Table of Contents

Presentation......................................................................................................................................1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................1 Geological and Physical Principles of Dry Stone Masonry.............................................................2 Geology: The Origins of Stone ............................................................................................2 Igneous Stone...........................................................................................................2 Sedimentary Stone ...................................................................................................3 Metamorphic Stone..................................................................................................5 Dry Stone Masonry: Principles............................................................................................6 Usage: Construction Technology.........................................................................................8 Preservation: Threats to Dry Stone Masonry.....................................................................10 Example of Dry Stone Masonry Conservation Corwin Barn New York........................11 Conclusions....................................................................................................................................17 Recommendations..........................................................................................................................17 Glossary .........................................................................................................................................18 List of Illustrations.........................................................................................................................19 Works Cited ...................................................................................................................................22

Presentation
Dry stone masonry may seem to be the simple stacking of stone to make a low decorative wall, yet large scale structures have been constructed throughout the world. Stone is a very abundant natural resource found all over Earth and by applying structural and geological principles, new structures can be built. Equally as important, the many existing dry stone masonry structures can be preserved, restored, and saved through these same principles. A basic understanding of these fundamentals can allow anyone, including an architect or engineer, the knowledge to successfully save existing structures and employ the same masonry method to contemporary projects, carrying on the ancient practice and setting an example of how traditional methods can be used today.

Introduction
Dry stone masonry is an ancient building technique of taking abundant natural stone and constructing necessary structures needed by the masons and their patrons. Following the laws of nature laid out by the geological processes of the Earth and the laws of physics, any structure can be made from these stones without using mortar. Excellent examples of these structures exist around the world and have stood for many years. Understanding the principles involved, current architects, engineers, and masons can build new dry stone masonry structures or preserve an existing structure while also restoring it. Anyone that needs additional help with identifying, designing, or restoring a dry stone masonry structure can find help with organizations such as the Dry Stone Conservancy located in Kentucky in the United States of America. 1

Geological and Physical Principles of Dry Stone Masonry Geology: The Origins of Stone
The various stones that are found on Earth are classified into three main groups based on their mode of origin. 1 All types of stone are formed from either other rocks or magma. The basic relationship between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 - The Rock Cycle: The relationship between different rock groups and magma

Igneous Stone
Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling of magma from within the Earths crust. Magma that stays deep in the crust of the Earth and cools slowly forms plutonic rock. Magma that reaches the surface and cools relatively quickly is volcanic rock. 2 Granite is an example of a plutonic rock and is the most widely used igneous rock for building. Granite is used in dry stone masonry as freestones, stones which are quarried in large blocks with no tendency to split in

Walter Schumann, Handbook of Rocks, Minerals, and Gemstones (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1993) Schumann 190.

188.

any directionand can be given any orientation when placed in a structure. 3

The main

advantage to igneous stone is from its magma based creation, allowing it to hold up very well to water.

Figure 2 - Section of Earths crust showing igneous rock formations

Sedimentary Stone
Sedimentary rocks originate on the Earths surface from the weathered debris of other rocks, namely igneous, metamorphic and older sedimentary rocks. 4 The debris is moved by the agents of water, ice, wind and gravity. 5 This often results in a layering of material that forms the stone leaving visible lines of sediment called bedding. Sediment is unconsolidated debris from the other rocks. Consolidation occurs by diagenesis where the sediment is slowly dewatered, cemented with a binding agent, or a combination of both. The bedding of the stone is one of the most important aspects when used in the construction of dry stone masonry. The bedding is laid horizontal in the structure to give the stone the greatest resistance to decay. 6

Sean Adcock and Alan Brooks, Dry Stone Walling: a practical handbook (Doncaster, England: BTCV, 1999) Ch. 5, Building for Durability, 23 Jan. 2003, 8 Mar. 2009 <http://handbooks.btcv.org.uk/handbooks/content/section/1600>. 4 Schumann 260. 5 Schumann 260. 6 Adcock and Brooks Ch. 5, Building for Durability.

Since water is the primary agent for the creation of sedimentary stone, it is also the primary agent of decay in addition to wind, temperature fluctuations, and frost. Wind carries sand or dust and abrades the stone like a sandblaster. Temperature changes make the stone expand and contract, leading to fractures. Frost forces stone to further crack from the expansion of water as it freezes. 7 A way to protect sedimentary stone is to allow the stone to dry for a year or more, allowing quarry sap to form a silica hardened protective layer on the surface of the stone that helps protect the stone from weathering. Quarry sap is a dilute acid having silica, lime and other chemicals in solution or suspension. 8 To ensure the protective coating is left intact, the shaping of the stone should be done before the stone has dried. Some examples of sedimentary rock are limestone, sandstone, and travertine.

Figure 3 - Polished travertine

7 8

Adcock and Brooks Ch. 5, Building for Durability. Adcock and Brooks Ch. 5, Building for Durability.

Metamorphic Stone
Metamorphic stones are formed from other rocks that are subjected to high pressure and temperature causing a transformation, through contact metamorphism or regional

metamorphism. The high temperature results in any fossils in the sedimentary rock to be destroyed. Contact metamorphism occurs when magmatic material (either as plutonic or as lava) forces its way into parts of the Earths crust the adjacent rocks are altered by the high temperatures. 9 Marble is created when travertine is subjected to this type metamorphism. Regional metamorphism occurs as a result of the thickness of the geological succession or of tectonic down-sinking, parts of the Earths crust are taken down into areas of great pressure and high temperature, affecting widespread areas of rock. 10 Metamorphic rock is often arranged in parallel bedding planes that are called foliation. Foliation is the structure of the metamorphic rock consisting of minerals forming a parallel texture as a result of the metamorphic process. Metamorphic stone should be laid horizontally in construction of dry stone masonry along the lines of foliation or cleavage, the splitting of a mineral along smooth surfaces or planes. 11 This
is shown in figure 4. An example of metamorphic rock often used in dry stone masonry is slate

which has the advantage of being easily split along bedding planes.

Figure 4 - Bedding and foliation of metamorphic rock

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Schumann 304. Schumann 304. 11 Schumann 28.

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Figure 5 - Clay slate

Dry Stone Masonry: Principles

Dry stone masonry relies completely on friction and gravity resulting in semi-flexible structures, with the stone settling over time. 12 The construction of a dry stone masonry

structure is aimed at reducing the potential for movement during this settlement. 13 The load of the structure is brought down towards the ground through the surfaces of rock that touch each other. Friction keeps the rocks from moving and gravity ensures the rocks keep touching each other in order to transfer the load from the stones above in the most direct path down. Dry stone masonry can be used to build many types of structures including buildings, bridges, foundations, and walls using either traviated or architrated building systems. 14 Free standing walls (Figure 6) best illustrate the utilization of the basic principles.

Adcock and Brooks Ch. 6, General Features. Adcock and Brooks Ch. 6, General Features. 14 Donald Del Cid, Class Lecture, Introduction to Building Preservation: Philosophy, Ethics, Systems, Course ARCH 5395-006, University of Texas at Arlington, Spring Semester 2009, 28 Apr. 2009.
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Figure 6 - Section through freestanding wall and wall head

Figure 7 and 8 - Bailey Island Bridge, made of Maine granite, is the only known cribstone bridge in the world

Usage: Construction Technology

The footings provide the foundation for the rest of the wall and is set below the surface of the ground. Face stones are the stones that form the exterior surface of the wall and are larger than the fillings, the smaller stones packed between the two faces of the wall preventing movement of the face stones. Throughs are larger stones placed across the wall to tie the two sides together. Topstones are the stones that make up the top of a wall called coping, used to close the wall for structural stability and to protect the internal fillings. The angle with which the wall slopes is called the batter and can vary from concave, vertical, or the more common slope shown in figure 6. The large concave wall at the abandoned Gorseddau Quarry in North Wales (Figures 9 and 10) was built to prevent waste slate fragments from falling onto the tram rails that transported the finished slate stones. The shape is achieved with sloped face stones while the strength is provided by using large stones that include six foot long topstones. Wooden or metal batter frames ensure walls are constructed at the proper angle such as the one used at Cherokee Park in Louisville, Kentucky (Figures 11 and 12). Architrated construction has additional considerations

Figure 9 Concave retaining wall at Gorseddau Quarry

Figure 10 - Dimensional Drawing

Figure 11 - Wooden batter frame used at the Cherokee Park in Louisville, Kentucky

Figure 12 - Cherokee Park Bridge completed

with which to consider. The arch begins on the pier where the top pier course, the impost, is set. The voussoirs are placed on top of the springer to begin the curve to the apex of the arch where the keystone locks the two sides of the arch together. The keystone transfers the load above it to both sides of the arch where the voussoirs transfer the load to eventually meet the soil underneath the foundation of the arch by traveling through each piece of the arch. A former of wood is set between the piers of the arch resting on a wooden frame or the imposts themselves to hold the voussoirs in place until the keystone is placed. The depth of the arch depends on the width and angle of the arch. Extrados and intrados are used to name the outside and inside curve of the arch. The angle of the voussoirs is determined from the radius of the arch starting from the center of the arch and spreading out along radial lines.

Figure 13 Parts of the arch

Figure 14 Former holding up voussoirs

Figure 15 Diagram of angle measurement of voussoirs

Figure 16 Measuring voussoirs

Preservation: Threats to Dry Stone Masonry

The primary threat to dry stone masonry is excessive settlement caused by the changes to its balance of equilibrium between gravity and friction that hold up the entire structure. The movement or removal of topstones is a major cause of this. A topstone taken by a person can result in water entering the internal cavity of the wall, eroding or pushing the internal fillings. The freezing of any water that enters the interior of a wall can split a stone or move a stone from the expansion. The moving of stone reduces the amount of friction between stones and leads to the collapse of the structure. Modernity also negatively impacts many dry stone masonry structures since vibrations from traffic may cause more than normal settlement. 15 The

movement of stones for expansions or as salvage for other projects further reduces friction and also leads to collapse. The expansion of roads threatens to demolish dry stone structure that line older roads.

Figure 17 Cherokee Park in Louisville, Kentucky where retaining wall failed

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Adcock and Brooks Ch. 6. The use and abuse of concrete and mortar.

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Example of Dry Stone Masonry Conservation Corwin Barn, New York

Figure 18 Notice darkened areas on dry stone foundation and separation on left most corner

Figure 19 Deformation due to lack of ties to hold interior and exterior facing stones together

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Figure 20 - Interior showing flood damage

Figure 21 Southeast wall showing original workmanship and visual characteristics to preserve in the conservation effort

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Figure 22 Dismantling of wall and sorting of stones for easier reinstallation. This resembles anastylosis, the reassembling of separate but existing pieces, although in this example the wall was purposely disassembled and organized to reconstruct the wall as it was found

Figure 23 Strut support to hold up farmhouse while wall is disassembled and rebuilt

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Figure 24 Laying the foundation wall using vertical wooden batter frame (left in image) to ensure proper angle and horizontal string to ensure the wall courses are level

Figure 25 Notice face stones on interior and exterior side of wall with fillings in-between. The large stones that go from exterior to interior of the wall are the throughs that tie the two sides together

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Figure 26 Finished wall showing same characteristics of original wall such as the use of shiners, the large stones that are more than one course high, while now having structural integrity

Figure 27 View of finished project including retaining wall that ties into foundation wall

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Figure 28 Laying of retaining wall, notice large face stones on exterior side of wall and fillings between the lower face stones and the soil

Figure 29 Section of similar retaining wall showing the face stones, fillings, topstone, and through to anchor the wall to the soil

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Conclusions
Dry stone masonry relies on the natural properties of the Earths three types of stone to create a wide range of structures. As long as the basic principles are followed, any structure needed can be obtained. Settlement becomes the most important consideration since the

structures are designed that way and benefit from it. This is because new walls settle by about 3 (75mm) in their first few years. As this happens, dry walls increase in strength and

cohesiveness, since every stone shifts into the tightest relationship with its neighbours. 16 Preserving or restoring an existing dry stone masonry structure depends on understanding the cause of any structural failure or problem and remedying the problem before essentially rebuilding the wall.

Recommendations
Before any work is done on a dry stone masonry structure, the material of stone needs to be understood including its relationship to other stones. Knowledge of the material used in the construction and its origin offers insight into any past, current, or future problems of a structure. Identifying the problem should be next, only then can the problem be remedied, such as tying two wall faces together with throughs. Then the structure is disassembled and rebuilt though a process similar to anastylosis, the reassembling of existing but dismembered parts. 17 Following the principles of dry stone masonry, any structure can be restored to its original condition with the original materials worked the same way as masons of the past. This provides an excellent way to preserve the architectural history of the ancient art of dry stone masonry.
Adcock and Brooks Ch. 6. The use and abuse of concrete and mortar. IInd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, Venice 1964. International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites (The Venice Charter 1964). Article 15. ICOMOS, 1965.
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Glossary
Architrated building system based of using arches to span between piers Bedding the water transportation of sediments from weathered rocks to its destination into layers from the difference of deposited material or different direction of layering Cribstone stones stacked perpendicular to the course immediately below the next resulting in an open grid structure rather than a solid mass of stone Diagenesis the slow consolidation of sediemts into sedimentary stone through dewatering or cementation Foliation alignment of minerals in metamorphic rock as a result of regional metamorphism that orients the rock into a parallel texture like that found in slate Hypabassal transitional rock between volcanic and plutonic rock now classified into one of the prior groups and not a group of rock itself Metamorphism the change of a rock into another type of rock from intense temperature and pressure from inside the Earths crust Shiners large stones that taller than one course of stone on a dry stone masonry wall Traviated building system based on the used of beams to span between posts or columns

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List of Illustrations
Cover Figures 11, 12, 17, and C&O Canal, Harpers Ferry, MD. NPS. 1998, Dry Stone Conservancy, Selected Projects 1996-2003, 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/Practice/scan020>. Fig. 1 The Rock Cycle: The relationship between different rock groups and magma. Walter Schumann, Handbook of Rocks, Minerals, and Gemstones (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1993) 189. Fig. 2 Section of Earths crust showing igneous rock formations. Schumann 190. Fig. 3 Polished travertine. Schumann, 287. Fig. 4 - Bedding and foliation of metamorphic rock. Schumann, 314. Fig. 5 Claystone. Schumann, 314. Fig. 6 Section through freestanding wall and wall head. Sean Adcock and Alan Brooks, Dry Stone Walling: a practical handbook (Doncaster, England: BTCV, 1999) Ch. 6, Rebuilding a Freestanding Wall, 23 Jan. 2003, 8 Mar. 2009 <http://handbooks.btcv.org.uk/handbooks/content/section/1605>. Fig. 7 Bailey Island Bridge, Maine. Recent DSC/MaineDOT Consultation, Bailey Island Bridge, August 2007 9 Mar. 2009 <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album23/BaileyIslandMEAug20_2007jw_004>. Fig. 8 - Looking underneath the bridge. Recent DSC/MaineDOT Consultation, Bailey Island Bridge, August 2007 9 Mar. 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album23/BaileyIslandMEAug20_2007jw_040>. Fig. 9 Concave retaining wall at Gorseddau Quarry. Dave Sallery, "The wall at Gorseddau," Photo gallery - page 3, The Slate Industry of North and Mid Wales, 10 May 2009 <http://www.penmorfa.com/Slate/GALLERY3.HTM> Fig. 10 - Dimensional Drawing. Adcock and Brooks, Ch. 11: Variations in walling, Dimensions, 5 May 2009, <http://handbooks.btcv.org.uk/handbooks/content/section/1650> Fig. 11 - Wooden batter frame used at the Cherokee Park in Louisville, Kentucky. Dry Stone Conservancy, Selected Projects 1996-2003, 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/Practice/scan005>. Fig. 12 - Cherokee Park Bridge completed. Dry Stone Conservancy, Selected Projects 1996 2003, 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/Practice/scan019>.

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Fig. 13 Parts of the arch. Adcock and Brooks, Ch. 10, Arches, 3 May 2009, <http://handbooks.btcv.org.uk/handbooks/content/section/1642>. Fig. 14 Former holding up voussoirs. Recent DSC, Double Stone-Arch Culvert Repair Jessamine Co, KY. March 2007, 9 March 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album14>. Fig. 15 Diagram of angle measurement of voussoirs. Adcock and Brooks, Ch. 10, Arches, 3 May 2009, <http://handbooks.btcv.org.uk/handbooks/content/section/1642>. Fig. 16 Measuring voussoirs. Recent DSC, Double Stone-Arch Culvert Repair Jessamine Co, KY. March 2007, 9 March 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album14>. Fig. 17 Cherokee Park in Louisville, Kentucky where retaining wall failed. Dry Stone Conservancy, Selected Projects 1996-2003, 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/Practice/scan005>. Fig. 18 Notice darkened areas on dry stone foundation and separation on left most corner. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 19 Deformation due to lack of ties to hold interior and exterior facing stones together. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 20 - Interior showing flood damage. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 21 Southeast wall showing original workmanship and visual characteristics to preserve in the conservation effort. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 22 Dismantling of wall and sorting of stones for easier reinstallation. This resembles anastylosis, the reassembling of separate but existing pieces, although in this example the wall was purposely disassembled and organized to reconstruct the wall as it was found. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 23 Strut support to hold up farmhouse while wall is disassembled and rebuilt. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 24 Laying the foundation wall using vertical wooden batter frame (left in image) to ensure

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proper angle and horizontal string to ensure the wall courses are level. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 25 Notice face stones on interior and exterior side of wall with fillings in-between. The large stones that go from exterior to interior of the wall are the throughs that tie the two sides together. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 26 Finished wall showing same characteristics of original wall such as the use of shiners, the large stones that are more than one course high, while now having structural integrity. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 27 View of finished project including retaining wall that ties into foundation wall. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 28 Laying of retaining wall, notice large face stones on exterior side of wall and fillings between the lower face stones and the soil. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>. Fig. 29 Section of similar retaining wall showing the face stones, fillings, topstone, and through to anchor the wall to the soil. DSC/NPS Partnership - Corwin Barn Foundation Wall Repairs, New York. Oct/Nov 2006. , 5 May 2009, <http://www.drystone.org/gallery/album12>.

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Works Cited
IInd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, Venice 1964. International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites (The Venice Charter 1964). ICOMOS, 1965. Adcock, Sean and Brooks, Alan. Dry Stone Walling: a practical handbook. Doncaster, England: BTCV, 1999. 23 Jan. 2003. 8 Mar. 2009. < http://handbooks.btcv.org.uk/handbooks/index/book/61>. Dry Stone Conservancy. 9 Mar. 2009. < http://www.drystone.org>. Schumann, Walter. Handbook of Rocks, Minerals, and Gemstones. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1993.

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