SENTENCE NEGATION 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 1.7. 1.8.

Key terms Assertive non-assertive Full local negation Negative vs. affirmative sentences. Tests for negativity Instances of negation Polarity Items Negative concord non-negative concord languages Conclusion. Key terms

1.1. Key Terms We start the discussion on Sentence Negation by revising upon some concepts that will be crucial for every section in this course. We will therefore have to remember the meaning of such terms as: Constituent (phrase) any part of a sentence which is regarded as forming a distinct syntactic unit within the overall structure of the sentence. For instance, if we were to take the following example: (1) Susan loves her mother very much. (Susan i iubete foarte mult mama.) we can identify the following constituents: Susan, loves, her mother, very much. Each of the above identified elements can be said to form a distinct syntactic unit, since it has a certain semantic and structural autonomy inside (1). Consequently, sequences of the kind her mother very, or Susan loves her cannot be considered constituents, since they do not have a structural and semantic unity. They are just strings, that is sequences fragmented at random. Syntactic, Semantic, Pragmatic Syntactic relates to the structure of sentences Semantic relates to the meaning of words, sentences Pragmatic relates to the function of a sentence (utterance) inside discourse In the following example, (2) Give Susan the money and then send her away! (D-i banii lui Susan i apoi trimite-o de aici!) syntactically we are dealing with a compound sentence (where two main clauses are coordinated by and), semantically the two sentences are perceived as sequential (the event in the first sentence is followed by the one in the second) and pragmatically, we are dealing with a directive (i.e. an order given to an interlocutor). Auxiliary verbs one of a small set of lexical items having certain properties in common with verbs but also exhibiting a number of other distinct properties. The English auxiliaries are usually divided into the modal auxiliaries (such as may, must, should, etc.) and the non-modal auxiliaries (such as have, be). Insertion a procedure by which some element not previously present in a structure is added to it. An example is the insertion of the element do in sentence (3): (3) She told me the secret. (Mi-a spus secretul.) As a consequence of the insertion of do in (3) we obtain the following emphatic structure: (4) She did tell me the secret. (Mi-a spus ntr-adevr secretul.) 1.2. Assertive non-assertive We need to make a distinction between assertive and non-assertive sentences. For instance, a sentence of the form: (5) He offered her some chocolates. (I-a oferit bomboane de ciocolat.)

is said to be an assertion, in the sense that it states something, it asserts something. This example can be compared to: (6) a. He didnt offer her any chocolates. (Nu i-a oferit bomboane de ciocolat.) b. Did he offer her chocolates? (Oare i-a oferit bomboane de ciocolat?) The difference between example (5) and the examples under (6) is that the latter examples are nonassertive, in that they do not state anything. Consequently, a sentence can be non-assertive if it is negative or if it is a question. We do not therefore have two independent systems: - Positive vs. Negative - Declarative vs. Interrogative but rather an interrelated system in which assertion involves both positive and declarative while nonassertion has a subsystem either negative or interrogative. The relationship can be represented as follows: assertion - positive and declarative sentence non-assertion negative (They didnt tell her the secret.) other (if clauses, comparison, subjunctive) The distinction assertive / non-assertive brings us to one of the main questions we need to answer in this section: when is a sentence negative and how do we distinguish between various forms of negation? We shall answer the second question in the following subsection. 1.3. Full local negation The first distinction to draw between various forms of negation is that of Sentence vs. Word negation. For example, the sentences under (7) are considered instances of syntactic negation, whereas those under (8) are considered to be forms of word negation: (7) a. Susan doesnt like her friends. (Lui Susan nu-i place de prietenii ei.) b. John is not happy. (John nu e fericit) (8) a. Susan dislikes her friends. (Lui Susan nu-i place de prietenii ei.) b. John is unhappy. (John e nefericit.) It is obvious that sentences under (7) are structurally different from those under (8) in that they are marked by the presence of the negative word not. In the case of the sentences under (8), we can speak more of a negative meaning than of a negative structure, since the negative word not is not present there. There is also a difference in meaning between the two examples, since it is obvious that the meaning of (7) is not really equivalent to that of (8). A second distinction to be drawn here is between such examples as: (9) Not long ago, I met a girl named Susan. (Nu demult, am ntlnit o fat pe nume Susan.) In this case, just like in the case of word negation, we speak about local negation in the sense that the negative word not does not influence more than the first part of the sentence, more precisely the phrase it is part of. In other words, the whole sentence under (9) has an affirmative dimension and it is only the phrase not long ago that has a negative connotation. This is also called an instance of phrasal negation, since the (e.g. They told her the secret.)

positive ( e.g. Did they tell her the secret? ) interrogative negative (e.g. Didnt they tell her the secret?)

negative meaning is restricted to one constituent only. Example (10) gives us however reason to speak about full negation, namely the whole sentence is negative and the word not influences the whole meaning of the sentence: (10) I didnt meet a girl named Susan long ago. (N-am ntlnit o fat pe nume Susan demult.) An interesting problem is posed by such examples as: (11)a. She was not an unattractive woman. (Nu era o femeie neatrgtoare.) b. He was not without intelligence. (Nu era lipsit de inteligen.) c. I was not a little worried. (Nu mic mi-a fost ngrijorarea.) The meaning of all these examples is a positive one: (11)a. implies that she was an attractive woman, (11)b. implies that the guy there was quite intelligent, whereas (11)c. states that I was very worried about something. In other words, these sentences look negative, since the negative word not is present inside them, but their meaning tells us a different story. We can say that we are dealing with a combination of word and phrasal negation, where the word negation (unattractive, without intelligence, a little worried) is cancelled by the presence of not: not unattractive = attractive. Another name for the distinction between full negation and local (that is word and phrasal) negation is supplied by the opposition syntactic vs. semantic negation. By syntactic negation we mean negation at the level of the sentence ( i.e. the whole meaning of the sentence is negative). Semantic negation will consequently refer to sentence bits with a negative meaning. Since this course is an attempt to clarify matters related to syntax we shall consider negative sentences only those sentences that qualify as syntactically negated. This means that negative sentences need to have a negative word present inside them that will influence the whole meaning of the respective sentences. 1.4. Negative vs. affirmative sentences. Tests for negativity In this subsection we are going to answer two questions: a) What is the difference between negative and affirmative (positive) sentences? b) How do we tell when a sentence is syntactically negative? Are there any ways of checking on the sentences negativity? Let us start with the first question: the difference existing between negative and positive sentences is not only a semantic one (that is the fact that they express opposite truth values) but also a syntactic and pragmatic one: As we were saying, syntactically negative sentences are marked by the presence of a negative structure (such as the word not, etc.) and sometimes by other syntactic changes. Compare: (11) I went there. (M-am dus acolo.) to (12) I didnt go there. (Nu m-am dus acolo.) The second sentence has undergone certain syntactic changes, such as do insertion. (see subsection 1.1.). Let us now discuss the pragmatic differences between positive and negative sentences: basically, whenever we utter a negative sentence in a discourse, we imply the existence of its affirmative counterpart. For instance, in a negative sentence such as: (13) Harry didnt attack the government. (Harry nu a atacat guvernul) the implicit affirmative sentences existing in correlation to the negative sentences could be: - Harry did something to the government (but he didnt attack it) - Someone attacked the government (but it wasnt Harry). The second question that springs to ones mind is: but how do we tell when a sentence is negative, since sometimes examples can be so misleading?

An efficient way of doing that was offered by Klima (1964) who distinguishes between four tests of negativity: 1. Tag-questions a sentence is syntactically negative if it allows for the presence of an affirmative tag question (with a falling intonation):

(14) Susan does not like her friends, does she? ( Lui Susan nu i place de prietenii ei, nu-i aa?) (15) Susan dislikes her friends, *does she? (16) Susan dislikes her friends, doesnt she? Sentence (14) qualifies as negative, since it is followed by an affirmative question tag, whereas the sentence under (15) does not: the star placed at the beginning of the tag question indicates that the structure is ungrammatical, incorrect. The sentence allows only for a negative question tag (see example (16)) and is syntactically affirmative. 2. Not even-tags a sentence is syntactically negative if it allows for the presence of a not even-tag :

(17) Susan does not like her friends, not even the smart ones. (Lui Susan nu-i place de prietenii ei, nici mcar de cei detepi.) (18) Susan dislikes / likes her friends, *not even the smart ones. (19) Susan dislikes/ likes her friends, even the smart ones. Example (17) is syntactically negative, as is demonstrated by the presence of the not even tag. Compare this example to those under (18) and (19), which exhibit samples of affirmative sentences, since the not even tag cannot be applied to them. 3. Either conjoining a sentence is syntactically negative if it can be followed by another negative sentence and the adverb either: (20) Susan does not like her friends, and they dont like her either. (Lui Susan nu i place de prietenii ei i nici lor nu le place de ea.) (21) Susan dislikes / likes her friends, * and they dont like her either. Sentence (20) is syntactically negative because the either conjoining is possible, which does not happen in the case of (21), which is ungrammatical. 4. Neither tags a sentence is syntactically negative if it can be followed by a neither tag: (22) Susan doesnt like her friends, and neither do they like her. ( Lui Susan nu i place de prietenii ei i nici lor nu le place de ea.) (23) Susan likes / dislikes her friends, *and neither do they like her. Sentence (22) is syntactically negative since it can be combined with a neither tag, whereas sentence (23) is syntactically affirmative since its combination with neither is obviously impossible. 1.5. In conclusion, whenever one wishes to check whether a certain sentence is negative from a syntactic point of view, they need to refer to these tests of negativity. By applying these tests to the sentence in question, one can tell if the sentence is negative or not. 1.6. Instances of Negation We shall now attempt to offer a classification of the various instances of negation present in English. The criterion we employ has to do with the position of the negative word inside the negative sentence: a) negative insertion (the negative word not is inserted in the auxiliary): (23) John has not come. (N-a venit John). (24) Susan could not go to the theatre. (Susan nu s-a putut duce la teatru) The negative word not has been inserted inside the sentences under (23) and (24). This kind of negation is the most frequent one in English. A variation to this instance of negation is offered by those sentences in which the negative word is attached to the auxiliary verb by means of contraction: (25) John hasnt come. (26) Susan couldnt go to the theatre. b) negative incorporation (the negative word is incorporated in a determiner, a pronoun or an adverb):

(27) I saw no student. (N-am vzut nici un student) In example (27) negation is incorporated in the determiner (that is the article ) of the direct object. (28) I saw nobody. (N-am vzut pe nimeni ). In this case negation is incorporated in the pronoun. (29) a . I went nowhere. (Nu m-am dus nicieri) b. I never went to his place. (Nu m-am dus niciodat la el.) In sentence (29) the negative word has been incorporated in the adverb of place. All the sentences discussed here are variants for : (30) a. I didnt see any student. (N-am vzut nici un student.) b. I didnt see anybody. (N-am vzut pe nimeni.) c. I didnt go anywhere. / I didnt ever go to his place. (Nu m-am dus nicieri. / Nu m-am dus niciodat la el.) c) negative attraction (the negative word is attracted by the nominal phrase in the first position of the sentence; no incorporation takes place.) (31) a. Not all that glitters is gold. (Nu tot ce strlucete e aur.) b. Not a day passed without me thinking of him. ( N-a trecut o zi fr s m gndesc la el.) It is obvious that in such examples the negative word not has been attracted by the nominal phrase in sentence initial position. The sentences under (31) may be paraphrased by means of negative insertion or incorporation: (32) a. All that glitters is not gold. b. No day passed without me thinking of him. The fact that these sentences may be paraphrased by means of other negative sentences makes us believe that the process of attraction is optional not obligatory. There are other instances of negation that do not necessarily fall under the criterion we mentioned above (that of the position of the negative word inside the sentence). incomplete negation (negation in the sentence is made by means of the so-called incomplete negators such as hardly, scarcely, barely, seldom, rarely, etc.) the sentences that contain these negators are also considered syntactically negative, because they pass all the tests for negativity presented in 1.4.: (33) I hardly met this man, did I? (Nu l-am cunoscut pe omul acesta.) (34) They barely read any novels, not even short ones. (Nu citesc romane, nici mcar din alea scurte.) (35) We seldom watch T.V, and we dont go to the theatre either. (Ne uitm rar la televizor, i nu mergem nici la teatru.) (36) They rarely talked to their friends, and neither did their friends talk to them. (Vorbeau rar cu prietenii i nici prietenii nu vorbeau cu ei.) emphatic negation (emphasis is laid by placing the negative word or the incomplete negator in the first position inside the sentence, which triggers inversion):

(37) a. Never have I met a more horrible person. (38) (Niciodat n-am cunoscut un om mai ngrozitor.)

b. Rarely have I done such a stupid thing. (Rareori am fcut un lucru aa de prostesc.) c. Hardly have they heard a thing like that. (N-am mai auzit aa ceva.) d. Not for the world would I do such a thing. (Pentru nimic n lume n-a face una ca asta.) negative transportation (the negative word is transported to the main clause from a subordinate that clause where it originates and belongs semantically): For instance, sentence (38) (39) They think that he doesnt like them. (Ei cred c lui nu-i place de ei.) becomes (40) They dont think that he likes them. (Ei nu cred c lui i place de ei.) by undergoing a process of negative transportation. As you can see from the translation of these examples, the phenomenon is the same in Romanian. The difference between (38) and (39) is a pragmatic one, in the sense that the original sentence (38) is stronger from the point of view of its negative force. In sentence (39), the negative meaning is less strong. Negative transportation is optional and may appear with verbs of opinion, intention, probability, etc.: think, believe, imagine, suppose, guess, expect, seem, appear, look like, sound/feel like, intend, choose, want, be probable, be likely, be supposed to, ought to, should be desirable, advise, suggest, etc. 1.7. Polarity Items Sometimes a negative sentence is characterized not only by the existence of a negative word (such as not or hardly, barely, etc.) but also by the existence of certain elements that, although not negative in meaning, cannot appear in an affirmative context. For example, we can very well say something like: (41) a. She didnt lift a finger to help me. (N-a micat un deget s m ajute.) b. She doesnt like our chairman at all. (Nu-i place deloc de presedinte.) In the above examples, I underlined the phrases (not) to lift a finger and at all that are specific for the negative context. They are not usable in an affirmative environment, and sentences such as: (42) a.*She lifted a finger to help me. b. *She likes our chairman at all. are clearly not grammatical. This means that the negative word not is so powerful that it literally imposes the presence of certain elements (such as lift a finger or at all) in its vicinity. These elements that can appear only in non-assertive contexts (see section1.2. for the definition of assertive/ non-assertive) are called negative polarity items. They are lexical items (that is words and phrases) and are sensitive to the polarity of the sentence (namely to the assertive or non-assertive nature of the respective sentence). The phenomenon is not restricted to English only as one can come up with examples of such items from Romanian: (43) Nu e chip s vorbeti cu el. (44) N-am vzut nici picior de ho prin preajm. The fact that the italicized phrases above are indeed negative polarity items is demonstrated by their inadequacy in an assertive context. It is incorrect to say: (45) * E chip s vorbeti cu el. (46) * Am vzut picior de ho prin preajm. Negative polarity items are sometimes paralleled by Affirmative Polarity Items, that is by items that can appear only in assertive contexts. That is exactly why, we can speak of pairs of Negative and Affirmative Polarity items: -

Any vs. some (I havent any money. / I have some money.) At all vs. somehow/ somewhat (I dont like him at all. / I somehow like him.) Yet vs. already (I havent seen him yet. / I have already seen him.) Any more vs. still (I dont love you any more. / I still love you) Either vs. too (I dont like it, either. / I like it , too.) Hardly ever vs. most of the times ( I hardly ever eat caviar. / I eat caviar most of the times.) Until vs. before (He didnt arrive until 5. / He arrived before 5.) Much vs. a lot (I dont like you much. / I like you a lot.), etc. 1.8. Negative concord / Non-negative concord This subsection attempts to draw a distinction between negative concord languages (such as Romanian) and non-negative concord ones (such as English). Compare the following sentences: (47) I did not see anyone./ I saw no one. (48) N-am vzut pe nimeni. In the case of the sentence under (48) there are two negative words in concord, which is not the case of the sentence under (47). Romanian is therefore a negative concord language and we can safely say that Substandard English that uses double negation exhibits negative concord, as well: (49) I dont need no satisfaction. The examples of double negation that are so frequent in Substandard English need not be, however, mistaken for the so-called ample negatives, that are instances of Standard English: (50) A: You cant really like this poem. B: Not this poem, I dont. (A: Doar nu-i place poezia asta. B: Nu, nu-mi place, nu poezia asta.) The example above is a sample of Standard English, in that it does not in fact contain two negative words in the same sentence. The second negation is somehow independent, it is just a copy of the first one for the sake of emphasis. The sentence under (50) is a rephrased emphatic variant of: (51) No, I dont like this poem. (Nu, nu mi place poezia asta.) 1.9. Conclusion. Key terms. One of the most important issues discussed in this chapter is that of the negative status of a sentence. We have drawn a distinction between affirmative and negative sentences, from a syntactic point of view. Syntactic negation refers to those sentences that have a negative word/ phrase inside them that modifies the whole content of the sentences. Semantic negation is related to the meaning of a sentence or phrase only, without taking into consideration form and structure. The second issue discussed here is connected to the changes performed on affirmative sentences when one needs to transform them into negative ones. From this point of view, it is crucial for one to understand the problem of Polarity Items. Negative Polarity Items are those elements that can appear only in non-assertive contexts. Affirmative Polarity Items are those elements (fewer in number) that appear only in assertive contexts. The third issue tackled here refers to the difference between negative concord and non-negative concord languages: English non-negative concord (does not allow for double negation) Romanian negative concord (negation is made up of two parts) Substandard English negative concord