Chapter 1 Vocab Marlatt, Demming, and Reid study Subfields of Psychology o Cognitive- looking at how the brain functions

ons o Experimental- learning, motivation, perception o Industrial/organizational- in the workplace o Personality- behavior o Clinical- treatment of mental disorders o Developmental- across lifespan Structuralism studies the structure of consciousness o Wilhelm Wundt structuralist that did the first psychology lab o Titchener structuralist that did introspection (give patient a stimulus and record their reaction). Did away with it because people were reacting the way they thought the experiment would result o Gestalt school Looks at how the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Functionalism- studies the function of consciousness o William James Functionalist that focus on the stream of consciousness (being aware of what is going on around you). Sigmund Freud o Psychoanalysis- analysis of internal unconsciousness and how it affects your behavior. Behaviorism focus on behavior, excludes mental events. (environmental control of behavior through learning) o J.B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, I. Pavlov o Operant conditioning vs classical conditioning Operant- based on reward or punishment Classical- not aware Cognitive behaviorism- surroundings influence thought and behavior Albert Ellis- rational emotive therapy (a. event, b. belief, c. emotion) Bandura o Behavior, Environment, and Person Variables all effect one another Humanistic Psychology o Focuses on self: why you exist? o Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (humanists) o Different statements Evolutionary Psychology o Evolution shapes human behavior Four Central Goals of Psychology DECA o Description, explanation, control, allocation Chapter 2 Methods of Research (go thru book and look at advantages and disadvantages pg. 52)

1. Case Study: rare events 2. Naturalistic Observation: watching people in their natural environment 3. Survey Research: questionnaires, polls, surveys 4. Correlational Research: measure x and y and see how they correlate with each other Experimental vs control group 1. Experimental: group being tested 2. Control: group left alone for comparison Types of sampling (go back and look) Independent vs dependent variable Steps in scientific process Arthur Koestler and Humor 1. Spider experiment with lady 2. Using humor to get over a phobia Systematic Desensitization 1. Working on overcoming your fears Problems in Research 1. Placebo effects give someone a treatment, but it has no medicine or anything in it. Because the person believes they are getting treatment, they actually get better. 2. Self-report issues sometimes people wont tell you the truth and they will tell you what you want to hear. 3. Confounding of variables if you have a variable that you are manipulating, you cant tell which variable is going to cause the outcome. 4. Experimenter Expectancy effect- the way in which the experimenter effects how the participant reacts, but it is unintentional. Darley and Latane- diffusion of responsibility experiment 3 characteristics of an experiment 1. Researcher manipulates one or more variables 2. Measures where the manipulation influences other variables 3. Attempts to control extraneous factors that might influence the outcome Definitions

Chapter 3 (go back and read) Evolutionary Psychology 23 pairs of chromosomes Gene expression is controlled by the biochemical environment inside the cell, which is influenced by the organisms: o Overall environment o Experience o Behavior Darwin o All modern organisms Descended from small set of shared ancestors Emerged over time through process of evolution Darwins 3 principles o There must be variation among individuals within a population. o Certain of the variations must survive and reproduce at higher rates than others. o The traits associated with this advantage must be passed from parents to offspring.

Variation and the transmission of traits depend on the organisms genome. Survival of the genes matter! Evidence of evolution? Two types of smiles o General expression of pleasure o Deliberately but not necessary reflecting feelings Five Personality Dimensions (OCEAN) o Openness o Conscientiousness o Extraversion/Intraversion o Agreeableness o Neuroticism definitions Chapter 10 Intelligence influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Intelligence and testing it (IQ) o Galton o Binet o Terman and Stanford IQ = (mental age/ chronological age) x 100 Stanford/ Binet equation Wechsler o Verbal IQ words, speech o Performance IQ creative side of things o Total IQ -- combination of verbal and performance IQ Validity: how well a test measures what it is designed to measure o Construct validityo Content validityo Criterion RelatedTypes of reliability- consistency of measurements o Test-retest reliability o Inter-judge reliability Flynn Effect your intelligence increases over your life span Wheeler (psychologist) and culture/group differences o It was proven that Asians score higher that Whites, and whites higher than AfricanAmericans. Family studies, twin studies, adoption studies (how well your intelligence relates to each) Polygenic transmission influences from a number of genes Heritability ratioshows how likely you are to have the same intelligence level as your parents or brother/sister Mental manipulation of images, symbols, words, or concepts Howard Gardners Intelligences o Linguistic o Logical-mathematical o Visuospatial

o Musical o Bodily-kinetic o Interpersonal o Intrapersonal o Naturalistic o Possible number 9 Existential Cattell and Horn o Fluid Intelligencethe ability to deal with novel, problem-solving situations for which personal experience does not provide a solution. o Crystallized Intelligencethe ability to apply previous required knowledge to current problems Ingredients to Intelligence o Mental speed o Working memory o Executive control Emotional Intelligence (Salovey and Mayer) o Accurately perceive emotions in oneself and others and be able to express them o Assimilate emotion in thought; be aware of emotion shaping thinking, decision making, and coping o Understand and reason with emotion; be able to understand and analyze emotions o Regulate emotion Thurstones Primary Mental Abilities o Space o Verbal comprehension o Word fluency o Perceptual speed o Rote memory o Reasoning Greenberg, Rice, and Elliott o Role of emotion in personal functioning Full awareness of emotions enhances adaptive functioning Emotions provides info regarding implicit values and standards Maladaptive emotional responses can be learned The therapeutic relationship is an important medium for changing emotion schemata. (learn about your emotions) Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of Intelligence o Underlying cognitive processes Metacomponents Performance components Knowledge acquisition components

Three facets of successful intelligence o Analytical intelligence (IQ) o Practical (everyday problem solving) (street smart vs book smart) o Creative (generate new ideas, inventiveness)

Guilford o Unusual uses test Fluency, originality, usefulness Wallas o Preparation o Incubation o Inspiration o Verification Mednick o Remote associates test (RAT) Wallach and Kogan o Divergent vs convergent thinking Divergent (outward thinking; ideas that depart from the norm), convergent (inward thinking) o Relationship between IQ and creativity o Conflicting results from prior research o Creativity might be inhibited by the demands of an obvious testing situation o Games, puzzles, low demand activities Implications o Creativity depends on surroundings o Encourage people to be creative, they would do so

Chapter 12 (class notes) Moral Issues (Kohlberg) o Laws and rules o Conscience o Personal roles of affection o Authority o Civil rights o Contract, trust o Punishment, justice o Value of life o Property rights/ values o Truth o Sex/love Heinz Story (differing issues; morality) Good husband (issues 3 and 7) drug makers right to property versus wifes life (issues 8 and 9) Some implications of Kohlbergs Model o Advanced moral reasoning does not convey virtue o People may have difficulty correctly assimilating a moral prescription which is too far beyond their own level of functioning Applications of Kohlbergs Model? o Election campaigns people aware of level of reasoning

Most people stage 4 of reasoning o Religious leaders vs religious followers Advanced principles more advanced than followers) o 4 yr olds memorize golden rule do unto others as you would have them do unto you Delinquent Study o Kohlberg & Moral Reasoning Enhance level of reasoning in developmental sequence Moral development Moral Intuitionist Perspective o Moral reasoning vs moral feeling moral reasoning thinking it through; moral feeling- going with your gut o Implications of Kohlbergs work is we are judges o Trolley dilemma: save 5 people but sacrifice 1? o Versions: pull switch or push fat man? Same equation, but different emotional responses; conflict Most willing to pull switch, but not to push man This perspective on morals is generating interest Haidt and Moral Intuitions o Moral intuitions are primary, but not absolutely dominant o Intuition: fast, emotion laden o Reasoning: slow, cool, less motivating o Intuitions Harm/care Fairness/justice Ingroup/loyalty (binding) Authority/respect Purity/sanctity (disgust sensitivity) 1,2 related more to liberal views 3,4,5 related more to conservatives Terrizzi: Moral Reasoning; Disgust Sensitivity o Principle reasoning stages 5 & 6 Tests of: moral reasoning; homosexuality o Low disgust sensitivity = low moral development Mid-life Crisis? (adult development) o Daniel Levinson (1978; 1986) o Conducted a longitudinal study of 85 people Tested to see if mid-life crisis is a real thing, but it is not because most people are satisfied with their lives at this age o Note that frequently between 40 and 45, many experienced a difficult time o Increasing sense of mortality. Reflect on the course of their life and degree of satisfaction with work and relationships o In fact, some research has shown that about 80% of any age group is satisfied or very satisfied with life Old Age: Integrity vs. Despair

o Whether you feel rejected or loved o Only 5% of population over 65 require nursing care o Buffers: help you maintain a happy life Close relationship Active life Recreation Health Sufficient income o Negative predictors: deter you from having a happy life Alcoholism Depression before age 50 Negative defense mechanisms like projection o Humor most mature defense mechanism Freeman and Ventis (2010) o Effects of humor on stress in retirement? Recruited 265 W&M alums who completed tests online o The online tests measured: Retirement Hassles 8 control variables (emotional well-being, health, etc) Humor styles Self-enhancing, Affiliative (positive) o Promote social relationships Self-defeating, Aggressive (negative) o Plays on faults and weaknesses Does humor reduce stress in retirement? Kubler-Ross: Stages of Dying o Denial- denying that you are dying o Anger- you are mad at the world because you realize that you are about to die o Bargaining- you are willing to do anything to live o Depression- you are upset and down about the possibility of dying o Acceptance- you accept and prepare for death These do not actually turn out to be stages Chapter 12 (book notes) (pgs 439-454) Four Identity Statuses o Identity diffusion (not yet gone through an identity crisis; unconcerned) o Foreclosure (committed to an identity and set of values before experiencing a crisis) o Moratorium (want to establish a clear identity, currently experiencing a crisis, but have not resolved it yet) o Identity achievement (gone through identity crisis, successfully resolved it, and emerged with a coherent set of values) Most young adolescents are in identity diffusion or foreclosure Sense of identity has multiple components

o Our gender, ethnicity, or other attributes by which we define ourselves as members of social groups o How we view our personal characteristics o Our goals and values Culture plays a key role in identity formation Erik Erikson o Early adulthood intimacy vs. isolation o Middle adulthood generativity (helping other people) vs. stagnation (being to yourself) Late adulthood integrity vs. despair

Chapter 16 (book notes) Prominent ingredients of psychoanalysis: o Free association- you say whatever comes to your mind o Dream Analysis- looking at your dreams o Transference- talking about something and projecting your feelings to counselor; blaming them for your problems and taking it out on them o Resistance- avoid things that make you feel unhappy Many people derive considerable benefit from psychotherapy The basic goal of all psychotherapy, whatever the approach, is to help people change maladaptive thoughts, feelings, and behavior patterns so that they can live happier and more productive lives. The relationship between the client and the person providing help is a prime ingredient of psychotherapeutic success Psychiatrists are medical doctors who specialize in psychotherapy and in biomedical treatments, such as drug therapy A general rule in psychoanalytic treatment is to interpret what is already near the surface and just beyond the clients current awareness (not deep interpretation) Humanistic approaches focus primarily on the present and future instead of the past The best known and most widely used humanistic therapy is the person-centered approach (Carl Rogers) o Important active ingredient in therapy is the relationship that develops between client and therapist o Three important and interrelated therapist attributes Unconditional positive regard Empathy Genuineness Albert Ellis became convinced that irrational thoughts, rather than unconscious dynamics, were the most immediate cause of self-defeating emotions Elliss theory of emotional disturbances and his rational-emotive therapy are embodied in his ABCD model o A activating event that seems to trigger the emotion o B belief system that underlies the way in which a person appraises the event o C emotional and behavioral consequences of that appraisal o D is the key to changing maladaptive emotions and behaviors: disputing, or challenging, an erroneous belief system New practitioners of behavior therapy insisted:

o Maladaptive behaviors are not merely symptoms of underlying problems: rather they are the problems o Problem behaviors are learned in the same ways normal behaviors are o Maladaptive behaviors can be unlearned by applying principles derived from research on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling Classical conditioning procedures have been used in two major ways o They have been used to reduce, or decondition, anxiety responses o They have been used in attempts to condition aversive emotional responses to a particular class of stimuli, such as alcohol or inappropriate sexual objects o The most commonly used classical conditioning procedures are exposure therapies, systematic desensitization, and aversion therapy Modeling is one of the most important and effective learning processes in humans Behavioral techniques are used to help clients learn interpersonal, problem-solving, and emotion-control skills Cognitive approaches are employed to help clients learn more adaptive thinking about the world, relationships, and themselves A psychodynamic element traces the history of early deprivation and rejection that created many of the problems A humanistic emphasis on acceptance of thoughts and feelings has been added to help clients better tolerate unhappiness and negative emotions as they occur An important recent addition to marital therapy is a focus on acceptance Several barriers to treatment among minority groups o Cultural norm against turning to professionals outside ones own culture for help o A history of frustrating experiences with white bureaucracies makes minorities unwilling to approach a hospital or mental health center o Language barriers o The biggest problem of all is the shortage of skilled counselors who can provide culturally responsive forms of treatments Psychological disorders, particularly those involving anxiety and depression, occur more frequently among women in western cultures Drug therapies are the most commonly used biological interventions The most commonly prescribed drugs fall into three major categories o Antipsychotic drugs o Antianxiety drugs o Antidepressant drugs Antidepressant drugs fall into three categories o Tricyclics (Elavil, Tofranil) o Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors (Nardil, Parnate) o Selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) (Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) treatment for schizophrenia gold standard method for evaluating, participants who have well-defined psychological disorders and are similar on other variables that might affect response to treatment are randomly assigned either to an experimental condition that gets treatment or to a control condition Where client variables are concerned, three important factors: o clients openness to therapy o self-relatedness

o nature of the problem among therapist variables, perhaps the most important is the quality of the relationship that the therapist is able to establish with the client Carl Rogerss emphasis on the importance of therapist qualities such as: o Empathy o Unconditional acceptance of the client as a person o Genuineness has been borne out in a great many studies

Common factors of therapy o Clients faith in the therapist and a belief that they are receiving help o A plausible explanation for clients problems and an alternative way of helping them look at themselves and their problems o A protective setting in which clients can experience and express their deepest feelings within a supportive relationship o An opportunity for clients to practice new behaviors Clients achieving increased optimism and self-efficacy Chapter 17 Book Notes 3 components of attitude: Cognitive- beliefs and thoughts Affective- emotional feelings about something Behavior- the way you act Study of Lapiere: went across the U.S. to 184 restaurants with an Asian couple. He wanted to see if they would get denied service, but they were only denied once. Six month later, he sent out a letter asking the restaurants if they would deny service to Asians and most said that they would. 50% return rate and 98% said they would not serve the Asian people. o There was a disconnect between what the restaurants said and what they did. o The study shows a possible discrepancy between different components of an attitude, i.e., behavior conflicted with what they said in a letter, presumably cognition. o Shows cognitive component does not perfectly predict behavior. Prominent Components of attitude change: o Source- person sending the message 3 ways to look at source to see if it is good or not: Credibility Trustworthiness Likeability (attractiveness or similarity) o Message o Emotion Behavior is determined by our biological endowment and past learning experiences, but also by the power of the immediate social situation. Milgrim study on obedience Zimbardo study Stanford/Princeton simulation in which they got students to be guard for the prisoners. It was supposed to last for two weeks, but only lasted for 6 days because conditions got so bad.

Social psychology studies how we think about our social world (social thinking), how other people influence our behavior (social influence), and how we relate toward other people (social relations) 3 key concepts of social thinking: o Attributions o Impressions o Attitudes Personal (internal) attributions infer that peoples characteristics cause their behavior Situational (external) attributions infer that aspects of the situation cause a behavior According to Harold Kelley (1973) three types of information determine the attribution we make: o Consistency o Distinctiveness o Consensus We tend to be the most alert to information we receive first Initial information may shape how we perceive subsequent information First impressions also carry extra weight because they influence our desire to make further contact with a person Primacy is the rule of thumb in impression formation, especially for people who dislike ambiguity and uncertainty Our perceptual set, which is a readiness to perceive the world in a particular way, powerfully shapes how we interpret a stimulus Our attitudes help define our identity, guide our actions, and influence how we judge people Three factors help explain why the attitude-behavior relationship is strong in some cases but weak in others: o Attitudes influence behavior more strongly when situational factors that contradict our attitudes are weak o Attitudes have a greater influence on behavior when we are aware of them and when they are strongly held Attitude-behavior consistency increases when people consciously think about or are reminded of their attitudes before acting o General attitudes best predict general classes of behavior, and specific attitudes best predict specific behaviors Overall, research indicates that the 2-sided refutational approach is most effective in persuading people Obedience increases when someone else does the dirty work Social loafing is more likely to occur when: o The person believes that individual performance within the group is not being monitored o The task (goal) or the group has less value or meaning to the person o The person generally displays low motivation to strive for success and expects that coworkers will display high effort Janis proposed that groupthink is most likely to occur when a group: o Is under high stress to reach a decision o Is insulated from outside input o Has a directive leader who promotes a personal agenda

o Has high cohesiveness, reflecting a spirit of closeness and ability to work well together Similarity people most often are attracted to others who are similar to themselves. For psychological attributes, similarity of attitudes and values seems to matter the most Outcomes of relationships are evaluated against two standards: o Comparison level the outcome that a person has grown to expect in relationships, and it influences the persons satisfaction with the present relationship o Comparison level for alternatives focuses on potential alternatives to the relationship, and it influences the persons degree of commitment In-group favoritism represents the tendency to favor in-group members and attribute more positive qualities to us than them Out-group derogation reflects a tendency to attribute more negative qualities to them than to us Prejudice is triggered more strongly by a perceived threat to ones in-group Self-esteem is based on two components: o A personal identity o A group identity Some people are more likely to receive help than others because of: o Similarity o Gender o Perceived fairness and responsibility Frustration, which occurs when some event interferes with our progress toward a goal, increases the risk of verbal and physical aggression, as do aversive events such as extreme heat, provocation, painful stimuli, and crowding