Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Acknowledgements
University of Minnesota Center for Electric Energy (UMCEE). IEEE Twin Cities local chapter. Xcel Energy. HDR Inc.
Reference Books
C.R. Mason, The Art and Science of Protective Relaying. GE Publication. Linkhttp://www.gedigitalenergy.com/multilin/no tes/artsci/index.htm This book was first published in 1956!
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Reference
Network Automation & Protection Guide, published by Alstom Link changed due to acquisition- will be posted soon. Relevant IEEE documents published papers, guides, standards and recommended practices.
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Shunt Capacitor
Voltage Classification
Low Voltages Up to 1000 Volts Medium Voltage 1 kV up to 100 kV High voltage (HV) 100 KV up to 230 kV Extra HV (EHV) 345 kV up to 765 kV Ultra HV (UHV) 1100 kV EHV and UHV defined in IEEE 1312
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Voltage Range
Electrical systems designed and operated within a normal range (defined as Range A) and operating conditions leading to wider range (Range B) where corrective actions are required to bring back the system within normal range.
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Voltage Range
Range A- Max. - +5% of the nominal and minimum varies 2.5% up to 5% 120 V* within 114-126V ( Service range); 13.8 kV - 14.49 kV 13.46 kV (97. 5% of 13.8 kV). Utilization voltage range (voltage at the customer) up to ~90% Vnom. * - State regulations may have different limits at low voltages.
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Voltage Range
Max. voltage up to 345 kV +5% of the nominal. 500 kV 550kV; 765 kV 800kV; 1100 kV 1200 kV.
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Overcurrent limits
Conductors, pipes and wires, are rated to carry specified current that limits temperature rise over ambient or maximum temperature to design parameters. ACSR conductor maximum 100deg. C Tubular bus 30 deg. Rise over 40 deg. Ambient Transformer 65 deg. Rise over 40 degrees ambient
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Frequency
Typically very close to the nominal frequency Interconnection guidelines within +/- 0.5 HZ Regional requirements for corrective action for frequencies outside this limit
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Normal Operation
As per C.R. Mason Normal operation assumes no failures, no mistakes of personnel nor acts of god. The system design should take into account the failures, human errors and abnormal operating situations.
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Protective Relaying
detects short circuits and/or abnormal operating conditions that may affect the equipment/ the system. Isolate only the faulty equipment.
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Protection Requirements
Isolate faulty equipment as soon as possible
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Transformer GSU Generator
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Redundancy
What happens if the relay doesnt operate? Add a second set of relaying Make sure that some other relay clears the fault such as a relay looking into the generator from the system.
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Backup Protection
What happens if the breaker fails to operate? Provide a relay to detect this condition and trip adjacent sources for the fault. This could be at the same location or at a remote location.
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Other Failures
D.C. power is required for operating breakers and other auxiliary devices. Battery failure: Solution is to provide remote back up or provide redundancy at the local station. D.C. circuits protected by either fuses or D.C. breakers. Provide separate circuits for primary and secondary trip paths.
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Transformer GSU Generator Trip Trip Primary protection Secondary protection Initiate Breaker Failure Breaker failure Relay Another relay looking from the transformer into the generator or the bus can also provide the back up function.
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Instrument Transformers
Current transformer scales down the primary current to manageable value for the relay. Ex: 2000 Amps is the nominal current of the generator ; 2000/5 can be the ratio. The relay input is 5Amps if the primary current is 2000 Amps.
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Potential transformers Step down the voltage to relay input range (66Volts to 120Volts)
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Relay Inputs
Current with nominal 5A rating. Voltage nominal from 66V to 150 V (This could vary depending on the manufacturer).
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Zones of Protection
3 2
Transmission line Shunt Reactor
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Generator Transformer GSU
1 1- Generator 2- Transformer 5
3-Unit protection 4-Bus protection 5- Line protection 6- Shunt Capacitor 7- Shunt Reactor 6
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Zone Boundary
The boundary is defined by
1.
The fault interrupting device (Breaker in our example) Location of the current transformer
2.
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Bus relay
Typical Location of CT in
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Overlapping Zones
Prevents Blind spots
3 2
Transmission line Shunt Reactor
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Generator Transformer GSU
1 1- Generator 2- Transformer 5
3-Unit protection 4-Bus protection 5- Line protection 6- Shunt Capacitor 7- Shunt Reactor
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Blind zone
Bus relay
Typical Location of CT in
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Transformer GSU Generator Expanded zone of protection Primary protection Secondary protection Trip and initiate B/F of Bkrs 2 and 3
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If CT is the problem rewire CT to the line breakers 2 and 3 or rewire bus relay CT to transformer CT
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Generator Transformer GSU
Line Relay
Shunt Capacitor
Feeder
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Transformer GSU
3 5
4 7
Distribution Transformer
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Bkr Failure 2 1,3,5 for Bkr 2 failure 1,3,5 for failure of 2 2, 4,5 for failure of 3 2,3,6 for failure of 5 2,5,4 or3, 7, 10 2,3,6 or 8, 9,5 4,10,8 or7, 6,9 6,8 2,5,4 or 3, 7, 10 3 for Bkr 4 failure or 8 for Bkr 7 failure -Feeders Assumed radial 10 * depending on which breaker fails
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Shunt Capacitor
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Feeder
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Other Functions
Auto restoration. Alarms to assist system operators decision.
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Relay Inputs
Voltage Current
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Alternate Names
Metering and relaying diagram. Based on past practices of Utilities/ Power plants. Varies from one company to another. Some utilities show CT and PT connections on one sheet and show the tripping logic on another sheet.
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M&R Diagram
Provides details on what protection is used. Shows which breakers are tripped. Serves as a good reference document to develop three line diagrams (Schematics).
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Fault Current and Voltage at the Relay V (t) = V Sin(t); - Fault initiation angle Location
S m
Relay Location
VS RS LS RL LL
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Relay Inputs
Current input may have D.C. offset. The amount of offset depends on the fault incidence point on the voltage waveform. Voltage inputs rarely have any offsets as line angle L and system angle, are close to each other. If L = S = ; the system is considered as homogenous system.
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Relay Classification
Electromechanical Static Numerical/microprocessor (digital)
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Relay Chronology
Electro-mechanical relays Significant portion still in service. Major development in 1950s. Solid state Transistor versions Late 60s. Op. amps/ CMOS Technology early 1970s. Microprocessor relay late 70- early 80s.
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Electromechanical Relays
Types of electromechanical Relays
Telephone Type Relays Hinged Armature Relays/ Clapper type Relays Plunger Relays Induction Disc relays Induction cup/Cylinder Relays
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Maintenance
GEK-99350 Adjustment Techniques for Electromechanical relays by GE http://pm.geindustrial.com/FAQ/Documents /PVD/GEK-99350.pdf
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Polarity Marking
IPrimary H1 X1 X2 ISecondary
X3 X4 X5
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Free Standing CT
Used in systems up to 800 kV.
Air Oil Nitrogen
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Bushing CT
Internally or Externally Mounted on the Bushing
CT rating- If primary is not an integral part of the CT, The CT should be rated for the equipment ratings. Ex: Transformer or breaker bushing CT.
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Auxiliary CT
Used for Ratio Matching
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Metering CT
Accuracy is defined at a rated connected load ( referred to as Burden)
Example:
Burden Designation B-0.1 B-0.5 B 1.8 Resistance () 0.09 0.45 1.62 Inductance (mH) 0.116 0.58 2.08 Impedance () @ 60 HZ 0.1 0.5 1.8 Power factor 0.9 0.9 0.9
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High Accuracy class 0.15 is defined in C57.13.6 with burden class E0.2 and E-0.04 at unity power factor. The CT will confirm to the Accuracy class at higher currents if Rating Factor is greater than 1.0
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Relay CT Designation
C-Class low leakage flux, The ratio can be calculated. T- Class high leakage ratio cannot be calculated and has to be determined by tests. X- Class 1% accuracy at rated current and user defined accuracy at 20 times the rated current. Refer C57.13 to specify.
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Excitation Curve
Voltage developed by CT
10A
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Excitation Curve
A finite amount of current is used to establish flux in the magnetic core Excitation or Magnetizing current . C400 CT can push 100 A into 4 ohms burden at 10% accuracy. From excitation curve, CT develops ~500 V at 100 A with 10A excitation current.
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Excitation Curve
Internal voltage drop at 100A = 0.002 ohms x 240 turns x 100A = 48V; CT terminal voltage = 4 X 100A = 400V CT internal voltage at 100A (10A excitation current) = ~500V > 400V +48V.
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Relay Burden
Cable impedance
CT Transient Performance
Voltage developed across the secondary of a CT is given by VS = (Zburden + 2Rcable +RCT) If, if there is no D.C. offset VS = (1+X/R) (Zburden + 2Rcable +RCT) If, with D.C. offset If is the primary current/ CT ratio. X,R - reactance and resistance of the primary system. The CT voltage rating > VS to avoid CT saturation.
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CT Selection
Maximum continuous rating of the primary circuit. 2000/5 RF = 2.0 Primary can carry 4000 A continuously. This means that all loads connected to the secondary side should be capable of carrying 10A.
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CT Selection
Select primary rating based on the load current carrying capability. If load rating is 5A is max. rating and if the primary needs to be 3000A, select 3000/5A.
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CT Selection
Determine the max. fault current. Determine the X/R of the system. Determine the burden Add cable impedance and the connected relay impedance. Select the C Class (100, 200, 400 or 800) so that C-Class V > (1+X/R)*If*(ZBurden)) to avoid saturation. It may not be possible to avoid saturation.
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Faults
Majority of faults are single line to ground. D.C offset is maximum if - =900 System angle, is around 700 850 Fault should occur around zero on the voltage waveform. Most of the faults due to insulation failure are around the voltage peak. D.C. offset Probability is low for line to ground faults. On three phase faults at least one of the phases will have significant offset.
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CT Saturation Calculator
Examine the time to saturate, effective current calculated by the relay
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Potential Transformer
Steps down the voltage to 120V or less. C57.13 specifies the ratings. Metering Accuracy 0.3, 0.6, 1.2 at 90% to110% of the nominal rating. C57.13.6 0.15 Accuracy Class specified.
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VT Burdens
Designation W X M Y Z ZZ BURDEN At 120V and at 69.3V basis VA 12.5 25.0 35.0 75.0 200.0 400.0 Power Factor 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.85 0.85 0.85
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Polarity
H1
X1 X2 X3
Y-Winding
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C1
Compensating Reactor Transformer
C2
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Questions?
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