Lamb 1 John Lamb Dr.

Meredith ENG 615 14 December 2006 But Release Me From My Bands: Historical Context, Orality and Literacy, and Postcolonialism in The Tempest In Stephen Greenblatts essay Resonance and Wonder, he writes, [S]ome of the most interesting and powerful ideas in cultural criticism occur precisely at moments of disjunction, disintegration, unevenness. A criticism that never encounters obstacles, . . . that finds confirmation of its values everywhere it turns, is quite simply boring (58-59). Greenblatts words apply nowhere better than William Shakespeares The Tempest, a play rooted within historically contingent (59) values and, at the same time, a play full of obstacles that create moments of disjunction, disintegration, [and] unevenness. The Tempest has been viewed from a play of timeless human values (Skura 221) to a play promoting the evils of colonialism. No better character than Caliban represents these multiple views. He has been played and seen as everything from the clown to the devil to the victim, each generation reinventing his character. Calibans relationship with his master Prospero is also one marked with obstacles, both, in the end, wanting release from their bands, although in entirely different ways. However, to locate a true understanding of this complicated relationship, one must start at the beginning of Calibans conception. The Tempest was first staged in 1611 in King Jamess presence (Garber 853). The play, with its references to exotic locales and New World allusions, was very topical. While the discovery of the New World was not fresh news, the colonization of these areas was a much

Lamb 2 discussed topic among Jacobeans, and the expansion of the British empires to these areas was flourishing. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I created the charter for the East India Company (Gardner 11). John Smiths A True Relation of Such Occurences and Accidents of Noate as Hath Hapned, his account of the forming of Jamestown and salvation from death by Pocahontas in Virginia, was published in 1608. England was also filled with news of a shipwreck off the coast of Bermuda. William Strachey wrote and published a pamphlet in 1609 called True Reportory of the Wracke and Redemption of Sir Thomas Gates about this incident in which a most dreadfull Tempest caused the crew to wash upon the shores of an enchanted island, where the fauna and plants help rejuvenate them and keep them alive (288)1. For a little over fifty years, England had also partaken in the slave trade, starting in 1555 when a small number of slaves were seized from the Barbary Coast. Shakespeares world was filled with news of the New World and these new ethnicities. Triculo best summarizes the curiosity of the English about these newly discovered races of men, when he states, [T]hey will lay out ten to see a dead Indian (2.2.32). The Tempest was a very current and contemporary play and provided the Jacobean audience an opportunity to see a strange creature for only one penny at the door. Where then would Caliban stand in Shakespeares England? And, as topical as the play was, could he be a representative of the New World? Is he modeled on African slaves, Native Americans, or even the Irish? Fixing Caliban to a particular reference is hard to accomplish. As Alden T. Vaughan and Virginia Mason Vaughan stated in Shakespeares Caliban, Calibans image has been incredibly flexible, ranging from an aquatic beast to a noble savage, with innumerable intermediate manifestations (ix). When Trinculo first sees Caliban, he questions, What have we here, a man or a fish? Dead or alive? A fish: he smells like a fish (2.2.24-25).
1

This pamphlet has often been considered a direct source for Shakespeare. For further connection between the two, Alden Vaughan and Virginia Mason Vaughans Shakespeares Caliban: A Cultural History contains an excellent analysis.

Lamb 3 These lines have made some wonder if Caliban is Darwins missing link, barely out of the depths of the seas, newly walking around. Prospero at one point calls him a tortoise (1.2.317), further complicating the matter. However, Caliban is not completely a sea creature. Prospero also tells us that his father was a devil, although this may be Prosperos use of hyperbole. In the same breath, Caliban is a creature close to nature and communes with the animal life on the island, suggesting Shakespeare may have been thinking of a Native American.1 However, Caliban is often described as dark, and his mother is Algerian, making critics wonder if he is based on an African, a race Shakespeare was no stranger in using, previously employing African characters in Titus Andronicus and Othello. The Irish, a focus of English colonialism, also were seen to be savage and even accused of cannibalism, drawing parallels between Caliban.2 Further complicating the debate is the location of Prosperos island, which critics have placed anywhere from the coast of America to Africa. Logistically, because the boat was on return to Italy from Tunis, the island should be located in the Mediterranean.3 But then the allusions to the New World are lost. For example, Caliban makes a reference to the god Setebos, a god taken from lower South America4. Caliban as a historical reference is impossible to place. In the end, however, it does not matter if Caliban is rooted in reality. The Tempest is, after all, a play of magic and mystical creatures. What does matter is that Caliban, Native American, African, or Irish, is an Other, a character separated from the predominant culture; not European but something indefinable and disconnected. In these terms, one would be much benefited by
1

For further inquiry into the connection between Caliban and Native Americans, see G. Wilson Knights Caliban as a Red Man. The essay draws illuminating connections between Native American religion, historical figures (such as Black Elk), and culture. 2 Caliban has often been suggest as a meant to be an anagram for cannibal. 3 Some critics have also gone as far as to look at the topographical clues present in the play. For example, fresh springs, brine nuts barren place and fertile (1.2.339) suggest Corfu. For more, reference Joseph Hunters A Disquisition on the Scene, Origin, Date, etc. of Shakespeares Tempest. 4 Antonio Pigafetta account of the Magellan voyage mentions a tribe that worshipped a greate devyll Setebos (Arden Shakespeare 40). Caliban calls upon Setebos several times, including, O Setebos, these be brave spirits indeed! (5.1.261).

Lamb 4 exploring the historical context of being an Other during this time. What does the Other mean in Shakespeares society? To discover this mode of thinking, one must investigate the society. Clifford Gertz writes in The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man,: Chartes is made of stone and glass. But it is not just stone and glass; it is a cathedral, and not only a cathedral, but a particular cathedral built at a particular time by certain members of a particular society. To understand what it means, to perceive it for what it is, you need to know rather more than the generic properties of stone and glass and rather more than what is common to all cathedrals. You need to understand also . . . the specific concepts of the relations among God, man, and architecture that, since they have governed its creation, it consequently embodies. (8) If the world of Shakespeare is our cathedral in which we must understand the specific culture and time it embodies, then we must examine the cultural artifacts to help reconstruct the society of this constructed society. One such artifact that reveals European views of the Other is Andre Thevets description of Native Americans of the north, in The New Found Worlde, as wild brutish people, without Fayth, without Lawe, without religion, and without any civilitie: but living like brute beasts (qtd. The Arden Shakespeare 45). An engraving from Theordor de Brys America depicts the native inhabitants cutting human victims and throwing them in a pot. The figures look very much like devils; the one in the middle is so hairy one could almost mistake him for an ape. In this imagery and text, the Native Americans are seen as subhuman, a type of animal that needs to be tamed.

Lamb 5 In his slave narrative, Oladuah Equino describes his own journey as the Other. When he is eleven years old, he is captured and sold to a ship bound to the West Indies. When he is put into the holds of the ship to be chained, he describes the horrendous conditions: The closeness of the place, and the heat of the climate, added to the number in the ship, which was so crowded that each had scarcely room to turn himself, almost suffocated us. This produced copious perspirations, so that the air soon became unfit for respiration from a variety of loathsome smells, and brought on a sickness among the slaves, of which many died, thus falling victims to the improvident avarice, as I may call it, of their purchasers. (96) He is flogged repeatedly for not eating and treated as an animal. The conditions are so horrendous that people begin to commit suicide by throwing themselves into the sea when the slave merchants are not paying attention. The Africans are not allowed any form of humanity and are treated no better than livestock. Another Other in Shakespeares England is the Irishman. England and its writers castigated the wilde Irish as thoroughly as they did the Africans and . . . the American natives (The Arden Shakespeare 52). An engraving in John Speeds The Theatre of the Empire of Great Britaine (1611) depicts a barely clothed Irishman, his untamed hair covering his face and his only weapon a primitive spear (The Arden Shakespeare 53). In A Description of Ireland, Barnabe Rich said that the Irish were rude, uncleanlie, and uncivill, . . . cruelle, bloudie minded, apt and ready to commit any kind of mischiefe (qtd. The Arden Shakespeare 52). The Irish were almost always seen as uncouth and unable to be civilized. What these documents reveal is that the Other is to be treated as a pariah, an outcast of society not deserving of equality. However, although this was the predominant image, there was

Lamb 6 dissent. In Captain Arthur Barlows narrative of 1584, he describes the natives of Roanoke Island as most gentle, loving, and faithful, voide of all guile and treason, and such as live after the manner of the Golden Age (qtd.. The Arden Shakespeare 46). In 1614, John Rolfe married Pocahontas, uniting the Other with Europe in matrimony. Nonetheless, Rolfe agonized over the repercussions of marrying a heathen. In a letter to the governor of Virginia, he stated that the wedding was not out of the unbridled desire of carnal affection, but for the good of this plantation, for the honor of our country, for the Glory of God, for my own salvation (Rolfe). Even in marriage, the European still had doubts about the humanity of the Other. Another view of dissent is presented in Michel de Montaignes collection of essays, published in England in 1603. Montaigne writes of the native inhabitants: [T]here is nothing savage or barbarous about these peoples, but that every man calls barbarous anything he is not accustomed to (82). Montaigne idealizes these native people because they are still governed by the laws of Nature (83). Montaigne challenges European perception of the traditional binary opposition of civilized versus savage. The real barbarous people in Montaignes essay are the Europeans who eat a man alive (87) rather than after he is dead. To be an Other in Shakespeares England was a complicated matter. On the one hand, the Other was a savage beast, something so disgusting they did not even deserve a proper burial. They were subhuman. Nevertheless, they could also often be viewed as noble, as Montaignes essay illustrates. Caliban reflects this complicated view. He is described as a monster of the isle, with four legs (2.2.64-65), this description reflecting the subhuman view of the Other. He is also described as being close to nature and associated with lovely music (Garber 863). He is both the savage and the noble. However, these visions both have one quality in common: inequality. Obviously, the savage view of Caliban leaves him unable to ever be seen on equal footing with the

Lamb 7 Europeans. However, he cannot find equality in the noble vision portrayed by Montaigne because through his idealization he is dehumanized. To be seen as not even having words for lying, cheating, avarice, envy, backbiting, or forgiveness (Montaigne 84) sets up an impossible standard by which to live. Also, the very act of putting the noble savage on the pedestal creates a separation, and, while better than being seen as barbarous, it puts the Other in a perpetual state of Otherness. Caliban is not equal on any level; he is either subhuman or superhuman. These two qualities take away his humanity and, in turn, poses a predominant dilemma within the play: Will Calibans humanity ever be recognized? Often contextualizing history acts as an excuse to dismiss the behaviors of the people of that time. Stephen Greenblatt writes, In this sense the new historicism, for all its acknowledgement of engagement and partiality, is slightly less likely than the older historicism to impose its values belligerently on the past, for those values seem historically contingent (Resonance and Wonder 59). The past cannot be judged by the morals of today because those values are historically contingent, rooted in the time and place of their culture. The question must be asked then, Can The Tempest be criticized beyond its historical context? After all, the motivations of characters, like Prospero and Trinculo, are created by a society that promotes colonialism, and they do not have the advantage of being self-conscious of their acts having implications beyond their context. Can they be judged for their ideology, and, if so, does this criticism delegitimize Western civilization by discrediting the books and ideas that gave birth to it (Will 287). In The Politics of Culture, Stephen Greenblatt poses an answer this dilemma: [T]here seems to me [a great risk] if professors of literature . . . refuse to ask the most difficult questions about the pastthe risk that we might turn our artistic inheritance into a simple, reassuring, soporific lie (290). In other words, we do a disservice to our present culture if we do

Lamb 8 not investigate, and even judge, the motivations of the past. To move our culture forward, value judgments need to be applied to the documents of the past, and the best way to critique the ideas present in The Tempest is through postcolonial theory. One of the most valuable ways of understanding Prosperos motivations and actions as a colonizer is through Frantz Fanons essay On National Culture. In this of indictment colonialism, Fanon states: When we consider the efforts made to carry out the cultural estrangement so characteristic of the colonial epoch, we realize that nothing has been left to chance and that the total result looked for by colonial domination was indeed to convince the natives that colonialism came to lighten their darkness. The effect consciously sought by colonialism was to drive into the natives heads the idea that if the settlers were to leave, they would at once fall back into barbarism, degradation, and bestiality. (37) Prosperos enslavement of Caliban and conquering of the island is legitimized by Prosperos belief Caliban was barbarous before the civilizing light was brought to the island. As Miranda comments: Abhorred slave Which any imprint of goodness wilt not take, Being capable of all ill; I pitied thee, Took pains to make thee speak, taught thee each hour One thing or other. When thou didst not, savage, Know thine own meaning, but wouldst gabble like A thing most brutish, I endowed thy purposes

Lamb 9 With words that made them known. But thy vile race (Though thou didst learn) had that int which good natures Could not abide to be with; therefore wast thou Deservedly confined into this rock, Who hadst deserved more than prison. (1.2.353-363) Mirandas words echo those of the colonist. Caliban did not even know how to speak or articulate thought until the presence of colonizer. Caliban was brought the light even though he is not even capable of receiving it. In fact, he did not even know his own meaning, the implication being that he did not have meaning before the colonizers arrival. Mirandas words also illustrate the harsh view of the Other presented earlier. He is subhuman, an animal that must be tamed but that will never lose the savageness, and if the colonizer left they would fall back into barbarism, degradation, and bestiality. The word choice in Fanons essay of lighten their darkness is especially relevant to The Tempest. Magic plays an especially important part in the play. Prosperos use and understanding of the magic is seen as a positive attribute: Theres no harm done (1.2.15) he comments after a magical feat. At the same time, there is a strong distinction between Prosperos magic and the magic of Calibans mother, Sycorax. Her magic is seen as demonic and evil. Even though both control the elements in the same magical way, Sycoraxs magic must be deemed dark because she is an Other. Another important distinction that adds to the opposition of colonized and colonizer is where the power in the creation of meaning lies. The determining factor in the creation of meaning is language, and, thereby, whoever controls language controls meaning. Walter Ongs Orality and Literacy helps explain the power distribution of language in The Tempest. Ongs work creates a

Lamb 10 distinction between literate culture and primary oral cultures. The Tempest is a clash between these two cultures, with Prospero and his library of books coming into conflict with Caliban, who had no speech at all until Prosperos arrival. Caliban, after learning language, represents many of the characteristics of Ongs primary oral culture. For example, he interprets situations concretely rather than abstractly. Ong states, Oral cultures tend to use concepts in situational, operational frames of reference that are minimally abstract in the sense that they remain close to the living human lifeworld (49). Caliban does not think of his enslavement abstractly but in the concrete: [W]ouldst thou camst first / Thou strokst me and made much of me; wouldst give me / Water with berries int, and teach me how / To name the bigger light and how the less / That burn by day and night (1.2.334-337). His enslavement is put into concrete memories of berries and learning the word of the sun and not into the abstract implications of disempowerment. When it comes to articulating these feelings of being enslaved by the forced upon language, he states, You taught me language, and my profit ont / Is I know how to curse (1.2.364-365). Again, Caliban is able to articulate his understanding of his enslavement in concrete terms. The cursing represents his dislike of his enslavement, but this is not an abstract expression of his thoughts. He does not say, You ways have only brought me a horrible life. Rather, he must relate his dislike through the concrete idea of cursing. The colonial power of literate culture is fully revealed in the very belief that a literate culture holds power over an oral culture simply by the fact that it has learned writing. The power struggle is acknowledged by oral cultures and the hold literate cultures have over them. For example, Claude Duret, in 1607, reports of Indians that would not approach certain trees whose leaves the Spanish used to make paper, afraid of the power these trees held (Greenblatt Learning to Curse 65). No more apparent is this belief in the power of words than Prosperos use of magic.

Lamb 11 His knowledge of magic comes from books and from his literacy. Without the learning he received from books, Prospero is powerless. Like the Native Americans Duret reports, Caliban acknowledges Prosperos art is of such power / It would control my dams god Setebos, And make a vassal of him (1.2.373-375). Prosperos literacy has much power over him. Ong also believes a literate culture begins to see the world in more definite terms. He states, Writing fosters abstractions that disengage knowledge from the arena where human beings struggle with one another. It separates the knower from the known (Ong 43-44). He continues, Writing separates the knower from the known and this sets up conditions for objectivity, in the sense of personal disengagement or distancing (46). Caliban, who does not live in the world of abstractions, becomes part of this known world. Prospero, on the other hand, is the knower, and what he knows is that Caliban is the Other. Prospero distances himself through his literacy, and, in turn, disengages himself from the arena of human struggle. Prospero is able to see Caliban as subhuman because his literacy has caused him to lose the communal soul (Ong 46) and empathy for fellow human beings. Print also makes these ideas more definite. Ong writes, Print embedded the word in space more definitively (123). Calibans orality allows him to change his opinions of people. He sees Stephano and Trinculo as gods at one point in the play but by the end he allows himself to go back on these thoughts. In a literate culture, going back on opinions is not as easy. A literate culture presents a feeling of finality to the culture, of definite, unchanging opinion. Prosperos view of Caliban as subhuman is definite, a view set as firmly imprinted in Prosperos mind as a stone. In On National Culture, Fanon claims, A national culture under colonial domination is a contested culture whose destruction is sought in a systematic fashion. It very quickly becomes a culture condemned to secrecy (46). As such, Calibans culture is being systematically destroyed.

Lamb 12 He is taught language, or at least forced to adopt a new language, which takes away any interpretation of meaning he might have had previous to the colonialization of his thoughts. His ability to rule is stripped from him. His desire for an autonomous life is taken, for he is ordered to carry wood and be a servant of his master. When Caliban first meets Trinculo, he mistakes him for Prosperos controlled spirits: Here comes a spirit of his, and to torment me / For bringing wood in slowly. Ill fall flat; / Perchance he will not mind me (2.2.15-17). Caliban needs to hide, to be secret, so that he does not face more control and torment. Fanon predicts the result of such treatment of the colonized: Colonial exploitation, poverty and endemic famine drive the native more and more to open organized revolt (46), and organized revolt is the exact result of Calibans treatment. With Stephano and Trinculo, Caliban plans to usurp the leader. As with the domineering of the literate culture, he realizes the power must be taken from the books before the actual killing: First to possess his books, for without them Hes but a sot, as I am, nor hath not One spirit to command. They all do hate him As rootedly as I. Burn but his books. (3.2.92-95) Caliban demands control over his oppression by fixating his return to power on the outside, on the concrete books, further revealing his inability to abstract the world. Ong mentions how certain [t]exts can be felt to have intrinsic religious value: illiterates profit from rubbing the book on their foreheads, or whirling prayer-wheels bearing texts they cannot read (93). Caliban is like these illiterates: the power lies within the books themselves, not within the knowledge that they have gained. Caliban is unable to separate the knower from the known and cannot think abstractly.

Lamb 13 While the colonizers have given him language they have not given him literacy, leaving him only able to curse. Like the historical context of Shakespeares England, there is dissent within the play. In response to how he would colonize Prosperos island, Gonzalo says: Ith commonwealth I would by countraries Execute all things, for no kind of traffic Would I admit; no name of magistrate Letters should not be known; riches, poverty And use of service, none; contract, succession, Bourn, bound of land, tilth, vineyard none; No use of metal, corn, or wine or oil; No occupation, all men idle, all; And women, too, but innocent and pure; No sovereignty (2.1.148-157) These words echo Montaignes essay On the Cannibals and are certainly a source for Shakespeares play.1 They both profess the same thesis: the native inhabitants are idealized as having a closeness to nature and simplicity the Europeans cannot. However, Gonzalos speech is largely dismissed and ridiculed. When Sebastian inquires of Gonzalos plans, No marrying mong his subjects?, Antonio quickly interjects, None, man, all idle Whores and knaves (2.1.166-167). Gonzalos ideas cannot be taken seriously because of the predominant ideology: the Other is subhuman.

For example, in Montaignes essay he writes, [Native inhabitants have] no knowledge of letters, not terms for governor or political superior (84). In The Tempest, Gonzalo says, [N]o name of magistrate; / Letters should not be known; riches poverty / And use of service, none; (2.1.150-152). This is an almost verbatim copy of Montaignes essay.

Lamb 14 Does The Tempest then ever break free from the dominant colonial discourse and acknowledge Calibans humanity? Noel Cobb writes, [W]e come closest to understanding Caliban if we see him in ourselves. This is, in fact, what Prospero is struggling to realize during the course of the play (76). Prospero must see Caliban for his humanity; more specifically, he his also bound by the fact that he has restricted and ostracized Caliban as an Other. Edward Said writes in Orientalism: We must take seriously Vicos great observation that men make their own history, that what they can know is what they have made, and extend it to geography: as both geographical and cultural entitiesto say nothing of historical entitiessuch locales, regions, geographical sectors as Orient and Occident are man-made. Therefore, as much as the West itself, the Orient is an idea that has a history and a tradition of thought, imagery, and vocabulary that have given it reality and presence in and for the West. The two geographical entities thus support and to extent reflect each other. (132) Caliban and Prospero are both reflections of each other and bound by the man-made constructions of society. Because Prospero has made and abstracted Caliban into a monster, he must realize how much of himself is a monster. At the end, when the conspiracy has been stopped, Prospero says, Two of these fellows you / Must know and own; this thing of darkness I / Acknowledge mine (5.1.275). Prospero still has control over Caliban because the use of the word thing implies that Caliban is still an Other. However, he has also acknowledged something in Caliban: the darkness. While he will never fully acknowledge Calibans own humanity, Prospero has created a correlation, a reflection, between them. Caliban is dark, but also, he has acknowledged, is he.

Lamb 15 The fact that there is a darkness within Prospero is further explained in his last speech: Now my charms are all oerthrown And what strength I haves mine own, Which is must faint. Now, tis true I must be here confined by you, Or sent to Naples. Let me now, Since I have pardoned the deceiver, dwell In this bare island by your spell; But release me from bands (Epilogue 1-10) Prospero is bound and captured by his own colonialism, a paradoxical victim of his oppression of the Other, for when one oppresses the monster one becomes the monster also. To whip the savage is to become the savage. And as such, he wishes to be released from the bands he has created through his colonialism Prospero is also bound by his constant need to impress the local inhabitants. The hold of colonial power is thin, and constant upkeep is necessary to keep the local inhabitants from uprising. Prospero has his power of literacy and his magic, but to keep Caliban in control he must use force, but also keep Caliban in a constant state of amazement. Paul Brown writes, From Prosperos initial appearance it becomes clear that the disruption [of the tempest] was produced to create a series of problems precisely in order to effect their resolution. The dramatic conflict of the opening of the play is to be reordered to declare the mastery of Prospero in being able to initiate and control dislocation (141). Prospero sets in motion events strictly to show his control and dominion. He allows Caliban the chance to seek Prosperos usurpation because he will be able to

Lamb 16 stop it and impress Caliban with ability to control all. In this way, the colonizer becomes a slave to his colonialism, constantly reordering his life in order to maintain control. This idea of the controlling nature of colonialism can be further explained with George Orwells essay Shooting an Elephant. As a representative of the British government, Orwell is required to be the will of the colonial government. When he goes to shoot a wild elephant, his impulse is to leave the creature unharmed. However, a crowd of the local inhabitants has gathered around him, and he realizes that he must kill the elephant, because of both the demands of the gathering crowd and his colonial discourse. He is acting out of the will of the people and, because of this, he commits an act he later views as almost sinful. He writes: And it was at this moment, as I stood there with the rifle in my hands, that I first grasped the hollowness, the futility of the white mans dominion in the East. Here was I, the white man with his gun, standing in front of the unarmed native crowd seemingly the leading actor of the piece; but in reality I was only an absurd puppet pushed to and fro by the will of those yellow faces behind. I perceived in this moment that when the white man turns tyrant it is his own freedom he destroys . . . For it is the condition of his rule that he shall spend his life trying to impress the natives. (573) So stands Prospero at the end of the play, a man with only a wand, his strength waning, unable to feel humane because he cannot acknowledge the humanity in the Other. Calibans future is ambiguous and uncertain. But Prospero is trapped on the bare island of his tortured soul, caught in his own puppetry of colonialism, asking to be released from the strings that bind him, that hold him up like a marionette, forever bound to impressing the natives.

Lamb 17

Works Cited The Arden Shakespeare: The Tempest. Eds. Virginia Mason Vaughan and Alden T. Vaughan. London, Eng.: Arden Shakespeare, 1999. Barker, Francis and Peter Hulme. Nymphs and Reapers Heavily Vanish: The Discursive ConTexts of The Tempest. New Historicism and Cultural Materialism: A Reader. London, Eng.: Arnold, 1996. 125-137. Brown, Paul. This Thing of Darkness I Acknowledge Mine: The Tempest and the Discourse of Colonialism. Modern Critical Interpretations: William Shakespeares The Tempest. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1988. 131-151. Cobb, Noel. Prosperos Island. London, Eng.: Coventure Ltd., 1984. Equiano, Olaudah. from The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. The Language of Literature. Evanston: McDougall Littell, 2006. 93-97. Fanon, Frantz. On National Culture. Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Reader. Eds. Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman. New York: Columbia U P, 1994. 36-52. Gallagher, Catherine and Stephen Greenblatt. Practicing New Historicism. Chicago: The U of Chicago P, 2000. Garber, Marjorie. Shakespeare After All. New York: Pantheon Books, 2004. Gardner, Brian. The East India Company: A History. New York: The McCall Publishing Company, 1972. Geertz, Clifford. The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man. New Historicism and Cultural Materialism: A Reader. London, Eng.: Arnold, 1996. 5-10.

Lamb 18 Greenblatt, Stephen. Learning to Curse: Linguistic Colonialism in The Tempest. Modern Critical Interpretations: William Shakespeares The Tempest. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1988. 65-68. ---. The Politics of Culture. Falling Into Theory. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford Books, 1994. 289-290. ---. Resonance and Wonder. New Historicism and Cultural Materialism: A Reader. London, Eng.: Arnold, 1996. 55-60. ---. Will in the World. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2004. Knight, G. Wilson. Caliban as a Red Man. Major Literary Characters: Caliban. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1992. 179-191. Montaigne, Michel. On the Cannibals. The Essay: A Selection. London, Eng.: Penguin Books, 1991. Ong, Walter. Orality and Literacy. London: Routledge, 1982. Orwell, George. Shooting an Elephant. One Hundred Great Essays. Ed Robert Diyanni. New York: Penguin Books, 2002. Rolfe, John. Letter of John Rolfe, 1614. Virtual Jamestown. 1998. Crandall Shifflett. 11 November 2006. <http://www.virtualjamestown.org/rolfe_letter.html> Said, Edward. From Orientalism. Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Reader. Eds. Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman. New York: Columbia U P, 1994. 132-149. Skura, Meredith Anne. The Case of Colonialism in The Tempest. Major Literary Characters: Caliban. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1992. 221-248. Strachey, William. A True Reportory. The Arden Shakespeare: The Tempest. Eds. Virginia Mason Vaughan and Alden T. Vaughan. London, Eng.: Arden Shakespeare, 1999. 287-

Lamb 19 302. Vaughan, Alden & Virginia Mason Vaughan. Shakespeares Caliban: A Cultural History. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge U P, 1991. Will, George. Literary Politics. Falling Into Theory. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford Books, 1994. 286-288.