility of oxygen. Apart from this, rapid changes in temperature may result in thermal shock and this may be lethal to the more sensitive species. Heat, however, does not always have a negative impact on organisms as it may positively affect growth rates although there are limits here too since the condition may favor certain species within the population more than others and over time biodiversity may be negatively affected.

1.4.2 Oxidation and residual dissolved oxygen:

Waterbodies have the capacity to oxygenate themselves through dissolution of oxygen from the atmosphere and photosynthetic activity by aquatic plants. Of the latter, algae often plays an important role. 6

However, there is a finite capacity to this re-oxygenation and if oxygen depletion, as a result of biological or chemical processes induced by the presence of organic or inorganic substances which exert an oxygen demand (i.e. as indicated by the BOD or COD), exceeded this capacity then the dissolved oxygen (DO) levels would decline. The latter may eventually decline to such an extent that septic conditions occur. A manifestation of such conditions would be the presence of malodours released by facultative and anaerobic organisms. An example of this is the reduction of substances with combined oxygen such as sulphates by facultative bacteria and resulting in the release of hydrogen sulphide. The depletion of free oxygen would affect the survival of aerobic organisms. DO levels do not, however, need to drop to zero before adverse impacts are felt. This would mean increasing demand for oxygen while its availability declines. Because of the impact of DO levels on aquatic life, much importance has been placed on determining the BOD value of a discharge. Typical BOD5 limits set are values such as 20 and 50mg L1.

1.4.3 Inhibition or toxicity and persistence:

These effects may be caused by organic or inorganic substances and can be acute or chronic. Examples of these include the pesticides and heavy metals mentioned in the preceding section. Many industrial wastewaters do contain such potentially inhibitory or toxic substances. The presence of such substances in an ecosystem may bias a population towards members of the community which are more tolerant to the substances while eliminating those which are less tolerant and resulting in a loss of biodiversity. For similar reasons, an awareness of the impact such substances have on biological systems is not only relevant in terms of protection of the environment but is of no less importance in terms of their impact on the biological systems used to treat industrial wastewaters. Even successful treatment of such a wastewater may not necessarily mean that the portability of water in a receiving water body would not be affected. For example small quantities of residual phenol in water can react with chlorine during the potable water treatment process giving rise to chlorophenols which can cause objectionable tastes and odors in the treated water. Apart from the organic pollutants which are potentially inhibitory or toxic, there are those which are resistant to biological degradation. While some organic compounds may be persistent, metals are practically non-degradable in the environment.

1.4.4 Eutrophication:
The discharge of nitrogenous and phosphorous compounds into receiving water bodies may alter their fertility. Enhanced fertility can lead to excessive plant growth. The subsequent impact of such growth on a water body can include increased turbidity, oxygen depletion, and toxicity issues. Algal growth in unpolluted water bodies is usually limited because the water is nutrient limiting. While nutrients would include marco-nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon, and micro-nutrients like cobalt, manganese, calcium, potassium, magnesium, copper, and iron which are required only in very small quantities, the focus in concerns over eutrophication would be on phosphorous and nitrogen as quantities of the other nutrients in the natural environment are often inherently adequate.In freshwaters the limiting nutrient is usually phosphorous while in estuarine and marine waters it would be nitrogen. Treatment of industrial wastewater can then target the removal of either phosphorous or nitrogen, depending on the receiving water body, to ensure that the nutrient limiting condition is maintained

1.4.5 Pathogenic effects: Pathogens are disease-causing organisms and an infection occurs when these organisms gain entry into a host (e.g. man or an animal) and multiply there in. These pathogens include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminthes. While domestic and medical related wastewaters may typically be linked to such micro-organisms (and especially the bacteria and viruses), industrial wastewaters are not typically associated with this category of effects. The exception to this is wastewaters associated with the sectors in the agro-industry dealing with animals. The concern here would be the presence of such organisms in the wastewater which is discharged into a receiving water body and diseases, if any, are then transmitted through the water. While many of these organisms can be satisfactorily addressed with adequate disinfection of the treated effluent and raw potable water supplies during the water treatment process, there are those which cannot be dealt with so easily. Two examples of such organisms, Cryptosporidum and Giardia, These belong to the protozoa family. The difficulty is that the infected host does not necessarily shed the organism but is likely also to shed its eggs or oocysts. The latter can unfortunately be resistant to the usual disinfection processes. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis, a gastrointestinal disease, would result

in the hosts suffering from diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting.The above effects in view, industrial wastewater treatment would typically be Required to address at least the following parameters: (a) Suspended solids (SS) (b) Temperature (c) Oil and grease (O&G) (d) Organic content in terms of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD) (e) pH (f) Specific metals and/or specific organic compounds (g) Nitrogen and/or phosphorus (h) Indicator micro-organisms or specific micro-organisms.

1.5 NATURE & CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER

It is only natural for industry to presume that its wastewater can best be disposed of in the domestic sewer system. However, city authorities should not accept any wastewater discharges into the domestic sewer system without first learning the facts about the characteristics of the wastewater, the sewage systems ability to handle them, and the effects of the wastewater upon all components of the city disposal system. Institution of a sewer ordinance, restricting the types or concentrations of wastewater admitted in the sewer leading to a treatment plant, is one means of protecting the system. The following table gives a comparison in concentration values. The most important physical characteristic of wastewater is its total solids content, which is composed of floating matter, settleable matter, colloidal matter, and matter in solution. Other important physical characteristics include odor, temperature, color, and turbidity.

Total solids:
Analytically the total solids content of a wastewater is defined as all the matter that remains as residue upon evaporation at 103 to 105 C. Matter that has a significant vapor pressure at this temperature is lost during evaporation & is not defined as a solid. Settable solids are those solids that will settle to the bottom of a cone-shaped container (called an Imhoff cone) in a 60minute period.Settable solids, expressed as mL/L, are an approximate measure of the quantity of 9

sludge that will be removed by primary sedimentation. Total solids, or residue upon evaporation, can be further classified as non-filterable (suspended) or filterable by passing a known volume of liquid through a filter.The filterable-solids fraction consists of colloidal and dissolved solids. The colloidal fraction consists of the particulate matter with an approximate size range of from 0.001 to 1 m. The dissolved solids consist of both organic & inorganic molecules and ions that are present in true solution in water. The colloidal fraction cannot be removed by settling. Generally, biological oxidation or coagulation, followed by sedimentation, is required to remove these particles from suspension.The suspended solids are found in considerable quantity in many industrial wastewater, such as cannery and paper-mill effluents. They are screened and/or settled out at the treatment plant. Solids removed by settling and separated from wash water are called sludge, which may then be pumped to drying beds or filtered for extraction of additional water (dewatering).Each of the categories of solids may be further classified on the basis of their volatility at 550 + 50 oC. The organic fraction will oxidize and will be driven off as gas at this temperature, and the inorganic fraction remains behind as ash. Thus the terms "Volatile suspended solids" and "Fixed suspended solids" refer, respectively, to the organic and inorganic (or mineral) content of the suspended solids. The volatile-solids analysis is applied commonly to wastewater sludge to measure their biological stability.

Odors:
Odors are usually caused by gases produced by the decomposition of organic matter or by substances added to the wastewater. Industrial wastewater may contain either odorous compounds or compounds that produce odor during the process of wastewater treatment.

Temperature:
The temperature of water is a very important parameter because of its effect on chemical reactions and reaction rates, aquatic life, and the suitability of the water for beneficial uses. Increased temperature, for example, can cause a change in the species of fish that can exist in the receiving water body. Industrial establishments that use surface water for cooling-water purposes are particularly concerned with the temperature of the intake water. In addition, oxygen is less soluble in warm water than in cold water. The increase in the rate of biochemical reactions that accompanies an increase in temperature, combined with the decrease in the quantity of oxygen present in surface waters, can often cause serious depletions in dissolved oxygen concentration in 10

the summer months. When significantly large quantities of heated water are discharged to natural receiving water, these effects are magnified. It should also be realized that a sudden change in temperature can result in a high rate of mortality of aquatic life. Moreover, abnormally high temperatures can foster the growth of undesirable water plants and wastewater fungus.

Color:
Color of industrial wastewater varies according to the type of industry. Knowledge of the character and measurement of color is essential. Since most colored matter is in a dissolved state,it is not altered by conventional primary devices, although secondary treatment units, such as activated sludge and trickling filters, remove a certain percentage of some types of colored matter. Sometimes color matters needs chemical oxidation procedures for removal.

Turbidity:
Turbidity, a measure of the light-transmitting properties of water, is another test used to indicate the quality of wastewater discharges and natural waters with respect to colloidal and residual suspended matter. In general, there is no relationship between turbidity and the concentration of suspended solids in untreated wastewater. There is, however, a reasonable relationship between turbidity and suspended solids for the settled secondary effluent from the activated sludge process.

1.6 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS Organic matter:

Organic compounds are normally composed of a combination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with nitrogen in some cases. Other important elements, such as sulfur, phosphorus, and iron, may also be present. Also, industrial wastewater may contain small quantities of a large number of different synthetic organic molecules ranging from simple to extremely complex in structure. Typical examples include surfactants, organic priority pollutants, volatile organic compounds and agricultural pesticides as shown in table (2-3). The presence of these substances

11

has complicated industrial wastewater treatment because many of them either cannot be or are very slowly decomposed biologically.

Fats,oils,and grease:
Fats are among the more stable of organic compounds and are not easily decomposed by bacteria. Kerosene, lubricating oils reach the sewer from workshops and garages, for the most part they float on the wastewater, although a portion is carried into the sludge on settling solids. To an even greater extent than fats, oils, and soaps, the mineral oils tend to coat surfaces causing maintenance problems. If grease is not removed before discharge of the wastewater, it can interfere with the biological life in the surface waters and create unsightly floating matter and films. The oil and grease (O & G) is a very important test used to determine the hydrocarbon content of industrial wastewaters. O&G tests include free O&G and emulsified O&G measures. These tests will determine the type of treatment required. Free O&G can be removed by flotation & skimming using gravity oil separator (GOS). However, emulsified oil is removed by Dissolved Air Flotation system after chemical de-emulsification of oil. In any case, O&G have to be removed prior biological treatment as they will clog the flow distributing devices and air nozzles.

Surfactans:
Surfactants are large organic molecules that are slightly soluble in water and cause foaming in wastewater treatment plants and in surface waters into which the wastewater effluent is discharged. Surfactants tend to collect at the air-water interface. During aeration of wastewater, these compounds collect on the surface of the air bubbles and thus create a very stable foam.

Phenols:
Phenols and other organic compounds are also important constituents of water. Phenols cause taste problems in drinking water, particularly when the water is chlorinated. They are produced primarily by industrial operations and find their way to surface waters via industrial wastewater discharges. Phenols can be biologically oxidized at concentrations up to 500 mg/liter.

12

Volatile organic compounds (voc):

Organic compounds that have a boiling point less than < 100 oC and/or a vapor pressure > 1 mm Hg at 25 oC are generally considered to be volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The release of these compounds in sewers and at treatment plants is of particular concern with respect to the health of collection system and treatment plant workers.

1.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF TREATED WASTE WATER

The effluent treatment plant of this company is designed to obtain the in land surface water discharge standards. PARAMETER Temperature PH Suspended Solids BOD 5 days @ 20 C COD Oil & Grease Ammonical Nitrogen Chlorides (as cl) Teristics of Dissolved Phosphate (P) UNIT 0C mg/l mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 mg/1 TOLERANCE LIMIT 40 5.5 9.0 100 30 (Max) 500 (Max) 10 (Max) 50 (Max) 1,000 (Max) 1,000 (Max) 5 (Max)

Table 1.1:characteristics of treated wastewater

SYSTEM SELECTION-UNIT OPERATION: Selection of the system should be such that all the aspects are considered in sequence for treatments and not based on the discharge standards 1. pH 2. Temperature 3. Oil & Grease 4. Suspended solids 13 by neutralization by heat exchangers or cooling towers by Oil traps, API Oil separators plate separators

5. BOD / COD Fluidized beds -

by classifications by gravity settling by Tilted plate separators Dissolved Air Flotation Tube settlers

by anaerobic Treatments Digesters, UASB Reactors,

Aerobic systems Oxidation ponds, Filters

Trickling

Activated sludge process, extended aeration systems. 6. TDS Segregate into high TDS wastes, or specific Chemical component like Sodium sulphate Carbonate, etc, For to less than 15000 mg/L subjecting them to Biological treatment. 7. COD utilizing the calorific value. Medium and low, subjecting them to Biological Treatment. Segregation to high COD and incinerate

14

2. COMPANY PROFILE
M/s Pattancheru Enviro Tech Limited is a common effluent treatment plant. It is located in Patancheru , near by M/s Fennar India Limited, Hyderabad. The common effluent treatment Operation is started in the year in 1994. Promoted by APIIC/Industries as Public limited company in 1989. Design capacity 7.5 MLD At Present treating industrial effluents 2.5 MLD (including sewage) The factory treated the following industrial effluents. Pharmaceutical industries effluents Chemical industries liquid effluents Leather industries liquid effluents Along this Process some of the by product is released in the form of sludge (solid waste).

15

3. SOURCES OF WASTE WATER GENERATED IN PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRIAL PROCESS

Water of reaction: Water formed during the chemical reaction. Process solvent Water : Water used to transport or support the chemicals involved in the reaction process, this water is usually removed from the process through a separation sludge, such as centrifugation, decantation, drying or stripping,

Process stream water: water added to the carrier, spent acid or spent base which has been separated from the reaction mixture, in order to petrifying the steam by washing away the impurities.

Product washes: water added to the reaction medium to purifying an intermediate or final product by washing away the impurities, or water to wash the crude product after it has been removed from the reaction medium. Spent acid/caustic : Spent acid and caustic steram. Which may be primarily water discharge from the process during separation steps which follow the reaction step in which the acidic / the basic reagent are used to facilities, catalyze or to participate. Condensed steams: Steam used as a sterilizing medium. Air pollution control scrubbers blow down: water or acidic or basic compounds used in air emission control scrubbers to control fumes the reaction vessels, storage tanks, incinerators and other process equipments. Equipment and floor washes: water used to clean process equipment between product campaigns during unit downs and floor during general house keeping or spill cleanup. Pumps seal water: Direct contact water used to cool packing and lubricating pumps.

16

3.1 SELECTED PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM:

We have to select the patancheru environ-tech process this plant is economically cheap operation compared to other operations. The following below operations are done in this plant.

Fig 3.1: Process flow diagram

3.2 PRIMARY TREATMENT

Physical treatment Chemical treatment TPS (Terminal pumping station) ETS (Equalization Tanks) Clarifluculator Decenter I BTS (Buffer Tanks)

3.3 SECONDARY TREATMENT

17

Aeration Tank Aerobic Treatment

Primary treatment:
The primary treatment is employed to remove suspended solids, floating materials, oil and grease etc and also to condition the waste water for either discharge to a receiving body of water or to secondary treatment. The treatment includes the physical treatment and Chemical treatment.

Physical methods:
Include processes where no gross chemical or biological changes are carried out and strictly physical phenomena are used to improve or treat the wastewater. Examples would be coarse screening to remove larger entrained objects and sedimentation (or clarification). In the process of sedimentation, physical phenomena relating to the settling of solids by gravity are allowed to operate. Usually this consists of simply holding a wastewater for a short period of time in a tank under quiescent conditions, allowing the heavier solids to settle, and removing the "clarified" effluent. Sedimentation for solids separation is a very common process operation and is routinely employed at the beginning and end of wastewater treatment operations.While sedimentation is one of the most common physical treatment processes that is used to achieve treatment, another physical treatment process consists of aeration -- that is, physically adding air, usually to provide oxygen to the wastewater. Still other physical phenomena used in treatment consist of filtration. Here wastewater is passed through a filter medium to separate solids. An example would be the use of sand filters to further remove entrained solids from a treated wastewater. Certain phenomena will occur during the sedimentation process and can be advantageously used to further improve water quality. Permitting greases or oils, for example, to float to the surface and skimming or physically removing them from the wastewaters is often carried out as part of the overall treatment process. In certain industrial wastewater treatment processes strong or undesirable wastes are sometimes produced over short periods of time. Since such "slugs" or periodic inputs of such wastes would damage a biological treatment process, these wastes are sometimes held, mixed with other wastewaters, and gradually released, thus eliminating "shocks" to the treatment plant. 18

This is call equalization. Another type of "equalization" can be used to even out wide variations in flow rates. For example, the wet well of a pump station can receive widely varying amounts of wastewater and, in turn, pump the wastes onward at more uniform rates.

Chemical treatment:
Consists of using some chemical reaction or reactions to improve the water quality. Probably the most commonly used chemical process is chlorination. Chlorine, a strong oxidizing chemical, is used to kill bacteria and to slow down the rate of decomposition of the wastewater. Bacterial kill is achieved when vital biological processes are affected by the chlorine. Another strong oxidizing agent that has also been used as an oxidizing disinfectant is ozone. A chemical process commonly used in many industrial wastewater treatment operations is neutralization. Neutralization consists of the addition of a Coagulation consists of the addition of a chemical that, through a chemical reaction, forms an insoluble end product that serves to remove substances from the wastewater. Polyvalent metals are commonly used as coagulating chemicals in wastewater treatment and typical coagulants would include lime (that can also be used in neutralization), certain iron containing compounds (such as ferric chloride or ferric sulfate) and alum (aluminum sulfate). Certain processes may actually be physical and chemical in nature. The use of activated carbon to "adsorb" or remove organics, for example, involves both chemical and physical processes. Processes such as ion exchange, which involves exchanging certain ions for others, are not used to any great extent in wastewater treatment.Coagulation consists of the addition of a chemical that, through a chemical reaction, forms an insoluble end product that serves to remove substances from the wastewater. Polyvalent metals are commonly used as coagulating chemicals in wastewater treatment and typical coagulants would include lime (that can also be used in neutralization), certain iron containing compounds (such as ferric chloride or ferric sulfate) and alum (aluminum sulfate).

19

TPS (Terminal pumping station):

Fig 3.2: Terminal pumping station

In the terminal pumping station the samples entire are collected, initially the effluents are collected in the sampling tins to check the PH and TDS ranges. PH is 5.5 to 9.0 PPM and the TDS is 5000 PPM. PH and TDS ranges are satisfied the effluents are send to the TPS. In the TPS 3 numbers of the feed pumps are used (12.5 HP) because the effluent send to next stage.

Parameters:
pH COD TDS SS Cl-2 NH4+ So4-2 5.5 to 9.00 15000 Mg/lit 5000 MG/lit 100 Mg/lit 1000 Mg/lit 50Mg/Lit 1000Mg/Lit

20

Design of TPS:
Length Width Depth Capacity 12M 5.2M 6M 374M3

Equilization tanks:
Generally all waste water treatment plants receive unsteady flows, Interms of quantity and quality. However improved efficiency reliability and control are possible only when physical, chemical, biological processes are operated at (or) near uniform conditions. The primary object of Equalization is to reduce the magnitude of variations in flow and quality for the later process.

The waste water from starch sedimentation tanks and glucose sediment tanks shall be collected in a common Equalization tank, while the steep liquor collected in separate equalization tanks. This arrangement is useful to achieve a considerable amount of constituent more uniform hydraulic and organic loading rates on subsequent units. The effluent quality and thickening (or sludge) performance of secondary treatment improved through constant loading. The purpose of neutralization is to maintain PH range of 7.5 to 8.5. this PH range protects the equipment provide in the subsequent treatment units. It is also the required range of Biological treatment process for C.S.L Equalization Neutralization is generally carried out in different tanks. In this plant two in line equalization tanks of size 25.25*14.25*4.2M are provided.

21

Fig 3.3: Equalization tanks The capacity of the equalization tank is 1500 m3. Parameters:
COD PH TDS BOD SS Cl-2 NH4+H So4-2 3040Mg/Lit 7.26 2410Mg/Lit 1250 Mg/Lit 370 Mg/Lit 1150 Mg/Lit 32.93 Mg/Lit 139 Mg/Lit

Adding Chemicals:
Alum and polyelectrolyte solution 50Kg/8hr

Design:
Length Width Depth Capacity 25.25M 14.25M 4.2M

1500M3
22

Flow rate Motercapactiy

60M3/hr 10HP

CLARIFIER (Primary settling tank): The function of the clarifier is to separate the solids from the mixed liquor. The mixed liquor entries the drum of the clarifier, which is the center of the clarifier. It equally distribution the mixed liquor at the center of the clarifier and overflows through the out let pipe in to the final samp. In this process the sludge has specific gravity slightly more than the water, which settles towards the bottom of the clarifier. The setting of the sludge is recycled to aerators through recyching pump. It M.L.S.S is more than 4000mg/l in the aeration tank, then sludge is sent to drying beds.

Fig 3.4:primary clarifier

Application: Clarifying of primary waste water Characteristics: The equipment consists of a flocculation zone, inside the cone, a sedimentationclarification zone, outside the cone, hoppers to collect the settled material, ditches to collect the clarified water. Operation: The sedimented sludge flocs are kept in suspension by a turbine, recycled and mixed with the water to be treated. The solids in the incoming water settle over the existing recycled sludge flocs. The new flocs volume increases and they tend to sediment more easily. Materials: Hot dip galvanized carbon steel or Stainless steel. 23

Installation: In a concrete tank. Tank diameter: 13M.

Fig 3.5: Innerpart of the clarifier Design:

Flow rate Pipe diameter Sluze flow rate Volume of cylinder 2*3.14*13*13*.6=318M3

60M3/hr 8in 20M3/hr r2 h

Lateral surface of cylinder 2*3.14*13*2=163M3 r2 h+2rh=481M3

2rh

Parameter:
COD TDS BOD 2760Mg/Lit 2410 Mg/Lit 1083 Mg/Lit 24

 DECANTER:

PH SS Cl-2 So4-2 NH4+H

7.28 200 Mg/Lit 1150 Mg/Lit 139 Mg/Lit 32.93 Mg/Lit

Fig 3.6 : Decanter

The waste waters involved in the industrial processing are collected into a pit (A) and are conveyed to the decanter by a suitable pump, which works automatically through level probes. In the flocculant station (B) a solution of water and flocculant is prepared, and is subsequently injected into the pipe feeding the decanter (C). The flocculant acts on the solid particles increasing their settling speed. Once the waste water has entered into the decanter, the clean water rises towards the top of the silo and overflows into the clean water collection tank (H), from which it can be sent back to the machines. The mud accumulates at the bottom of the decanter and is extracted by a pneumatic group (D), which discharges it into the homogenizing tank (E). The tank is equipped with an agitator for preventing the settlement of the solids. A double speed centrifugal pump (F) takes the mud out of the tank and feeds the filter press (G). The chamber-type filter press squeezes out the residual water still retained in the mud and discharges the dry mud below its structure.

25

BUFFER TANKS: In the buffer tanks to add the sewage for dilution, and to maintain the culture (bacteria)and air blowers also used to mix the effluents.

Fig 3.7: Buffer tanks Design:

Length Width Depth Flow rate Pipe dia Capacity 30M 15M 3.5M 60M3/hr 6in 1575M3

Parameters:
COD TDS BOD 1600 Mg/Lit 1920 Mg/Lit 650 Mg/Lit 26

SS PH Cl-2 So4-2 NH4+H

200 Mg/Lit 7.48 1150 Mg/Lit 139 Mg/Lit 32.93 Mg/Lit

SECONDARY TREATMENT:
Secondary treatment is provided to remove the dissolved and colloidal, biodegradable organic matter in the wastewater. As the starch plant waste water is highly biodegradable in Nature, the secondary treatment is carried biologically in this E.T.P. Biologically degradable organics may exist in waste water in soluble, colloidal or suspended form. Biological removal of degradable organics involves a sequence of steps including mass 1.3 transfer, adsorption, absorption and bio-chemical enzymic reactions. In this E.T.P biological treatment is carried Anaerobic lagoons and Extended Aeration system Activated sludge process. The different process units in secondary treatment are Aerobic lagoons. Activated sludge process

ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS: Activated sludge process was developed in 1014 by late G.J.Fowler and his colleagues. Activated sludge process is most widely accepted process for biological treatment of waste water. It is possible to obtain 85-90% B.O.D removal efficiency.

Fig 3.8: Sludge process

27

PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS MICROBIOLOGY: The principle for activated sludge process is to purity waste water is that Microorganisms want to pro-life rate for which they need food and energy. The energy required for the multiplication is obtained by oxidizing part of the food available in the organic waste. When activated sludge the Microorganisms oxidize the organic compounds giving out end products such as Co2 , H2 S, No. Ammonia, resulting in the degradation of proteinuous materials is oxidized to No3, Oxygen required is derived from the dissolved O2. No3 and organic compounds containing oxygen. But interms of following equation, it is possible to depiet the process. Food + Microbes + Nutrients + O2 H2O + CO2 + NO3 + New cells + energy.

In Engineering terms it can be expressed as organic waste. Organic waste + sludge + N + Air ----------- Waste sludge + End Products. In the activated sludge process, the bacteria are the most important microorganism, because they are responsible for the decomposition of organic material in the effluent. In the mixed liquor tank portion of the organic waste matter is used for the synthesis and reminder of the organic material is used for the production of new cells. While bacteria are the microorganisms that actually degrade the organic wastes in the influent, the metabolic activities of other microorganisms are also important in the activated sludge system.

Process description:

Operationally biologically waste treatment followed anaerobic lagoons followed by the activated sludge process is typically shown in flow of effluent treatment plant raw waste from primary treatment introduced into Anaerobic lagoons photosynthesis algal action is precluded and anaerobic conditions prevail through out the pond volume. The pond is therefore devoid of molecular oxygen from chemical compounds present in the waste. Under these conditions the pond acts like an un-treated and un stirred digester. Anaerobic decomposition degreed organic matter trough successive steps to gaseous end products like Methane and Carbon dioxide. The effluent anaerobic treatment introduced in aeration tanks where an aerobic biological culture mainted in suspension. In the reactor, the bacterial culture oxidizes organic waste as described earlier. The aerobic environment in the reactor is achieved by the use of mechanical 28

aerators, which also scrues to maintain the mixed liquor in a canpletely mixed regime. Often a specified periods into a setting tank, where cells are separated from treated waste water. A position of the settled cells is recycled to maintain the desired concentration of organisms in the reactor and a small position is wasted for extended aesation system, the required M.L.S.S in the reactor 4000 -6000 mg/l.

29

4. UNIT OPERATIONS
4.1 AEROBIC BIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION OF ORGANIC MATTER
Aerobic digestion is a bacterial process occurring in the presence of oxygen. Under aerobic conditions, bacteria rapidly consume organic matter and convert it into carbon dioxide. The operating costs used to be characteristically much greater for aerobic digestion because of the energy used by the blowers, pumps and motors needed to add oxygen to the process. However, since the recent advent of stone fibre filter technology which uses natural air currents for oxygenation, this no longer applies. Aerobic digestion can also be achieved by using Jet aerators.

Fig 4.1 schematic diagram degradation

AERATION TANK:
The effluent from the contact filter enters in to the aeration tank, where it under aerobic conditions. The necessary Oxygen required for decomposition is provided through surface aerators. In this extended aeration system one 20 h.p Floting aeration and four 10 h.p surface aeration is provided. According to design consideration the mixed liquor suspended solids (M.L.S.S) 4000mg/l maintained in the aeration tanks. The mixed liquor over flows continuously from the aeration tank into the clarifier through the out let pipe

30

Fig: 4.2 Aeration tank

Fig 4.3: Internal diagram Aeration motor

31

Fig 4.4: Aeration tank

The capacity of the tank = 4330m3. Flow rate = 720 m3/day.

Design:
Length Width Depth Flow rate Pipe dia Capacity 55M 22.5M 3.5M 60M3/hr 6in 4330M3

FLOTING AERATORS: 32

Rotation Of Fans Motor Capacity Oxygen requirement

1475RPM 30HP 20Kg/hr

FIXD AERATORS:

Rotation Of Fans Motor Capacity

1470RPM 50HP 35Kg/hr

Oxygen requirement

FINAL CLARIFIER (SST1):

Fig 4.5: Clarifier

Design:
Flow rate Pipe dia Diameter Cylinder volume Lateral surface of cylinder 482+200=682M3 30M3/hr 8in 16m 482M3 200M3

33

OUTLET STANDERS:

Fig.4.6:Outlet of pumping station

Parameters:

COD TDS BOD SS PH Cl-2 So4-2 NH4+N Outlet capacity

212 Mg/Lit 1780 Mg/Lit 16Mg/Lit 50Mg/Lit 7.72 600 Mg/Lit 144 Mg/Lit 2000-2500 m3/day 2.5MLD/day

34

5. ESTIMATION OF pH
Aim: Apparatus: Chemicals: Theory: To find tythe pH value of the effluent sample. Conical flask, pH meter Effluent waste water sample. pH is the logarithms of negative hydrogen ion concentration.

PH

- log [l/(H+)]

(H+) (H-OH) =

10-14gm mole/liter.

PH meter determines the acidity or basicity of a solution, pH < 7 acidic, and pH > 7 basic PH = 7 neutral Procedure: The pH meter has two electrodes one is the glass or calmol electrode and the other one is reference electrode. Now a day these Two are combined into the electrode each electrode forms one half cells. The emf is generated is calibrated to pH

Figure:

Fig: 5.1 pH meter 35

PH OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS PH 3.8 6.58 7.34 4.78 3.80 7.04 8.48 8.42 7.18 7.23

S. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SAMPLE NUMBER 190 170 197 171 169 226 106 103 218 198

Table. 5.1: pH observation

36

6. SOLIDS
6.1 INTRODUCTION OF SOLIDS
The term solids is generally used when referring to any material suspended or dissolved in wastewater that can be physically isolated either through filtration or through evaporation. Solids can be classified as either filterable or nonfilterable. Filterable solids may either be settleable or nonsettleable. Solids can also be classified as organic or inorganic. Filterable solids are so small that they will pass through a standard laboratory filter, while nonfilterable solids are large enough to be captured on a standard filter pad. The nonfilterable solids are termed settleable if the solids settle out in a standard laboratory settling container within a specified period of time. They are called non-settleable if they fail to settle out within that time period. If solids are organic, the material is carbon-based and will burn. Inorganic solids, on the other hand, are mineral based and generally will not burn. Any material that was at one time

living (for example: body wastes, starches, sugars, wood, bacteria and cotton) are all organic while limestone, iron and calcium are inorganic. The amount of solids in wastewater is frequently used to describe the strength of the waste. The more solids present in a particular wastewater, the stronger that wastewater will be. If the solids in wastewater are mostly organic, the impact on a treatment plant is greater than if the solids are mostly inorganic.Normal domestic wastewater contains a very small amount of solids when compared to the amount of water that carries it, generally less than 0.1%. This can be misleading, however, because it may take only a very small amount of organic residue to create large pollution problems. The number and severity of pollution problems will depend on the type of solids that are involved.

Fixed solids:
Those solids (total, suspended or dissolved) which remain after ignition for 15-20 minutes at 550 +/-50C. These are also commonly referred to as ash. In general, fixed solids are made up of inorganic material.

Total dissolved solids:

The term applied to the material settling out of a sample within a one hour period. Settleable solids may include floating material depending on the technique used in the test this term refers to

37

those solids which will pass through a standard glass fiber filter.

Total suspended solids:

Those solids which will not pass through a standard glass fiber filter. This includes both those solids that will settle or float in the clarifier and the lighter non-settleable (colloidal) solids.

Total solids:
Term is applied to the material left in a dish after evaporation of a sample and its subsequent drying in an oven at a defined temperature. Total solids include Total Suspended Solids and Total Dissolved Solids.

Volatile solids:
Those solids which are lost during ignition (by burning) for 15-20 minutes at 550 +/-50C. In general, volatile solids are made up of organic material.

6.2 ESTIMATION OF TDS&TDIS

Aim: Apparatus: i. Electric oven 180 OC ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Chemicals: Distilled water Procedure: 1. Take the crucibles and weigh the initial weight. 2. Take the effluent samples and filter nearly 50 ml into the reagent bottles. 3. Take 20 ml of filtered sample into the crucibles. 38 Heating plate Muffle furnace Crucibles Conical flask Pipettes To find the TDS & TDIS

4. Kept the crucible on the hot plate at 100 0 C, to evaporate the samples approximately one hour. 5. After the evaporation the crucible are taken out, next the crucible are kept into the electric oven at 180oC and time taken is 1/2 hr. 6. After the 30 minutes collect the crucibles from the electric oven and weigh them and note the values. The noted values are the TDS values, 7. The crucibles are filled with 20 ml of effluent sample and kept into the muffle fumace within 30 minutes at the 550OC temperature. 8. After 30 minutes weigh the crucibles weight i.e., TDIS values

Calculations:

TDS TDS -TDIS

: =

Initial weight- Final weight Organic matter

The normal TDS is 5000 ppm (AB) * l00O*l000 ml of sample = ppm

TDS OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS

S. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

SAMPLE NUMBER 239 272 278 249 250 267 279 281 282

TDS 15929.4 86817.4 976.6 2305.2 1038.8 9620.0 40224.8 9170.6 10360.2

TSS 698.4 229.8 24.0 440.5 408.5 249.0 796.0 181.8 855.0

Table.6.1:TDS observation & calculations

39

6.3 ESTIMATION OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS

Aim: Apparatus: i. ii. iii. Procedure: 1. Take the effluent samples from equalization tank in the sample tin 2. Take the filter paper and weigh the initial weight. 3. Filtered the sample into another reagent bottle or borosil flask, SS are formed on the surface the filter paper. 4. After filtration the filtered paper is kept in the electric oven at the 105oC temperature. 5. In the oven the moisture content is removed after that weight the filter paper i.e., final weight Reagents bottles filter papers weighing box Determine the suspended solids

Calculations: SS weight = Final weight- Initial weight

40

7. BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)

7.1 INTROUDUCTION: The most widely used parameter of organic pollution applied to wastewater is the 5-day BOD (BOD). The BOD is usually exerted by dissolved and colloidal organic matter and imposes a load on the biological units of the treatment plant. Oxygen must be provided so that bacteria can grow and oxidize the organic matter. An added BOD load, caused by an increase in organic waste, requires more bacterial activity, more oxygen, and greater biological-unit capacity for its treatment. Figure (2-2) illustrates one possible effect of a given industrial wastewater on a sewage plant. In this instance the industrial wastewater, with its constant rate of degradation, tends to smooth out the rate of decomposition of the sewage so that the result shows less upsurge due to nitrogenation. Also, the rate of decomposition of the industrial wastewater tends to slow down the initial rapid rate of domestic sewage. The determination of the BOD involves the measurement of the dissolved oxygen used by microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter. Several dilutions of the wastewater are put into standard BOD bottles with water that has been saturated with oxygen,and contains bacteria. A control bottle is also prepared with only water and bacteria. The bottles are put into a standard incubator for five days, hence this is called the Five-Day BOD Test (BOD). The difference in oxygen levels between the control bottle and the bottles with oxygen remaining is used to calculate the BOD in mg/L. The BOD test results are used to: Determine the approximate quantity of oxygen that will be required to biologically stabilize the organic matter present. Determine the size of wastewater treatment facilities. Measure the efficiency of some treatment process. Determine compliance with wastewater discharge permits. The limitations of the BOD test are as follows: A high concentration of active, acclimated seed bacteria is required. Pretreatment is needed when dealing with toxic wastes, and the effects of nitrifying organisms must be reduced 41

Only the biodegradable organics are measured. The test does not have stoichiometric validity after the soluble organic matter present in solution has been used. An arbitrary, long period of time is required to obtain results.

7.2 ESTIMATION OF BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)

Aim: Apparatus: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Chemicals: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Principle: The Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) test is based on Bio assay procedure which measure the dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms which oxidizing the organic matters under derobic conditions. nitrogen present in the waste water .The BOD by the definition is the quantity of oxygen required by the microorganism for the stabilization of the biologically decomposable organic matter in the aerobic condition in waste water at specific condition Procedure: 1. Take the 10 liter of nutrients sample and oxygen added water 2. Take 1000 ml funnels (2 No) and makeup with nutrient mixing water 3. Take the nutrient sample from different unit tanks. 42 Sodium thiosulphate (0.025N) Manganese sulphate Alkali azide Nutrients (4 types) Starch indicator BOD bottles or reagent bottles Pipettes Burettes Conical flask 1000 ml funnels BOD incubator Determine the Biochemical oxygen demand in effluent water.

4. Dilute the samples at different unit tanks. 5. Fill the sample in the reagent bottles. Final day sample are kept in BOD Incubator. 6. After filling the samples add l ml of MnSO4 and 1 ml of Alkali azide into the sample. 7. Take the concentric BOD Sulfuric acid (98%) and add 1 ml to the sampling mixture 8. Fill the conical flask with 200ml samples 9. Add starch indicator to the conical flask. a. Titrate the solution with Na2S2O3 until the solution colour changes from wine colour to clear white solution or transparent colour. b. Take the blank reading initial and final day

Calculations: BOD = Where Al = Initial day reading. A2 = Final day reading. [(Al A2) Blank reading] * Dilution

Fig: 7.1 BOD Incubator

43

BOD OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS

S. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 SAMPLE ET BT SST-1 SST-2 OUTLET-1 OUTLET-2 INITIALDAY FINAL DAY 6.7 6.9 6.6 6.6 6.7 6.5 3.9 4.3 3.9 4.0 4.0 3.5 BOD 1000 500 22 20 22 14 DILUTION 833.33 500 20 20 20 10

Table.7.1: BOD observation & calculations

Blank reading = 7.0 BOD = (A1 A2) Blank difference*dilution

7.3 REAGENTS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF BOD

1. Sodium Thiosulphate (0.025N) Dissolve 6.205gm of Sodium Thiosulphate Penta hydrate in distilled water add 0.4gm Sodium hydroxide (pellets) and dilute to l00Oml. 2. Starch solution (Indicator) Dissolve 2gm lab grade solution Starch and 0.2gm Salicylic acid in 100ml hot distilled water. 3. Manganous sulphate solution Dissolve 364gm of Manganous sulphate (MnS04) mono hydrate in distilled water and dilute to l000ml. 4. Alkali Azide Reagent Dissolve 500gm of Sodium hydroxide and l35gm of Sodium iodide or 700 gm of Potassium hydroxide and 150gm of Potassium iodide in distilled water and dilute to 1000 ml add l0gm Sodium Azide dissolve in 40ml distilled water.

44

8. CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

8.1 INTRODUCTION:
The COD test is used to measure the organic matter in industrial wastewater that contains compounds that are toxic to biological life. It oxidizes the reduced compounds in wastewater through a reaction with a mixture of chromic and sulfuric acid at high temperatures. There is another COD test using permanganate as the oxidizing agent but this test will give lower values and is not directly relatable to the standard COD test. The COD of wastewater is, in general, higher than that of the BOD because more compounds can be chemically oxidized than can be biologically oxidized. For many types of wastewater, it is possible to correlate COD with BOD5. This can be very useful because COD can be determined in 3 hours, compared with 5 days for the BOD5. Once the correlation has been established, COD measurements can be used to good advantage for treatment-plant control and operation. The ratio of COD to BOD5 is usually 1.5: 2 for industrial wastewater containing biodegradable material (e.g. Food Industry). For wastewaters with ratios higher than 3, it is assumed that some oxidizable material in the sample is not biodegradable. Nonbiodegradable material sometimes is called refractory and found mainly in wastewater from chemical and pulp & paper industries.

Inorganic matter:
Several inorganic components of wastewater are important in establishing and controlling wastewater quality. Industrial wastewater has to be treated for removal of the inorganic constituents that are added in the use cycle. Concentrations of inorganic constituents also are increased by the natural evaporation process, which removes some of surface water and leaves the inorganic substance in the wastewater. pH: The hydrogen-ion concentration is an important quality parameter of wastewater. The concentration range suitable for the existence of most biological life is quite narrow and critical. Wastewater with an adverse concentration of hydrogen ion is difficult to treat by biological means, and if the concentration is not altered before discharge, the wastewater effluent may alter the concentration in the natural waters.

45

Alkalinity: Alkalinity in wastewater results from the presence of the hydroxides,carbonates, and bicarbonates of elements such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, or ammonia. Of these, calcium and magnesium bicarbonates are most common. Borates, silicates, phosphates, and similar compounds can also contribute to the alkalinity. The alkalinity in wastewater helps to resist changes in pH caused by the addition of acids. The concentration of alkalinity in wastewater is important where chemical treatment is to be used, in biological nutrient removal, and where ammonia is to be removed by air stripping. Nitrogen: Because nitrogen is an essential building block in the synthesis of protein, nitrogen data will be required to evaluate the treatability of wastewater by biological processes.Insufficient nitrogen can necessitate the addition of nitrogen to make the wastewater treatable. Where control of algal growth in the receiving water is necessary to protect beneficial uses, removal or reduction of nitrogen in wastewaters prior to discharge may be desirable. The total nitrogen, as a commonly used parameter, consists of many numerous compounds such as; NH3, NH4-N, NO3-N, NO2-N, urea, organic-N (amines, amino acids, ...etc). Phosphorus: Phosphorus is also essential to the growth of algae and other biological organisms. The organically bound phosphorus is an important constituent of industrial wastewater and sludge. Sulfur : Sulfate is reduced biologically under anaerobic conditions to sulfide, which in turn can combine with hydrogen to form hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Hydrogen sulfide released to the atmosphere above the wastewater in sewers that are not flowing full tends to accumulate at the crown of the pipe. The accumulated H2S can then be oxidized biologically to sulfuric acid, which is corrosive to steel pipes and equipment.

Toxic inorganic compounds:

Because of their toxicity, certain cations are of great importance in the treatment and disposal of wastewater. Many of these compounds are classified as priority pollutants. Copper, lead, silver, chromium, arsenic, and boron are toxic in varying degrees to microorganisms and therefore must be taken into consideration in the design of a biological treatment plant. Many 46

plants have been upset by the introduction of these ions to the extent that the microorganisms were killed and treatment ceased. Other toxic cations include potassium and ammonium at 4000 mg/L. Some toxic anions, including cyanides and chromates, are also present in industrial wastewater. These are found particularly in metal-plating wastewater and should be removed by pretreatment at the site of the industry rather than be mixed with the municipal wastewater. Fluoride, another toxic anion, is found commonly in wastewater from electronics manufacturing facilities. Organic compounds present in some industrial wastewater are also toxic.

Heavy metals: Trace quantities of Many metals, such as nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and mercury (Hg) are important constituents of some industrial wastewaters. The presence of any of these metals in excessive quantities will interfere with many beneficial uses of the water because of their toxicity; therefore, it is freq Significance: Measures pollution potential of organic matter organic matter + oxidant CO2 + H2O Decomposable organic matter results in consumption of DO in the receiving streams Does not differentiate between biologically degradable & nondegradable organic matter Oxidation reduction reactions Comprise two half reactions Removal of electrons - oxidation Addition of electrons - reduction Organic matter is oxidised to CO2 & H2O, electrons are released Oxidising chemical is reduced while accepting the released electrons.

47

8.2 ESTIMATION OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)

Aim: Determine the chemical Oxygen demand (COD) in the different unit stage samples. Apparatus: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Vials Pippets Burettes COD Digester or Spectrolab

nitrogen present in the waste water .The BOD by the definition is the quantity of oxygen required by the microorganism for the stabilization of the biologically decomposable organic

vii.

matter in the aerobic condition in waste water at specific condition.

Chemicals i. ii. iii. iv. Principle The Chemical Oxygen demand determines the amount of Oxygen required for Chemical Oxidation of Organic matter using a strong Chemical Oxidant, such as Potassium dichromate under reflux condition. Procedure 1. Take the sample at the different unit sample (ET, BT, SST1, SST2, 0UT LET) into the Sampling tins. 2. Take the each sample 20 ml into the vial and add 0.4 gm HgSO4 (mercuric sulphate) into the sample. 3. Take the 10 ml of Potassium dichromate (0.25N) add to the above solution K2Cr2O7 is the Oxidizing agent. 4. Take the 30 ml of H2SO4 add to the solution mixture, the mixture is 2:1:3 ratio H2SO4 is the reagent 48 Standard Potassium dicromate (K2Cr2O7) at 0.25 N. Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) Standard Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate (Fe(NH4,)2(SO4)2) at 0. IN. Ferrion indicator

5. Arrange the condensers top of the vial. 6. Cool the condensers and wash them with 20 to 40 ml of distilled water. 7. After washing titrate the solution with 0.1 N of ferrous Ammonium sulphate using Ferrion Indicator until the colour changes as indicator colour.

Calculations: COD = (A-B]*8*0.l*l000 * Dilution ML of sample Where A = Blank reading B = sample reading

Figure:

Fig 8.1: COD Digester

Capacity : Sample cap. : Temperature: 15 Samples 20 ml. Ambient to 400 0 C, /- 10,

Timer Range : 9.9Hours.Auto shut off & Buzzer. Display : LCD display in Temp. & Timer. 49

Method Dimension :

: As per APHA. Power 230 Volts, single phase A/c, (310x310x310) mm, Top cover S.S, Powder coated box. 15 No. Vessels and 15 No.Air condensers 1.Stand for Vessel: 01. 2.Stand for Air Condenser: 01. 3. Cooling Tray: 01

Glass ware : Accessories:

COD OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS

S. NO 1 2 3 4 5 SAMPLE ET BT SST-1 SST-2 OUTLET PH 7.32 7.29 7.47 7.49 7.48 DILUTION 20 10 DIRECT DIRECT DIRECT VIAL. NO FAS (reading) 2 3 4 5 6 21.0 19.8 18.4 18.6 18.7 COD 1840 1400 196 188 196

Table.8.1: COD observation & calculations

Blank Reading = 23.3

COD =

(A-B)* 8000*0.1N* DILUTION ml of sample

50

8.3 REAGENTS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF COD

1. Standard KZCr207 (0.25N): Dissolve 12.25gm in l0Oml dissolved water. 2. Standard Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate (FAS) (0.lN): Dissolve 39.14gm in distilled water and 20ml Concentrated Sulfuric acid dilute to 1000ml with distilled water. 3. Ferrion Indicator solution: Dissolve l.45gm of l, l0 Phenopthroline monohydrate and 695mg of Ferrous Sulphate and dilute to l00ml. 4. Sulfuric acid: Add 10gm Silver sulphate to one liter of Sulphuric acid.

51

9. ESTIMATION OF MLSS OR VSS

Aim Apparatus: i. ii. iii. Procedure: 1. Take the sample from aeration tanks in the sampling tins 2. Take the filter paper and weigh the initial weight. 3. Arrange the filter paper on the surface of the vacuum pump and pore the sample on the filter paper the MLSS is formed on the filter paper. 4. After this, the filter paper kept into the hot air oven to remove the moist content and weigh the filter paper for final weight Vacuum pump, Filter paper Pipette : Determine the MLSS or VSS (Biomass)

Calculations: MLSS or VSS = Final weight - initial weight.

52

10. ESTIMATION OF AMMONICAL NITROGEN (NH4 N)

Aim Apparatus: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Chemicals: i. ii. iii. Procedure: 1. Take the 100 ml of effluent sample into the vial flask. 2. Add the 10 ml of Borate Buffer to the 100 ml of effluent sample Boric acid Borate buffer NaOH (6 N) Kjelt equipment Vials Conical flasks Pipettes Burettes Magnetic stirrer : Determine the ammonical nitrogen in the effluent water

3. Add the 2 or 3 drops of NaOH solution to the above mixture. 4. The purpose of adding NaOH to risk the pH of the solution. 5. To check the pH using Litmuss paper, the range of pH is 9.0 6. Take the 25 ml of Boric acid into the 250 ml conical flask. 7. Vial and conical flask are arranging the kjeltec apparatus.
8. After 5 minutes or within the 5 minutes to collect the sample, titrate the sample with 0.02 N H2SO4. 9. The end point is lavender colour. Calculations: NH4 N = [(A-B) *280] = Ml of sample Where A = effluent sample reading 53 ppm

B = Blank reading

Figure:

Fig 10.1 Kjelet equipment

10.1 REAGENTS ANALYSIS OF AMMONICAL NITROGEN

1. Borate buffer solution:

(NH4-N)

Add 88ml, 0.lN NaOH solution to 500ml approximately 0,025N sodium tetra borite (Na2B407) solution 9.5 gm (Na2B407).lOH2O and dilute l000nil. 0.l N NaOH 0.4 gm NaOH dissolved in 100ml distilled water. 2. Mixed indicator solution: Dissolved 200 mg Methyl red indicator in 100 ml 95% Ethyl or Isopropyl alcohol. Dissolved 100 mg Methyl blue in 50ml 95% Ethyl or Isopropyl alcohol. Combine solutions prepared monthly. 3. Indicating Boric Acid solution: 54

Dissolve 20gm H3BO3 in ammonia free distilled water add 10 ml mixed indicator solution, and dilute 1000ml prepare monthly. 20gm Boric acid powder into the distilled water and stirred dissolved the powder. Take the Metheline red and Metheline blue indicators. 0.1 gm of Methyl blue and make up to the 50ml of Isopropyl alcohol. 0.2 gm of Metheline red and make up the 100ml Isopropyl alcohol. 8ml Methyl red, 4ml Methyl blue.8+4 combined with another beaker. Take l0 ml of combined mixer to add the Boric solution. To prepare the indicating Boric acid solution. Make up l000ml of mixed solution are makeup. 4. Standard sulfuric acid (0.02N): Concentrated Sulfuric acid 2.8ml to l000ml distilled water (0.1N). Take 200ml of 0.1N Sulfuric acid dilute 1000ml with distilled water. 5. NaOH (6N): Dissolve 24gm NaOH in distilled water and dilute to 100ml.

55

11. ESTIMATION OF OIL AND GREASE

Aim Apparatus: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Separating funnel with stand Filter paper. Beaker. Weighing Box. Hot air oven 105C. : To determine the oil and grease in any sample.

Chemicals: 1:1 ratio HCL Procedure: 1. Take the any sample 250ml into the separating funnel. 2. Add the HCL 1:1 ratio solution 5ml into the solution 3. Take the 30ml of NHexa11e or CCl4 adding to the solution. 4. The solution mixture 5 to 6 times shake and remove the released gases in the separating funnel. 5. In the separating funnel two layers are formed top layer is oil and grease layer and bottom layer is water. 6. Slowly remove the bottom layer into the beaker the top layer is filtered using the filter paper. 7. Take the beaker and weighing the initial weight collect the filtered sample into the separating funnel. 8. The beaker kept in the hot air oven l05C to drying. After the drying weighing the beaker weight.

Calculations: (A - B) * 1000*1000 ml of sample Where A = Initial weight B = Final weight 56

11.1 REAGENTS FOR OIL AND GREASE

1. Hydrochloric acid 50 ml of concentrated Hydrochloric acid (HCI) with 50ml of distilled water. 2. Solvent:80% n-Hexane + 20% Methyl tertiary butyl ether.

57

12. HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

12.1 INTRODUCTION:
High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is one mode of chromatography, one of the most used analytical techniques. Chromatographic process can be defined as separation technique involving mass-transfer between stationary and mobile phase. HPLC utilises a liquid mobile phase to separate the components of a mixture. The stationary phase can be a liquid or a solid phase. These components are first dissolved in a solvent, and then forced to flow through a chromatographic column under a high pressure. In the column, the mixture separates into its components. The amount of resolution is important, and is dependent upon the extent of interaction between the solute components and the stationary phase. The stationary phase is defined as the immobile packing material in the column. The interaction of the solute with mobile and stationary phases can be manipulated through different choices of both solvents and stationary phases. As a result, HPLC acquires a high degree of versatility not found in other chromatographic systems and it has the ability to easily separate a wide variety of chemical mixtures. HPLC is a dynamic adsorption process. Analyte molecules, while moving through the porous packing beads, tend to interact with the surface adsorption sites. Depending on the HPLC mode, the different types of the adsorption forces may be included in the retention process:

SEC (size-exclusion chromatography):

Size-exclusion chromatography is another case. It is the separation of the mixture by the molecular size of its components. The basic principle of SEC separation is that the bigger the molecule, the less possibility there is for it to penetrate into the adsorbent pore space. So, the bigger the molecule the less it will be retained.

Hydrophobic (non-specific) interactions:

Hydrophobic interactions are the main ones in reversed-phase (RP) separations. Dipoledipole (polar) interactions are dominant in normal phase (NP) (mode. Ionic interactions are responsible for the retention in ion-exchange chromatography. All these interactions are competitive. Analyte molecules are competing with the eluent molecules for the adsorption sites.

58

So, the stronger analyte molecules interact with the surface. The weaker the eluent interaction, the longer the analyte will be retained on the surface.

Fig 12.1: HPLC Ability carve

12.2 TYPES OF HPLC

There are many ways to classify liquid column chromatography. If this classification is based on the nature of the stationary phase and the separation process, three modes can be specified. Adsorption chromatography: The stationary phase is an adsorbent (like silica gel or any other silica based packing) and the separation is based on repeated adsorption-desorption steps. Ion-exchange chromatography: The stationary bed has an ionically charged surface of opposite charge to the sample ions. This technique is used almost exclusively with ionic or ionizable samples. The stronger the charge on the sample, the stronger it will be attracted to the ionic surface and thus, the longer it will take to elute. The mobile phase is an aqueous buffer, where both pH and ionic strength are used to control elution time. 59

Size exclusion chromatography: The column is filled with material having precisely controlled pore sizes, and the sample is simply screened or filtered according to its solvated molecular size. Larger molecules are rapidly washed through the column; smaller molecules penetrate inside the porous of the packing particles and elute later. This technique is also called gel filtration or gel permeation chromatography. Concerning the first type, two modes are defined depending on the relative polarity of the two phases: normal and reversed-phase chromatography. In normal phase chromatography, the stationary bed is strongly polar in nature (e.g. silica gel), and the mobile phase is non polar (such as n-hexane). Polar samples are thus retained on the polar surface of the column packing for longer than less polar materials. Reversed-phase chromatography is the inverse of this. The stationary bed is (nonpolar) in nature, while the mobile phase is a polar liquid, such as mixtures of water and methanol or acetonitrile. Here the more nonpolar the material is, the longer it will be retained. Reverse phase chromatography is used for almost 90% of all chromatographic applications. Eluent polarity plays the major role in all types of HPLC. There are two elution types: isocratic and gradient. In the first type, constant eluent composition is pumped through the column during the whole analysis. In the second type, eluent composition (and strength) is steadily changed during the run. HPLC as compared with the classical LC technique is characterised by: High resolution Small diameter (4.6 mm), stainless steel, glass or titanium columns Column packing with very small (3, 5 and 10 mm) particles Relatively high inlet pressures and controlled flow of the mobile phase Continuous flow detectors capable of handling small flow rates and detecting very small amounts Rapid analysis

Initially, pressure was selected as the principal criterion of modern liquid chromatography and thus the name was "high pressure liquid chromatography" or HPLC. This was, however, an unfortunate term because it seems to indicate that the improved performance is primarily due to the high pressure. This is, however, not true. In fact, high performance is the result of many 60

factors: very small particles of narrow distribution range and uniform pore size and distribution, high pressure column slurry packing techniques, accurate low volume sample injectors, sensitive low volume detectors and, of course, good pumping systems. Naturally, pressure is needed to permit a given flow rate of the mobile phase.

Stationary Phases (Adsorbents):

HPLC separations are based on the surface interactions, and depend on the types of the adsorption sites. Modern HPLC adsorbents are the small rigid porous particles with high surface area. Main adsorbent parameters are: Particle size: 3 to 10 m Particle size distribution: as narrow as possible, usually within 10% of the mean

The last parameter in the list represents an adsorbent surface chemistry. Depending on the type of the ligand attached to the surface, the adsorbent could be normal phase (-OH, -NH2), or reversed-phase (C5, C8, C 18 CN, NH2 ), and even anion (CH2NR3 +OH-), or cation (R-SO3 -H+) exchangers.

12.3 INSTRUMENTATION HPLC SYSTEM

HPLC instrumentation includes a pump, injector, column, detector and data system. The heart of the system is the column where separation occurs. Since the stationary phase is composed of micrometre size porous particles, a high pressure pump is required to move the mobile phase through the column. The chromatographic process begins by injecting the solute onto the top of the column. Separation of components occurs as the analytes and mobile phase are pumped through the column. Eventually, each component elutes from the column as a narrow band (or peak) on the recorder. Detection of the eluting components is important, and this can be either selective or universal, depending upon the detector used. The response of the detector to each component is displayed on a chart recorder or computer screen and is known as a chromatogram. To collect, store and analyse the chromatographic data, computer, integrator, and other data processing equipment are frequently used. MOBILE PHASES: Despite the large variety of solvents used in HPLC, there are several common properties 61

Purity Detector compatibility Solubility of the sample Low viscosity Chemical inertness

For normal phase mode, solvents are mainly nonpolar; for reversed-phase, eluents are usually a mixture of water with some polar organic solvent such as acetonitrile or methanol. Size-exclusion HPLC has special requirements. SEC eluents have to dissolve polymers, but the most important is that SEC eluent has to suppress possible interactions of the sample molecule with the surface of the packing material.

12.4 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENT

Mobile phase reservoir, filtering Pump Injector Column Detector Data system

Mobile phase reservoir, filtering:

The most common type of solvent reservoir is a glass bottle. Most of the manufacturers supply these bottles with special caps, Teflon tubing and filters to connect to the pump inlet and to the purge gas (helium) used to remove dissolved air. Helium purging and storage of the solvent under helium is not sufficient for degassing aqueous solvents. It is useful to apply a vacuum for 510 min. and then keep the solvent under a helium atmosphere.

Pump:
High pressure pumps are needed to force solvents through packed stationary phase beds. Smaller bed particles require higher pressures. There are many advantages to using smaller particles, but they may not be essential for all separations. The most important advantages are: 62

higher resolution, faster analyses, and increased sample load capacity. However, only the most demanding separations require these advances in significant amounts. Many separation problems can be resolved with larger particle packings that require less pressure. Flow rate stability is another important pump feature that distinguishes pumps. Very stable flow rates are usually not essential for analytical chromatography. However, if the user plans to use a system in size exclusion mode, then there must be a pump which provides an extremely stable flow rate. An additional feature found on the more elaborate pumps is external electronic control. Although it adds to the expense of the pump, external electronic control is a very desirable feature when automation or electronically controlled gradients are to be run. Alternatively, this becomes an undesirable feature (since it is an unnecessary expense) when using isocratic methods. The degree of flow control also varies with pump expense. More expensive pumps include such state of the-art technology as electronic feedback and multi headed configurations. Modern pumps have the following parameters: Flow rate range: 0.01 to 5 mL/min Flow rate stability: not more than 1% For SEC flow rate stability should be less than 0.2% Maximum pressure: up to 300 h Pa.

It is desirable to have an integrated degassing system, either helium purging, or membrane filtering.

Injector:
Sample introduction can be accomplished in various ways. The simplest method is to use an injection valve. In more sophisticated LC systems, automatic sampling devices are incorporated where the sample is introduced with the help of auto samplers and microprocessors. In liquid chromatography, liquid samples may be injected directly and solid samples need only be dissolved in an appropriate solvent. The solvent need not be the mobile phase, but frequently it is Judiciously chosen to avoid detector interference, column/component interference, loss in efficiency or all of these. It is always best to remove particles from the sample by filtering over a 5 mm filter, or centrifuging .since continuous injections of particulate material will eventually cause blockages in injection devices or columns. Sample sizes may vary widely. The availability of highly sensitive 63

detectors frequently allows use of the small samples which yield the highest column performance. Typical sample mass with 4.6 mm ID columns range from the nano gram level up to about 2 mg diluted in 20 ml of solvent. In general, it will be noted that much less sample preparation is required in LC than in GC since unwanted or interfering compounds, or both, may often be extracted, or eliminated, by selective detection.

Column:
Typical HPLC columns are 5, 10, 15 and 25 cm in length and are filled with small diameter (3, 5 or 10 mm) particles. The internal diameter of the columns is usually 4.6 mm; this is considered the best compromise for sample capacity, mobile phase consumption, speed and resolution. However, if pure substances are to be collected (preparative scale), then larger diameter columns may be needed. Packing the column tubing with small diameter particles requires high skill and specialized equipment. For this reason, it is generally recommended that all but the most experienced chromatographers purchase prepacked columns, since it is difficult to match the high performance of professionally packed LC columns without a large investment in time and equipment. In general, LC columns are fairly durable and one can expect a long service life unless they are used in some manner which is intrinsically destructive, as for example, with highly acidic or basic eluents, or with continual injections of 'dirty' biological or crude samples. It is wise to inject some test mixture (under fixed conditions) into a column when new, and to retain the chromatogram. If questionable results are obtained later, the test mixture can be injected again under specified conditions. The two chromatograms may be compared to establish whether or not the column is still useful.

Detector:
Today, optical detectors are used most frequently in liquid chromatographic systems. These detectors pass a beam of light through the flowing column effluent as it passes through a low volume (10 ml) flow cell. The variations in light intensity caused by UV absorption, fluorescence emission or change in refractive index, from the sample components passing through the cell, are monitored as changes in the output voltage. These voltage changes are recorded on a strip chart recorder and frequently are fed into a computer to provide retention time and peak area data.The most commonly used detector in LC is the ultraviolet absorption detector (fig.8). A variable wavelength detector of this type, capable of monitoring from 190 to 400 nm, will be 64

found suitable for the detection of the majority samples .Other detectors in common use include Photo Diode Array UV detector (PAD), refractive index (RI), fluorescence (FLU), electrochemical (EC). The RI detector is universal but also the less sensitive one. FLU and EC detectors are quite sensitive (up to 10-15 pmole) but also quite selective.

Data system:
Since the detector signal is electronic, using modern data collection techniques can aid the signal analysis. In addition, some systems can store data in a retrievable form for highly sophisticated computer analysis at a later time.The main goal in using electronic data systems is to increase analysis accuracy and precision.while reducing operator attention. There are several types of data systems, each differing in terms of available features. In routine analysis, where no automation (in terms of data management or process control) is needed, a pre-programmed computing integrator may be sufficient. If higher control levels are desired, a more intelligent device is necessary, such as a data station or minicomputer. The advantages of intelligent processors in chromatographs are found in several areas. First, additional automation options become easier to implement. Secondly, complex data analysis becomes more feasible. These analysis options include such features as run parameter optimization and deconvolution (i.e. resolution) of overlapping peaks. Finally, software safeguards can be designed to reduce accidental misuse of the system.

65

13.ECONOMIC EVALUATION
The decision to commercialize a process is based almost on the economic evaluation included accounting and finance, marketing and sales, and engg design and process.The methods of preparing an economic are numerous and vary from company to company. Much more to extracting information is required when a final decision to commercialize a process is to be made.

66

14. SLUDGE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL

The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and disposed of in a safe and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to reduce the amount of organic matter and the number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids. The most common treatment options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and composting. Incineration is also used albeit to a much lesser degree. Choice of a wastewater solid treatment method depends on the amount of solids generated and other site-specific conditions. However, in general, composting is most often applied to smaller-scale applications followed by aerobic digestion and then lastly anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale municipal applications. The solids separated in the clarifier are recycled to the aeration tank. Only little quantity of sludge disposed. The sludge from the anaerobic lagoons is in major works. The sludge from the anaerobic lagoons removed by mechanically. Disposal of sludge in the E.T.P is sent to underlying areas within the company premises.

67

15. CONCLUSION
The present investigation is directed towards the study of waste treatment In the angle of continues improvement and conforming to the norm prevailing as per the national standard. We should into the cost effective treatment leading to further reduction of COD, BOD, TDS, SS and make use of the treated water for hygienic appellation such as agriculture, washing, and gardening. The process requires up gradation of secondary treatment with increase of growth of micro organism and create environment for reduction of both BOD and COD and increase of clarifier efficiency. Finely a cost effective tertiary treatment may be added to the present system such as introduction of MBR (Membrane Bioreactor) to bring down COD level drastically (reduction up to 80-90%). We further suggest to reduce volatile organic compound (VOC) which causes obnoxious smell to the enter plant area. This can be done by keeping the effluent in an enclosed space and the vapors are burnt to reduce VOC.

68

17. REFERENCES

1. Waste water treatment disposal and reus By Metcalf & eddy

2. Biological treatment process By Hammer 3. Waste water treatment By M. N. Rao & B. K. Dutta 4. Water and waste water technology By mark. J. Hammer

69