| MATHEMATICAL THINKING | PROBLEM-SOLVING AND PROOFS SECOND EDITION JOHN P. D’ANGELO DOUGEAS B. WESTMathematical Thinking Problem-Solving and Proofs Second Edition John P. D’Angelo Douglas B. West University of Illinois — Urbana PRENTICE HALL Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data D’Angelo, John P. Mathematical thinking: problem-solving and proofs / John P. D’Angelo, Douglas B. ‘West.—2nd ed. Pp. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-13-014412-6 1. Mathematics. 2. Problem solving. I. West, Douglas Brent. II. Title, QA39.2 .D25 2000 510-de21 99-050074 Acquisitions Editor: George Lobell Assistant Vice President of Production and Manufacturing: David W. Riccardi Executive Managing Editor: Kathleen Schiaparelli Senior Managing Editor: Linda Mihatov Behrens Production Editor: Betsy Williams Manufacturing Buyer: Alan Fischer Manufacturing Manager: Trudy Pisciotti Marketing Manager: Melody Marcus Marketing Assistant: Vince Jansen Director of Marketing: John Tweeddale Editorial Assistant/Supplements Editor: Gale Epps Art Director: Jayne Conte The authors and publisher have given their best efforts in preparing this book. ‘To the best of their knowledge, the statements herein are correct. The authors and publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to the effectiveness of this material. The authors and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental or consequential damages in connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of this material. ‘©2000, 1997 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America ISBN 0-13-014412-6 Prentice-Hall International, (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, (S.A.) Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Provate Limited, New Delhi Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd. Editora Prentice-Hall do Vrasil. Ltda. Rio d JaneiroTo all who enjoy mathematical puzzles, and to our loved ones, who tolerate our enjoyment of themContents Preface for the Instructor Preface for the Student PARTI Elementary Concepts Chapter 1 Numbers, Sets, and Functions The Quadratic Formula, 2 Elementary Inequalities, 4 Sets, 6 Functions, 10 Inverse Image and Level Sets, 14 The Real Number System, 15 How to Approach Problems, 18 Exercises, 20 Chapter 2 Language and Proofs Two Theorems about Equations, 25 Quantifiers and Logical Statements, 27 Compound Statements, 31 Elementary Proof Techniques, 35 How to Approach Problems, 39 E 4 Chapter 3 Induction ‘The Principle of Induction, 51 Applications, 58 Strong Induction, 63 How to Approach Problems, 66 Exercises, 71vi Chapter 4 Bijections and Cardinality Representation of Natural Numbers, 76 Bijections, 80 Injections and Surjections, 83 Composition of Functions, 85 Cardinality, 87 How to Approach Problems, 92 Exercises, 95 PART II Properties of Numbers Chapter 5 Combinatorial Reasoning Arrangements and Selections, 101 Binomial Coefficients, 104 Permutations, 111 Functional Digraphs, 112 How to Approach Problems, 115 Exercises, 118 Chapter 6 Divisibility Factors and Factorization, 124 The Euclidean Algorithm, 126 The Dart Board Problem, 129 More on Polynomials (optional), 131 Exercises, 134 Chapter 7 Modular Arithmetic Relations, 140 Congruence, 142 Applications, 145 Fermat's Little Theorem, 147 ‘Congruence and Groups (optional), 149 Exercises, 151 Chapter 8 The Rational Numbers Rational Numbers and Geometry, 157 Irrational Numbers, 160 Pythagorean Triples, 162 Further Properties of Q (optional), 164 Exercises, 166 Contents 16 100 123 139 156Contents PART III Discrete Mathematics Chapter 9 Probability Probability Spaces, 171 Conditional Probability, 174 Random Variables and Expectation, 177 Multinomial Coefficients, 182 Exercises, 184 Chapter 10 Two Principles of Counting The Pigeonhole Principle, 189 The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle, 193 Exercises, 198 Chapter 11 Graph Theory The Konigsberg Bridge Problem, 203 Isomorphism of Graphs, 207 Connection and Trees, 211 Bipartite Graphs, 215 Coloring Problems, 219 Planar Graphs, 223 Exercises, 228 Chapter 12 Recurrence Relations General Properties, 233 First-Order Recurrences, 235 Second-Order Recurrences, 238 General Linear Recurrences, 241 Other Classical Recurrences, 244 Generating Functions (optional), 247 Exercises, 250 PARTIV Continuous Mathematics Chapter 18 The Real Numbers The Completeness Axiom, 256 Limits and Monotone Convergence, 259 Decimal Expansion and Uncountability, 268 How to Approach Problems, 267 Exercises, 268 Chapter 14 Sequences and Series Properties of Convergent Sequences, 271 Cauchy Sequences, 276 vii 169 170 189 202 232 271viii Contents Infinite Series, 279 How to Approach Problems, 284 Exercises, 287 Chapter 15 Continuous Functions 293 Limits and Continuity, 204 Applications of Continuity, 298 Continuity and Closed Intervals, 302 Exercises, 304 Chapter 16 Differentiation 307 The Derivative, 308 Applications of the Derivative, 313 Newton's Method, 318 Convexity and Curvature, 320 Series of Functions, 324 Exercises, 330 Chapter 17 Integration 337 Definition of the Integral, 338 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, 345 Exponentials and Logarithms, 349 Trigonometric Functions and , 351 A Return to Infinite Series, 354 Exercises, 357 Chapter 18 The Complex Numbers 361 Properties of the Complex Numbers, 361 Limits and Convergence, 365 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, 367 Exercises, 369 Appendix A From N to R 371 The Natural Numbers, 372 The Integers, 374 ‘The Rational Numbers, 376 The Real Numbers, 377 Exercises, 382 Appendix B Hints for Selected Exercises 384 Appendix C Suggestions for Further Reading 399 Appendix D List of Notation 401 Index 403Preface for the Instructor This book arose from discussions about the undergraduate mathe- matics curriculum. We asked several questions. Why do students find it difficult to write proofs? What is the role of discrete mathematics? How can the curriculum better integrate diverse topics? Perhaps most impor- tant, why don’t students enjoy and appreciate mathematics as much as we might hope? Upperclass courses in mathematics expose serious gaps in the prepa- ration of students; the difficulties are particularly evident in elementary real analysis courses. Such courses present two obstacles to students. First, the concepts of analysis are subtle; it took mathematicians centuries to understand limits. Second, proofs require both attention to exposition and a different intellectual attitude from computation. The combination of these difficulties defeats many students. Basic courses in linear or abstract algebra pose similar difficulties and can be overly formal. Due to their specialized focus, upperclass courses cannot adequately address the issue of careful exposition. If students first learn techniques of proof and habits of careful exposition, then they will better appreciate more advanced mathematics when they encounter it. ‘The excitement of mathematics springs from engaging problems. Stu- dents have natural mathematical curiosity about problems such as those listed in the Preface for the Student. They then care about the techniques used to solve them; hence we use these problems as a focus of develop- ment. We hope that students and instructors will enjoy this approach as much as we have. A course introducing techniques of proof should not specialize in one area of mathematics; later courses offer ample opportunities for special- ization. This book considers diverse problems and demonstrates relation- ships among several areas of mathematics. One of the authors studies complex analysis in several variables, the other studies discrete math- ematics. We explored the interactions between discrete and continuous mathematics to create a course on problem-solving and proofs. ixx Preface for the Instructor When we began the revisions for the second edition, neither of us had any idea how substantial they would become. We are excited about the improvements. Our primary aim has been to make the book easier to use by making the treatment more accessible to students, more mathe- matically coherent, and better arranged for the design of courses. In the remainder of this preface we discuss the changes in more detail; here we provide a brief summary. ¢ We added almost 300 exercises; many are easy and/or check basic un- derstanding of concepts in the text. « We added sections called “How to Approach Problems” in Chapters 1-5 and 13-14 to help students get started on the exercises. We greatly expanded Appendix B: “Hints for Selected Exercises”. « Chapters 1—4 form the core of a coherent “Transition” course that can be completed in various ways using initial sections of other chapters. e The real number system is the starting point. All discussion of the construction of R from N is in Appendix A. « Induction comes earlier, immediately following the background material discussed in Chapters 1 and 2. e Individual chapters have a sharper focus, and the development flows more smoothly from topic to topic. Terms being defined are in bold type, mostly in Definition items. e The language is friendlier, the typography better, and the proofs a bit more patient, with more details. Content and Organization Our text presents elementary aspects of algebra, number theory, com- binatorics, and analysis. We cover a broad spectrum of material that illus- trates techniques of proof and emphasizes interactions among the topics. Part I (Elementary Concepts) begins by deriving the quadratic for- mula and using it to motivate the axioms for the real numbers, which me. We disc statements, we agree to and functions, with careful attention to the use of language. Chapter 1 establishes the themes of mathematical discussion: numbers, sets, and functions, We added lively material on inequalities and level sets. The background terminology about functions moved to Chapter 1. The more abstract discussion of injections and surjections appears in Chapter 4, in- troduced by the base q representation of natural numbers. This allows induction to come early; the highlight of Part I is the use of induction to solve engaging problems. Part I ends with an optional treatment of the Sclhuveder-Berustein Theorem.