Tim Goodhew 22nd August 2004 Physics Moving About 1.2.

.1 Very rarely a journey will take place at a constant speed for the entirety of the journey; a typical journey involves speed changes along the way. E.g. The princess highway has various speed limits and unless one was to travel at a set speed (50 km\h) the whole way (very impractical slow speed) one would be forced to change speed occasionally. 1.2.2 The average speed of a body can be calculated by: av. Speed = distance traveled / time taken Whereas the speed at any particular instance in time is known as instantaneous speed similar to a cars speedometer it tells you the speed at that moment as opposed to average speed which is average speed over a time interval. 1.2.3 A scalar quantity is one that specifies size or magnitude but not direction, whereas a vector quantity specifies a direction as well as magnitude (or size). In equations involving vectors sometimes it is necessary to perform vector addition\subtraction if there is a change in direction. 1.2.4 Instantaneous speed would tell you the speed that is being traveled at that instant (scalar magnitude only), and average speed would give you the average speed over a time interval (also scalar). Where as instantaneous velocity would give you the magnitude and direction at that instant (vector) and average velocity would give you average magnitude and displacement over a time interval (vector). 1.2.5 Acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity. Therefore the average acceleration of an object can be expressed as: aav = v / t (Change in velocity / change in time) Analysing Forces: 2.2.1 If a body (A) is traveling at a velocity of 5 ms-1 South for 2 seconds and the other body (B) remains stationary. As motion relative to B would be a displacement of 10m South. 2.2.2 Vector diagrams can be useful in solving these types of problems: Body B 5 ms-1 S Body A (displacement after 2 seconds = 10m South)

2.2.3 Newtons first law of motion states that every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless made to change by a non-zero net force. Therefore in order to change the velocity there needs to be a external net force to act upon the object. 2.2.4 For a vehicle to change direction, speed up or slow down there must be an external force acting upon it because of that objects inertia or tendency to resist changes in its motion. 2.2.5 Friction between surfaces (e.g. road friction) typically rolling friction acts on the non-driving wheels in a direction opposite to the direction of movement of the car and when the wheels arent being driven by the engine friction opposes all four wheels. When brakes are applied the wheel turns too slowly for the speed at which the car is moving which increases friction greatly causing the car to stop. Air resistance a force applied by the air through which and object is moving. It increases as the object moves faster and slows the object down. 2.2.6 Average acceleration = v / t therefore av. Acceleration = change in velocity / change in time which can be expressed as: aav = v u / t (Final velocity initial.velocity / time) 2.2.7 The mass of an object is the quantity of matter that makes up that object (expressed in grams, kilograms, etc.). The weight of an object is the force on an object due to the pull of gravity and is usually expressed in Newtons. E.g. A person of mass 15kg on earth would weigh 15 x 9.8ms-2 in Newtons. 2.2.8 When a car is coasting with no pressure on accelerator, forces acting on it would be: weight, normal reaction force (equal to weight), road friction, and air resistance eventually causing the car to slow down. When the driver pushes down the accelerator, the driving force increases, until balanced by air resistance and road friction leaving the car move at a constant (higher) speed, pressing on the brakes road friction increases causing a net force opposite to the direction traveled by the car slowing it down. Passing an icy patch on the road, road friction is reduced causing the car to increase in speed, climbing \ descending hills force due to gravity increases its pull on the car either speeding it up or slowing it down. Following a curve in the road, forces pushing the car off at a tangent to the curve need to be equaled by acceleration into the centre of the curve. 2.2.9 The acceleration of an object is proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass. Therefore, F = ma. 2.2.10 In all situations if an object is stationary the net force acting on it is zero. Where there is motion in any situation the net force acting upon it would be non-zero in the direction of motion. Work & Energy 3.2.1 All matter possesses energy and a moving object possesses kinetic energy, work done on a moving object can increase that kinetic energy.

3.2.2 When a vehicle collides with a stationary object or another vehicle, some of its kinetic energy can be transformed into other forms of energy including: potential energy of the deformation energy stored in an object as a result of changing its shape, sometimes it can be easily transformed back when the object return to its original shape. Sound energy, transmitted through the air as a result of vibrating particles, in a collision some energy is transferred to surrounding air. Thermal energy, due to random motion of particles within the substance, vehicles panels, tyres and other parts get very hot during the collision. 3.2.3 The law of conservation of energy applies to vehicle collisions as it does to all interactions. Energy can never be lost of destroyed, it is all transferred to other objects or transformed into other forms. Momentum: 4.2.1 Momentum is an objects mass multiplied by its velocity, which can be expressed as: p = mv where p is momentum in kgms-1, m is mass in kg, and v is velocity in ms-1. 4.2.2 Impulse is defined as the product of the force and the time interval over which it acts. It is a vector quantity with SI units of Ns. Impuse = Ft 4.2.3 For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, so states Newtons third law of motion, therefore in a system of two or more objects both objects will place a force on each other, conserving momentum. The Law of Conservation of Momentum is often expressed as: if there are no external forces acting on a system, the total momentum remains constant. If net force = 0 and change in momentum = 0. Safety Devices: 5.2.1 Inertia is an objects tendency to remain at rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force, as governed by Newtons First Law of Motion; this applies to all things including vehicles. 5.2.2 Newtons First Law of Motion is not apparent in many real world situations such as normal driving because there are many factors that are involved and external forces contributing. Forces like air resistance stop vehicles traveling at uniform motion so inertia is not seen. 5.2.3 Low speed zones are well justified phenomena in built-up areas because of stopping distances that cars take. A car traveling only a little faster down the road takes a LOT longer to stop further up the road, with pedestrians crossing and cars pulling out of parked spaces its only reasonable to have low speed zones. Air bags also are justified as the forces acting upon a persons body in a collision are enormous and enough to kill the person if devices like air bags and crumple zones were not installed, these devices increase the time over which a force acts and in every collision there will be an impulse (Impulse = Ft) but if the time interval is increased that will therefore decrease the force felt. Crumple zones assist in the change of momentum which all helps to maximise chances of driver survival.

5.2.4 Air bags and seatbelts have been introduced in ALL cars in Australia now and are proving very successful in reducing driver fatalities, seatbelts restraining passengers to stop them flying through the window screen and ensuring they make contact with the airbag correctly are saving lives every day. Airbags that inflate then deflate cushioning drivers (and even passengers) from the full force encountered in a collision are exceptionally reliable as they work off sensors measuring seriousness of collisions and deciding whether or not airbags should be deployed. Seat belts stretching ability puts it right next to airbags the supplementary restraint as they both reduce the net force acting on the driver and are proven to reduce fatalities on our roads.