Understanding Weather and Climate

3rd Edition Edward Aguado and James E. Burt

Anthony J. Vega

Part 1. Energy and Mass

Chapter 1. Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere

Introduction
The Atmosphere A mixture of gas molecules, microscopically small suspended particles of solid and liquid, and falling precipitation Meteorology The study of the atmosphere and the processes that cause what we refer to as weather

The Thickness of the Atmosphere

Although atmospheric density decreases rapidly with height, the top of the atmosphere is undefined Overall, the majority of atmospheric mass is contained in a rather thin layer near the surface
The atmosphere still contains an impressive sum of mass (5.14 x 1015 kg)

Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is an aggregate of gases, suspended particles, and liquid/solid water

Gases and particles are readily exchanged between Earths surface and the atmosphere through physical (volcanic) and biological (photosynthesis, respiration) processes

Water Vapor
The most abundant variable gas Added or removed from atmosphere through the hydrologic cycle Concentrations exist from nearly 0% over desert and polar regions to nearly 4% near tropics Major contributor to Earths energy balance and many important atmospheric processes

Water vapor image showing broader distribution of moisture than the image of actual clouds (below)

Carbon Dioxide
A trace gas accounting for only 0.036% of total atmospheric mass Important to Earths energy balance Added through biologic respiration, volcanic activity, decay, and natural and human-related combustion removed through photosynthesis

The steady increase of atmospheric CO2 due to human activities. Seasonal variation related to rates of photosynthesis, respiration, and organic decay.

Ozone
The tri-atomic form of oxygen Near the surface it is a pollutant. In the stratosphere it is an essential absorber of ultraviolet radiation Formed when atomic oxygen (O) bonds with molecular oxygen (O2) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), specifically chlorine atoms, react with O3 in the stratosphere. Produces chlorine monoxide. Chlorine remains unaffected through chemical reactions but oxygen is affected thereby destroying ozone. Ozone destruction peaks over the southern hemisphere and persists through spring. The Antarctic circumpolar vortex contributes to O3 depletion by inhibiting latitudinal mixing which leads to an O3 hole

Images showing reduction of ozone over Antarctica over time. Area in red indicates the ozone hole.

Methane
A variable gas in small but recently increasing concentrations Released to the atmosphere through fossil fuel activities, livestock digestion, and agriculture cultivation (esp. rice) As a very effective absorber of terrestrial radiation it plays an active role in near surface warming

Annual increases in atmospheric methane

Aerosols
Any solid and/or liquid particle, other than water, which exists in the atmosphere Synonymous with the term particulate Both natural (sea spray, dust, combustion) and human (combustion) products Due to small size, easily remain in suspension for long periods Contribute to precipitation processes as condensation nuclei

Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere Density

Mass (kg) per unit volume (m3) Due to compressibility, near surface air is more dense than that above This may be expressed in terms of the mean free path, or average distance a molecule travels before colliding with another molecule.

Due to compressibility, atmospheric mass gradually thins out with height

Thermal Layers of the Atmosphere

Four distinct layers of the atmosphere emerge from identifiable temperature characteristics with height

Troposphere
is the lowest layer, named as this region promotes atmospheric overturning Layer of virtually all weather processes, identified by a steady temperature decrease with height decrease = 6.5oC/km (3.6oF/1000ft) This thinnest layer contains 80% of the mass of the atmosphere Due to thermal expansion, the tropopause is roughly 16 km (10 mi) over the tropics and about 1/2 that at the poles Colder temperature aloft implies the atmosphere is essentially transparent to solar radiation and is heated from terrestrial radiation absorption

Most clouds exist in the troposphere. Occasionally, violent updrafts penetrate cloud tops into the stratosphere. The flattened top of this cumulonimbus cloud is in the stratosphere.

The Stratosphere
Area of little weather A layer of constantly inverted temperature after an initial layer of constant temperature with height The layer warms with height to the freezing point of water near the stratopause Inversion caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone Although the ozone layer exists through an altitude between 20-30 km (12-18 mi), actual concentration of ozone can be as low as 10 ppm

Mesosphere and Thermosphere

Combined the two layers account for only 0.1% of total atmospheric mass Mesosphere, which extends to about 80 km (50 mi) is characterized by decreasing temperatures with height and is the coldest atmospheric layer The thermosphere above slowly merges with interplanetary space and is characterized by increasing temperatures with height Temperatures approach 1500oC, however, this only measures molecular kinetic energy as the sparse amount of mass precludes actual heat content

Electrical Properties The Ionosphere

Located within the meso- and thermospheres, this portion of the atmosphere is replete with ions; electrically charged particles Subdivided into the D-, E-, and F-layers with increasing height D and E layers diminish with reduced solar radiation allowing the F layer to reflect radio waves through the night Interactions between the ionosphere and subatomic particles emitted from the Sun excite atmospheric gases causing the aurora borealis (northern lights) and the aurora australis (southern lights)

Evolution of the Atmosphere

The early atmosphere was likely composed of hydrogen and helium Light gases either exited the atmosphere to space through high escape velocities or through collisions with large celestial bodies A secondary atmosphere formed through volcanic outgassing and by material, largely water, gained from comets Precipitation removed, and continues to remove, excess water vapor, while high concentrations of CO2 were replaced by oxygen through photosynthesis and dissolution in water. Due to its stability, nitrogen concentrations slowly grew to presentday levels

Planetary Atmospheres Mercury

Virtually no atmosphere due to small size and high temperatures

Venus
Very thick atmosphere with a mass 90 times greater than Earth Primarily CO2 and N2 A runaway greenhouse effect responsible for very high temperatures

Venus and its extensive cloud cover

Mean temperature profile for Venus

Mars
Similar in composition to Venus but because of low atmospheric density, much terrestrial radiation is lost to space. This accounts for low overall temperatures

Mean temperature profile for Mars

Jovian Planets
Composed of lighter gases with either solid or liquid cores

Voyager image of Jupiter

Mean temperature profile for Jupiter

End of Chapter 1
Understanding Weather and Climate
3rd Edition Edward Aguado and James E. Burt