TALL

& GREEN: Typology for a

Sustainable Urban Future
CTBUH 2008
8th World Congress 3-5 March, Dubai
Editor: Antony Wood
Courtesy of SOM; model
photo by Steinkamp-Ballogg
Photography
W.S. Atkins/Atkins Global
Hamzah &
Yeang KPF
dbox for Cook + Fox
Architects Ian Lambot Make Architects
Congress Proceedings
Title: Tall & Green: Typology for a Sustainable Urban Future
Proceedings of the CTBUH 8th World Congress, held at the
Grand Hyatt Hotel, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, March 3-5, 2008
ISBN: 978-0-939493-25-8
Editor: Antony Wood
Design & Layout: Katharina Holzapfel
Published by: Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
Printed in Dubai by: SYNERGY, P.O. Box 29693, Dubai, UAE
Tel: 04 3394466, Fax: 04 3394467
Copyright 2008 @ Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
Carbon-Neutral Congress
The CTBUH has taken valuable steps to tackle climate change by offsetting the CO2
emissions from the Dubai Congress through a carbon offset scheme organized by Cli-
mate Care. Climate Care began their offset service in 1998 sourcing projects that
reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, making CO2 reductions on behalf of in-
dividuals and companies. Their approach to these matters mirrors the best practice and
energy effciency ethos of the CTBUH 8th World Congress.
To achieve this carbon neutrality the CO2 emissions that are released from the energy
used by the Congress, including delegates international travel, have been calculated.
These CO2 emissions will be offset by Climate Care who fund a variety of different
projects to reduce the equivalent amount of CO2 emissions through:
Renewable energy - this replaces non-renewable fuel such as coal
Energy effciency - this reduces the amount of fuel needed
Forest restoration - this absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere as the trees grow
A proportion of all delegates registration fees have been directed to this initiative. We
would encourage delegates to visit the Climate Care website for further information,
visit: http://climatecare.org
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
Illinois Institute of Technology, S.R. Crown Hall
3360 South State Street
Chicago, IL, 60616
Phone: +1 (312) 909 0253
Fax: +1 (610) 419 0014
Email: info@ctbuh.org
http://www.ctbuh.org/
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 3
Antony Wood
Congress Co-Chair
Congress Proceedings Editor
CTBUH Executive Director
March 2008
Preface
We are entering a new, vital stage in the development of humanity. Whilst the world is slowly waking up to the realities
of the major effects of climate change, there are too few bodies internationally reacting quickly enough to embrace the
changes that are needed to avoid catastrophic results globally. Many are asking is it already too late?
The built environment as a global entity is the largest single contributor to this situation the creation and occupation
of built form and the determining of the relationship between man and inhabitation; predetermining relationships with
transport, infrastructure and quality of life. Cities are the battleground for this fght against catastrophe. On one side of
the world we have the rapid urbanization of predominantly rural populations in developing countries; on the other side we
have changing social demographics (longer life expectancy, increased number of single person households etc.) requiring
massive increases in housing in developed countries.
We stand at a crossroads in this urban development do cities accommodate the growth through further urban / suburban
spread, or become denser, more concentrated entities, reducing consumption of countryside and offering more effciency
in infrastructure provision, transport usage and energy consumption?
The tall building has a crucial role to play in this debate on the urban future. Itself the historical epitome of energy and
consumption excess, the typology has the opportunity to re-invent itself as a model for denser, more sustainable cities;
concentrated centres of work and life activity. Additionally, the fnancial and professional investment in each tall building
project gives the typology an opportunity to push the agenda for sustainable design, experimental technologies and the real
need for post-occupancy monitoring, for the beneft of the built realm as a whole.
The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat the worlds leading international body in the feld of tall buildings
is at the forefront of this push for a more sustainable built form. The CTBUH 8th World Congress brings this debate to
the epicenter of urban construction activity globally Dubai to fnd answers to the questions posed above. As Dubai
has shown through the incredible construction achievements of the last decade or so, there is an energy and vitality here
which, if re-focussed along sustainable principles could develop Dubai into an exemplar to the world for sustainable urban
development.
The papers contained in this publication and presented at the Congress represent the very latest in thinking and develop-
ments in both sustainable and tall building design internationally. It is my deep privilege to be a Co-Chair of the Congress
and present these proceedings to you.
This is a Carbon Neutral Conference
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 4
David Scott
Congress Co-Chair
CTBUH Chairman
March 2008
CT8UH Chairmans Note
On behalf of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat it gives me great pleasure to extend a warm welcome to all
participants in CTBUH 2008; our 8th World Congress. A World Congress is the highlight of the Councils calendar and is
typically held every 5 years. So we are here for three days to share, learn and educate each other about the new and future
best practices for tall buildings, sustainability, and mega projects. We will need to understand these, so that we can help
build the sustainable cities of the future. This will be an enriching experience for all of us.
We all know that the rate of change in the building industry is rapidly increasing. However, occasionally, we need to stop
at events like this and refect on these changes and how they will effect what we need to do, now and in the future.
Over the last 5 years there has been an unprecedented world-wide construction boom in tall buildings and urban development.
In that time there have been signifcant changes to the way we work, and many technical innovations that have made
projects more sustainable and more effcient. The scale of projects has also grown signifcantly; projects are now bigger,
taller, faster and more complex than ever before. There have been some remarkable buildings including the Burj Dubai,
which is now 50% taller than the tallest building in the world.
The building industry has a reputation for reacting slowly to new ideas; yet in 5 years sustainability has gone from optional
to mainstream. This trend will continue as environmentally-conscious clients will demand that their buildings are green
and that their energy-use fgures are in the public domain. We have a long way to go and we need to move quickly and the
purpose of this conference is to help building professionals understand the issues.
We have a great line-up of speakers from all corners of the globe to discuss sustainability in tall buildings and the urban
environment. Unfortunately it will not be possible for the participants to see all 92 speakers, since we are running 3 parallel
tracks for the 3 days of presentations and discussions. However the knowledge from all these speakers are shared in this
875-page proceeding that contains papers from every presentation. Not only do these proceedings help delegates choose
which presentations they want to hear, but they also provide a sound basis for discussion into the future and help to forward
the debate and discussion on many issues.
I would particularly like to thank all the speakers for the time and effort in preparing their papers and presentations, and
would like to thank the Organizing Committee and the staff of the Council for all the hard work that have made this event
possible.
I encourage you to listen, learn, teach, share and have fun and then help to make the world a better place.
This is a Carbon Neutral Conference
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 5
CONGPLSS OvLPv|Lw
Preface: Congress Co-Chair, Antony Wood
CTBUH Chairmans note: Congress Co-Chair, David Scott
Congress Overview + Program
Organizing + Scientifc Committee
Exhibition Plan

3
4
12
16
18
Contents
PLLNAP Pl - TALL 8U|LD|NGS & SUSTA|NA8LL C|T|LS: DU8A|, CH|CAGO, LONDON
Chair: David Scott, CTBUH Chairman
The Sustainable Vision of Dubai
High level representative of Dubai
Chicago: Building a Green City
Mayor Richard Daley and Sadhu Johnston, City of Chicago

Its not what you build, but the place where you build it: Urban Sustainability in London
Peter Rees, City of London Corporation
20
23
26
PLLNAP P2 - THL wOPLDS TALLLST: 8UP1 DU8A|
Chair: Mark Amirault, Emaar
A Vision for the Worlds Tallest
HE Mohamed Ali Alabbar, Emaar
Designing the Burj Dubai
Adrian Smith, Adrian Smith + Gordon Gill

Engineering the Worlds Tallest
William F. Baker, D. Stanton Korista and Lawrence C. Novak , Skidmore Owings & Merrill
34
35
43
PLLNAP P3 - TALL / APT|CULATLD / SUSTA|NA8LL TOwLPS
Chair: Antony Wood, CTBUH Executive Director
Challenging Preconceptions of the High-Rise Typology
Rem Koolhaas, OMA
Towards More Sustainable Tall Buildings
Ken Dalton and Richard John, AECOM / Faber Maunsell

Shanghai World Financial Center: Without Compromise
Paul Katz, Leslie Robertson and SawTeen See, Kohn Pedersen Fox & LERA
54
59
69
Tl - Urban Sustainability
Chair: Alastair Collins, Davis Langdon
From the Tallest to the Greenest - Paradigm Shift in Dubai
Habiba Al Marashi and Jasleen Bhinder, Emirates Environmental Group
Ecoskyscrapers and Ecomimesis: New tall building typologies
Ken Yeang, Llewelyn Davies Yeang
Tall Buildings Sustainability from the bottom up
Alistair Guthrie, Arup

Towards a 21st Century Post Carbon Urbanised Society
Lee Morris, WS Atkins
76
84
95
102
75
53
33
19
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 6
T4 - Sustainability: The 8ottom Line
Chair: Stephen De Simone, De Simone Engineers
The Economics of Sustainable Tall Buildings
Alastair Collins, Steve Watts and Mark McAlister, Davis Langdon LLP + CB Richard Ellis
Delivering Sustainable Tall Buildings
Michael Deane, Turner

Green or Grey? The Aesthetics of Tall Building Sustainability
Antony Wood, Illinois Institute of Technology / CTBUH

Global Environmental Contextualism
Adrian Smith, Gordon Gill and Robert Forest, Adrian Smith + Gordon Gill Architecture
176
186
194
203
T5 - Sustainable MLP
Chair: Geoff Hardy, AECOM / Bassett
Advances in Elevator Technology: Sustainable and Energy Implications
Johannes De Jong, KONE
Greening Your Skyscraper: Case Study in Improving the Environmental Performance of an Existing Skyscraper
Lester Partridge and Eoin Loughnane, AECOM / Bassett

Natural ventilation of tall buildings options and limitations
David Etheridge and Brian Ford, University of Nottingham
Microclimate Study of a City in Hot and Humid Climate
Seifu Bekele, Ian Jones and Gokul K. Rajamani, Vipac Engineers & Scientists Ltd
212
218
226
233
175
211
T2 - Sustainable Structural Systems
Chair: Ahmad Rahimian, WSP Cantur Seinuk
Sustainable Tall Buildings Some Introductory Remarks
Werner Sobek and Heiko Trumpf, Werner Sobek Ingenieure
Tall Buildings: Sustainable Design Opportunities
Akbar Tamboli, Leonard Joseph, Umakant Vadnere and Xiao Xu, Thornton Tomasetti

Structural Sustainability in the Gulf Fact and Fiction
Kerry Galbraith, KEO International Consultants
Material-Saving Design Strategies for Tall Building Structures
Kyoung Sun Moon, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
114
120
127
132
T3 - Middle Last Lxperiences
Chair: Richard Marshall, Woods Bagot
Harnessing Energy in Tall Buildings: Bahrain World Trade Center and Beyond
Shaun Killa and Richard F. Smith, WS Atkins
A Postcard from Dubai - Design and Construction of Some of the Tallest Buildings in the World
Andy Davids, Hyder Consulting

Rotating Tower Dubai
David Fisher, Dynamic Architecture Group

Skyscrapers in the context of Amman, Jordan
Samer Abu Ghazaleh, University of Jordan
144
151
159
166
113
143
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 7
T6 - Asian Lxperiences
Chair: Ahmad Abdelrazaq, Samsung Corporation
Urban Development To Combat Climate Change: Dongtan Eco-city and Risk Management Strategies
Peter Head and Gary Lawrence, Arup
Towards Zero Energy: A Case Study of the Pearl River Tower, Guangzhou, China
Roger Frechette and Russell Gilchrist, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP

Sustainable Design in South Korea and Vietnam: Referencing Culture Through Modern Architecture
Matthias A. Olt and James P. Rothwell, Callison

Addressing Indias Local Concerns With A Sustainable Approach To Building Tall
Sudhir Jambhekar and Peter Weingarten, FX Fowle
244
252
263
272
243
T7 - Sustainable Themes
Chair: Erin Rae Hoffer, Autodesk
Overview of Sustainable Design Factors in High-Rise Buildings
Mir Ali and Paul Armstrong, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
NIST Metrics and Tools for Tall and Green Buildings
S. Shyam Sunder, Barbara C. Lippiat and Jennifer F. Helgeson, NIST

Five Energy Generations of Tall Buildings: A Historical Analysis of Energy Consumption in High Rise Buildings
Philip Oldfeld, Dario Trabucco and Antony Wood, University of Nottingham + IUAV University Venice + IIT/CTBUH

The Vertical Farm: The sky-scraper as vehicle for a sustainable urban agriculture
Dickson Despommier and Eric Ellingsen, Columbia University + Illinois Institute of Technology
282
292
300
311
281
T8 - Lnergy Creation at Height
Chair: Stephen Oehme, Hyder Consulting
Harvesting Wind Power from Tall Buildings
Roy Denoon, Brad Cochran, David Banks and Graeme Wood, CPP
Sky-Sourced Sustainability - How Super Tall Buildings Can Beneft From Height
Luke Leung and Peter Weismantle, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP
Friend or Foe, Wind at Height
Peter Irwin, John Kilpatrick and Andrea Frisque, RWDI

Innovations in Sustainability at Height: Experimental Tall Buildings
Peter Land, Illinois Institute of Technology
320
328
336
343
319
T9 - North American Lxperiences
Chair: Tim Johnson, NBBJ
Provocations: Sustainable Architecture Today
Robert Fox, Cook+Fox Architects
A Tale of Two Cities: Collaborative Innovations for Sustainable Towers
John Lahey, Martin Wolf, Ron Klemencic, and Ola Johansson, Solomon Cordwell Buenz & MKA

San Francisco: Promoting Tall Buildings Through Sustainable Incentives
Jeffrey Heller, Clark Manus, and Craig Nikitas, Heller Manus + San Francisco Planning Department

The Bow: Unique Diagrid Structural System for a Sustainable Tall Building
Barry Charnish and Terry McDonnell, Halcrow Yolles
354
362
373
380
353
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 8
Tl0 - 8ur| Dubai
Chair: Nicholas E. Billotti, Turner International LLC
Brief on the Construction Planning of the Burj Dubai Project, Dubai, UAE
Ahmad Abdelrazaq, Kyung Jun Kim and Jae Ho Kim, Samsung Engineering & Construction
Burj Dubai: Life Safety and Crisis Response Planning Enhancements
Jon Evenson and Aaron Vanney, Rolf Jensen & Associates
Faade Access for the Burj Dubai and other Articulating Towers
Lee Herzog, Citadel / Lerch Bates
The Role of Peer Review in the Foundation Design of the Worlds Tallest Buildings
Clyde N. Baker, Tony A. Kiefer, Steven W. Nicoson, and Khaldoun Fahoum, AECOM / STS
386
395
403
408
385
Tl3 - Alternative Design Thinking
Chair: David Scott, CTBUH Chairman
Elegance, Stature & Meaning in Tall Building Design
Hani Rashid, Asymptote
Form and Skin: Antidotes to Transparency in High Rise Buildings
Ken Shuttleworth, Make

The Tall Building, Reconsidered.....
Simon Allford, Paul Monaghan and Jeremy Melvin, Allford Hall Monaghan Morris

Wanted: Tall Buildings Less Iconic, More Specifc
Jeanne Gang, Studio Gang
476
481
485
496
475
Tll - |nstant Cities: Korea
Chair: Charles Reid, Gale International
New Songdo City The Making of a New Green City
Christine Todd Whitman, Charles Reid, James von Klemperer, Josh Radoff and Anthony Roy, Whitman Strategy
Group + Gale International + Kohn Pedersen Fox + YRG
Structural System of North-East Asia Trade Tower in Korea
Kwang Chung, David Scott, Do Hyun Kim, In Ho Ha and Ki Dong Park, DongYang + Arup + DICT
Panel Discussion: New Songdo City
Charles Reid, Christie Whitman, James Von Klemperer, Robert Fox and David Scott
Structural Schematic Design of a Tall Building in Asan using the Diagrid System
Kim Jong Soo, Kim Young Sik and Lho Seung Hee, CS Structural Engineering
416
425
433
Tl2 - |nternational Tall Overview
Chair: Sang Dae Kim, Korea University
Tall Building Design Intelligence: An International Perspective
Stephan Reinke, Woods Bagot
The International Skyscraper: Observations
Georges Binder, Buildings & Data SA

Dubai Tower 29, Structure and Form
Mahjoub Elnimeiri, Illinois Institute of Technology

Tall Buildings in the Netherlands: Constraints to Innovation
Frits Scheublin, Eindhoven University of Technology
442
449
459
469
415
441
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 9
Tl4 - Paades & Structural Dynamics
Chair: Ibrahim Al Saudi, Saudi Oger
Morphological scheme of second-generation non-orthogonal high-rises
Karel Vollers, Delft University
Nonlinear Dynamic Earthquake Analysis of Skyscrapers
Sam Lee, Guangzhou Scientifc Computing Consultants

Evaluations of the dynamic properties for a residential tall building in Korea
Ji Young Kim, Dae Young Kim and Sang Dae Kim, Daewoo E&C + Korea University

Control Effect of Hydraulic Dampers Installed in High-rise Building Observed during Earthquakes
Kan Shimizu, Satoshi Orui, Haruhiko Kurino, Yukihiro Omika and Norihide Koshika, Kajima Corporation
504
513
522
529
503
Tl5 - Luropean Lxperiences
Chair: Jan Klerks, Dutch Council on Tall Buildings
Steel-Concrete-Steel: Unique Hybrids at London Tallest
Kamran Moazami, John Parker and Rodolfo Giannini, WSP Cantor Seinuk
Structural Design Innovation: Russia Tower and Other Tall Collaborations
Robert Halvorson, Halvorson and Partners

Building, Rebuilding or Renovating Contextual Sustainable Tall Buildings in a Historical European City Center
Eric Ysebrant and Isidore Zielonka, ASSAR Architects + ART & BUILD Architect

The Need for Vision: Tall Buildings in Dublin
Brian Duffy, Traynor OToole
538
545
555
567
537
Tl6 - |nterior & Social |ssues
Chair: Sabah Al Rayes, PACE Consulting
Sky courts as transitional space: Using Space syntax as a predictive theory
Jason Pomeroy, Broadway Malyan
Noise In High Rise Buildings
Ross Palmer, Palmer Acoustics

Noise and Vibration Sources and Mitigation in Green Buildings
Peter Swift and Matthew Stead, ACECOM / Bassett

Understanding the Demise and Transformation of Chicagos High-Rise Social Housing
Robert Lau and Bradford Hunt, Roosevelt University
580
588
596
601
579
Tl7 - Pire & Safety (|)
Chair: Carl Baldassarra, Schirmer Engineering
Measuring Optimum and Code-Plus Design Criteria For the High Rise Environment
Robert Solomon, NFPA
Emergency Egress from Ultra Tall Buildings
Richard Bukowski, NIST
Alternative Evacuation Design Solutions For High Rise Buildings
Simon Lay, WSP Group

Building Faade or Fire Safety Faade?
Daniel OConnor, Schirmer Engineering
612
620
629
635
611
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 l0
Tl8 - USA Lxperiences
Chair: Ron Klemencic, Magnusson Klemencic
Hearst Headquarters: Innovation and Heritage in Harmony
Ahmad Rahimian and Yoram Eilon, WSP Cantor Seinuk
A Statement in Steel: The New York Times Building
Thomas Z. Scarangello, Kyle E. Krall and Jeffrey A. Callow, Thornton Tomasetti

Tall, Gray, and Green: Reinforced Concrete Construction in the Pacifc Northwest
Martin Maingot, Cary Kopczynski & Company

Tall Structural Sustainability in an Island Context: The Hawaii Experience
Steve Baldridge, Baldridge & Associates Structural Engineering
648
654
660
669
Tl9 - Pinancial & Other Aspects
Chair: Cecily Davis, DLA Piper
Building cost and eco-cost aspects of tall buildings
Peter De Jong and Hans Wamelink, Delft University
The Synergy between Value Engineering and Sustainable Construction
Abdulaziz S. Al-Yousef, Al-Yousef Value Engineering
Selling Luxury Residential High-rise; Pre-sales Through Completion
Brenda Calvin, The Calvin Group

Tall Tales: A Century of Exhibiting Tall Buildings
Wayne LaBar and Antony Wood, Liberty Science Center + Illinois Institute of Technology / CTBUH
680
690
698
707
647
679
T20 - Pire & Safety (||)
Chair: William Maibusch, Turner
Pearl River Tower, Guangzhou: Fire Protection Strategies for an Energy Effcient High-Rise Building
Fang Li, James Antell and Martin Reiss, Rolf Jensen & Associates
Fire Engineering Super-Tall: A New Approach to Escape
Martin Kealy, Schirmer Engineering

Protecting the Stair Enclosure in Tall Buildings Impacted by Stack Effect
Mike Ferreira and John Cutonilli, Hughes Associates

Sustainable steel buildings through Natural Fire Safety Concept
Grardy Jean-Claude, Arcelor Mittal
716
723
732
739
T2l - Lxperiences Asia & Australia
Chair: Brett Taylor, Bornhorst & Ward
Towers and Urbanism in the context of China
Stefan Krummeck, Terry Farrell & Partners
Building Brand Identity: Sustainable yet Iconic High-rise Design for Chinas Power Companies
Ming Zhang, MulvannyG2

Sustainable Groundscrapers and Megaplate Towers
Rocco Bressi and Darran Kindracuk, Bovis Lend Lease

Looking for Cultural Response and Sustainability in the Design of a High-Rise Tower in the Middle East
Hatice Szer and Ray Clark, Nigde University + Illinois Institute of Technology
748
755
762
771
715
747
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 ll
Poster Presentations
Finite Element Modelling of Structural Steel Frame in Fire
A Allam A. and Ali Nadjai, SCADIA + Ulster University
Evolving Technology for Design and Construction of Tall Concrete Structures
Hanns Baumann, Baumann Research and Development
Effect of Duct Width in Ducted Photovoltaic Facades
Abdel Rahman Elbakheit, Shawir Sustainable Architecture
Application of High-Strength and Corrosion-Resistant ASTM A1035 Steel Reinforcing Bar in Concrete High-Rise Construction
Salem Faza, J. Kwok and O. Salah, MMFX Technologies + Zamil Holding
Design Strategies for Environmentally Sustainable Residential Skyscrapers
Sabrina Fazlic, Cardiff University
Estimation of the initial stiffness and moment resistance of steel and composite joints
Aleksander Kozlowski, Rysard Kowalczyk and Marian Gizejowsk, University Rzeszow + University Beira + University
Warsaw
Mile High Tower: Concept of Vertical City
Masayoshi Nakai, Takashi Nishimura, Akihiko Ueda, Daishi Yoshimoto and Tatsuo Okamoto, Takenaka Corporation
A Guide For Evaluating Plans For Tall Buildings
David Pilzer, Israel Ministry of the Interior
Developing Habitable Wind Environments
Tony Rofail, Windtech Consultants Pty Ltd
Oppressive Impact of High Rise Offce Buildings on Inhabitants through an Istanbul Case Study
Hande nl, Kotaroh Hirate and Munakata Jun, University of Tokyo + Chiba University
780
790
795
802
808
819
826
833
841
847
779
Sponsor Adverts 855
CT8UH Organization & Corporate Member Listing 866
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 26
Biogr aphy
Born in Swansea, Peter studied architecture and city planning at university in London and Cardiff. His previous jobs
include periods with the Historic Buildings Division of the Greater London Council (1971-72); in private practice with
Gordon Cullen, Townscape and Planning Consultant (1973-75); at the national Department of the Environment (1975-79);
and as Assistant Chief Planning Offcer to the London Borough of Lambeth (1979-85). Peter joined the City of London
Corporation in 1985. He directs the Department of Planning & Transportation and his responsibilities include supervising
the preparation and approval of planning policies for the City and negotiating with developers on major planning applica-
tions.
As the British delegate on Council of Europe Working Parties, Peter studied Suitable New Uses for Historic Buildings
and The Economics of Building Conservation (1976-1979). While a member of the European Commission ROME
Network he studied the effects of Technology on the Future of European Cities (1989-1992). He was a trustee of the Build-
ing Conservation Trust (1985-1991); a member of the Steering Group for the London World City study (1990-1991)
and for the London Pride Partnership (1994-98); a member of the London Offce Review Panel since 1996; and sat on the
Editorial Advisory Board of Property Week magazine in 1998 and 2002. A founder member and Director of the British
Council for Offces since 1990, Peter received their 2003 Presidents Award for presiding over one of the most extensive
periods of redevelopment in the Citys long history. He was awarded the 2004 Barbara Miller Award from the Faculty of
Building for outstanding work in the feld of construction.
Peter lectures throughout the world. During 2006 he was a juror for the fnal post-graduate project review at the Yale School
of Architecture and delivered a presentation at the CTBUH Conference in Chicago. In May 2007 he joined the panel for a
series of seminars on The Global Citys Financial Core at MoMA and other venues in New York.
Peterwynne.Rees@
cityofondon.gov.uk.
Its not what you build but the place where you build it
London: World City in a Sustainable Location
Peter Wynne Rees
The City Planning Officer, City of London Corporation, Department of Planning & Transportation, City of London, PO Box 270,
Guildhall, London EC2P 2EJ. Tel: +44 20 7332 1710, Fax: +44 20 7332 1806, Email: Peterwynne.Rees@cityoflondon.gov.uk.
Abstract
The three factors which ensure a successful property acquisition or development have always been location, location
and location. This is equally true for sustainable developments. It is vitally important to create buildings which
minimise their energy consumption, environmental impact and use of limited resources, but the means by which the
occupants come and go is a much more critical determinant of overall sustainability. This paper argues that a wise
property developer who wishes to avoid leaving a clumsy trail of carbon footprints across the planet will therefore
choose sustainable development locations.
Keywords: Sustainability, Urban Design, Transportation, London
Introduction
Is the earth getting warmer? Is man the cause of the
Problem? Is there anything we can do to help?
Questions which pose an increasing challenge to the
worlds scientists and leaders. Whatever ones answers it
is inescapable that the worlds natural resources have
limited reserves and mankind must conserve the stocks of
land, fossil fuels and water in order to survive.
Air travel accounts for 2-3% of mans annual
carbon use and has been widely demonised for its
ecological damage but little is made of the carbon
produced by use of the internet which is variously
estimated at between 1 and 8%. Our increasing reliance
on imported foodstuffs and manufactured goods means
that the worlds shipping industry uses 4-6% of the
carbon and adds a high atmospheric pollution impact as a
result of the use of dirty bunker fuel. The globalisation
of manufacturing has led to businesses moving
production to countries which offer cheaper labour and
lower environmental standards in order to reduce costs
and increase profits. Thus, the miracle of Chinas
manufacturing expansion has been reliant on cheap and
dirty coal-fired energy the west imports cheaper
products from the east and exports its pollution in return.
An insatiable demand for hardwoods has now been
exacerbated by the rapidly developing market in biomass
fuels. This has led to the accelerating destruction of
Indonesian forests and peat-land fires which produce no
less than 14% of man's yearly carbon emissions.
Even in the face of such statistics of doom we are
encouraged to believe that those involved in the
development process are the chief perpetrators of
carbon-use evil. After all, we are told, buildings account
for over 40% of the man-made carbon load. This is hardly
surprising, however, as people spend most of their time in
buildings. Its people that waste energy, not buildings!
The three factors which ensure a successful
property acquisition or development have always been
location, location and location. This is equally true for
sustainable developments. It doesnt matter how green
your building if the majority of its occupants have to rely
on the automobile to reach it. The energy efficiency of a
business is much more dependent on local climatic
impact than on the power profligacy of their workforce. A
development sited in a suburban or unattractive location
fails to provide its users with multiple reasons for their
journey and derives less value from the energy used to
access it. It is vitally important to create buildings which
minimise their energy consumption, environmental
impact and use of limited resources. But the means by
which the occupants come and go is a much more critical
determinant of overall sustainability. Minimising the
access and cooling energy consumption of a
development will make a considerably greater
contribution to global survival than adding any amount of
environmental gimmickry such as solar panels in
northern latitudes and windmills. Therefore, a wise
property developer who wishes to avoid leaving a clumsy
trail of carbon footprints across the planet will choose
sustainable development locations.
The Curse of Decentralisation
Figure 1. City of London Skyline as designed by Christopher Wren,
early 18th Century. (Source: City of London Corporation)
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 27
Its not what you build but the place where you build it
London: World City in a Sustainable Location
Peter Wynne Rees
The City Planning Officer, City of London Corporation, Department of Planning & Transportation, City of London, PO Box 270,
Guildhall, London EC2P 2EJ. Tel: +44 20 7332 1710, Fax: +44 20 7332 1806, Email: Peterwynne.Rees@cityoflondon.gov.uk.
Abstract
The three factors which ensure a successful property acquisition or development have always been location, location
and location. This is equally true for sustainable developments. It is vitally important to create buildings which
minimise their energy consumption, environmental impact and use of limited resources, but the means by which the
occupants come and go is a much more critical determinant of overall sustainability. This paper argues that a wise
property developer who wishes to avoid leaving a clumsy trail of carbon footprints across the planet will therefore
choose sustainable development locations.
Keywords: Sustainability, Urban Design, Transportation, London
Introduction
Is the earth getting warmer? Is man the cause of the
Problem? Is there anything we can do to help?
Questions which pose an increasing challenge to the
worlds scientists and leaders. Whatever ones answers it
is inescapable that the worlds natural resources have
limited reserves and mankind must conserve the stocks of
land, fossil fuels and water in order to survive.
Air travel accounts for 2-3% of mans annual
carbon use and has been widely demonised for its
ecological damage but little is made of the carbon
produced by use of the internet which is variously
estimated at between 1 and 8%. Our increasing reliance
on imported foodstuffs and manufactured goods means
that the worlds shipping industry uses 4-6% of the
carbon and adds a high atmospheric pollution impact as a
result of the use of dirty bunker fuel. The globalisation
of manufacturing has led to businesses moving
production to countries which offer cheaper labour and
lower environmental standards in order to reduce costs
and increase profits. Thus, the miracle of Chinas
manufacturing expansion has been reliant on cheap and
dirty coal-fired energy the west imports cheaper
products from the east and exports its pollution in return.
An insatiable demand for hardwoods has now been
exacerbated by the rapidly developing market in biomass
fuels. This has led to the accelerating destruction of
Indonesian forests and peat-land fires which produce no
less than 14% of man's yearly carbon emissions.
Even in the face of such statistics of doom we are
encouraged to believe that those involved in the
development process are the chief perpetrators of
carbon-use evil. After all, we are told, buildings account
for over 40% of the man-made carbon load. This is hardly
surprising, however, as people spend most of their time in
buildings. Its people that waste energy, not buildings!
The three factors which ensure a successful
property acquisition or development have always been
location, location and location. This is equally true for
sustainable developments. It doesnt matter how green
your building if the majority of its occupants have to rely
on the automobile to reach it. The energy efficiency of a
business is much more dependent on local climatic
impact than on the power profligacy of their workforce. A
development sited in a suburban or unattractive location
fails to provide its users with multiple reasons for their
journey and derives less value from the energy used to
access it. It is vitally important to create buildings which
minimise their energy consumption, environmental
impact and use of limited resources. But the means by
which the occupants come and go is a much more critical
determinant of overall sustainability. Minimising the
access and cooling energy consumption of a
development will make a considerably greater
contribution to global survival than adding any amount of
environmental gimmickry such as solar panels in
northern latitudes and windmills. Therefore, a wise
property developer who wishes to avoid leaving a clumsy
trail of carbon footprints across the planet will choose
sustainable development locations.
The Curse of Decentralisation
Figure 1. City of London Skyline as designed by Christopher Wren,
early 18th Century. (Source: City of London Corporation)
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 28
For over 20 years journalists have been predicting
that we would all be working from home in less than 10
years time. This was probably because home can be a
good place to write if the family is elsewhere!
However, most people regard work as a social activity.
The workplace is an indispensable source of friendship,
gossip and even romance. As the cohesion of the family
declines in western society so teamwork at the office
becomes an ever more important social focus as well as a
means to increase creativity and productivity. The hottest
gossip is always exchanged face-to-face, rather than by
phone or internet, and so those who do not work in the
office are often the last to know the news. It is often
assumed that working at, or near, ones home uses less
energy than going to the office. However, the central
concentration of specialised activities in places accessed
by public transport and offering a wide range of services
and leisure attractions is not only highly efficient but also
more stimulating for our intellectual, emotional and
sexual needs.
Urbanisation is often cited as a principal cause of
increasing energy consumption and potential global
demise. The major cities are portrayed as unsustainable
squanderers of energy and resources while decentralised
rural communities are held up as beacons to future
survival. In the days when the rural hinterlands produced
food, materials and labour for the cities this was probably
true. However, in a technologically advanced society
rural living becomes increasingly unsustainable and
dependent upon subsidy from major cities. The SUV
lifestyle of the modern countryside produces ever
greater demands for infrastructure, welfare services and
energy. Earning ones living as a consultant or financial
dealer from a cottage in a remote village has become
possible as a result of the internet. But the belief that the
need to travel is reduced by electronic communication
does not hold true in practice - contacts and opportunities
identified via the corruption prone web increasingly need
to be confirmed and developed face-to-face. The internet
itself is a large consumer of energy (a major internet
switching hub uses as much power as a commercial jet
aircraft at constant take-off thrust). The sought after
country lifestyle of the middle classes depends upon the
redistribution of limited social and infrastructural
resources away from deprived urban areas. Suburban
settlements are little better, with huge amounts of energy
squandered to overcome settlement densities too low to
support effective public transport and to combat social
boredom. It is only the city centre (downtown or where
its at) that is throbbing with energy you can actually
absorb.
Since homo-sapiens is a social species it follows
that we work and play most happily in groups. As the
complexity of the task or speciality of the interest
increases it follows that those with similar skills or
knowledge will be more widely spread. Thus, we have to
travel further to reach a gathering of like-minded
companions. While the soccer enthusiast may be able to
exchange stories in a local bar, the professional
concerned by the sustainability of high-rise buildings
may need to travel across the globe to an international
conference in order to exchange information. It is
pointless to measure an individuals carbon footprint
purely on distance travelled and mode of transport used.
Any meaningful analysis should take account of the
purpose of the journey and the benefit which results. A
weekend jaunt to an eastern European city purely to
consume large quantities of cheaper alcohol cannot be
measured in the same units as the trans-global mercy
dash of an earthquake search and recovery team.
Sustainable Commuting
Sustainable movement is frequently promoted as a
need to move away from vehicles with thirsty internal
combustion engines towards fuel-efficient, hybrid or
electric cars. Recent research has questioned the carbon
efficiency of such wisdom by demonstrating that the total
embedded energy of a vehicle from drawing-board to
scrap-yard vastly outweighs the impact of its fuel
consumption. Measuring this full life-cycle carbon
footprint produced some surprising results. The Toyota
Prius hybrid car with its complex design, low-volume
Figure 2. View of London Wall, 1970s. (Source: City of London
Corporation)
Figure 3. View of the City of London today, from the City Planning
Office. (Source: City of London Corporation)
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 29
components and toxic batteries only managed a miserable
93rd position in the table of carbon efficiency, way
behind a Porsche 911 at 23rd and out of sight of the
unexpected winner. First place went to a notorious
gas-guzzling SUV, the Jeep Wrangler - a simple long
used design with robust longevity and recyclable
components.
Car commuters are also encouraged to switch to
motor-cycles or scooters to reduce their carbon load and
speed their journey through rush-hour traffic jams.
However, the adage 4 wheels bad, 2 wheels good does
not hold true if the rider was a former user of public
transport or else clocks-up greatly increased mileage on
their nimble new steed. In London we are seeing annually
increased sales of powered 2-wheelers of as much as 50%
and virtually all of these new riders are former train or
bus passengers a backward step encouraged by
exemption from the Congestion Charge and free on-street
parking. Even a mountain bike rider with all the special
protective kit and clothing which completes their newly
fashionable image is carrying a substantial in-built carbon
penalty when compared to the rapid-transit user or
pedestrian.
Making Sustainable Places
Across the globe City planners are attempting to
create settlement patterns of optimised critical mass in
order to achieve communities which are environmentally,
socially and economically sustainable. This requires the
achievement of population levels and densities which are
adequate to support the desired social and physical
infrastructure. A primary school needs a local catchment
population of about 2,000 within a 15 minute walk. At the
other extreme a full-time opera house probably needs
over 5 million people within a 1 hour journey by public
transport. A world financial centre will need to trawl a
vast regional population of at least 20 million and import
specialist skills from around the globe in order to be
sustainable.
The design of balanced communities is not a recent
pursuit. In the 19th century Sir Ebenezer Howard and the
Garden City Movement pioneered the creation of
settlements limited in size to 30,000 40,000 people and
separated by open countryside. Thus, the inhabitants
would enjoy the benefits of urban living while having
easy access to nature and rural recreation. Each town was
split into 5 or 6 neighbourhoods of 5,000 inhabitants
around a town centre and linked by rapid mass transit
systems to neighbouring towns so that they would form a
larger social city.
In the UK today, these ideas are influencing the
Governments Eco-towns Programme which aims to
provide part of the targeted 3 million new carbon-neutral
Figure 4. The proposed Heron Tower, London, designed by Kohn
Pedersen Fox Architects (Source: KPF)
Figure 5. The proposed 122 Leadenhall Street Tower, London,
designed by Richard Rogers Partnership (Source: RRP)
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 30
homes by 2020. Unlike the New Towns Programme of
the 1950s-1970s, there is now greater recognition that
towns can only achieve a limited level of self-sufficiency.
Increased personal mobility and the desire for greater
choice means that fewer people live and work in the same
neighbourhood. They change jobs with increasing
frequency as businesses rise and fall on the winds of the
global economy. The Eco-towns will be connected by
efficient public transport links to form clusters of
opportunity and critical mass.
While these techniques for the creation of balanced
communities and sustainable places are appropriate for
meeting the vast majority of settlement needs they
struggle to cope with the creation of new centres of
excellence. Whether the centre specialises in
higher-education, nightlife or global finance it is almost
impossible to guarantee the creation of a world-beating
challenger at a new location. This accounts for the
longevity of tried and tested centres such as Cambridge,
Soho and the City of London. In these cases the challenge
is not to create sustainable places but to make the places
sustainable.
London Sustained Success
London is a city which has remained successful
over 2,000 years of organic development and growth. The
City of London endured as the centre of trade while the
City of Westminster was the centre of the nation. These
two adjacent but separate cities, together with a collection
of neighbouring villages, coalesced to form the basis for a
world city of the 21st century with a population of 8
million. Greater London is governed by 33 separate
municipalities, including the City of London, with
strategic coordination of land use and transportation
overseen by the Mayor of London. Although there are
only 9,000 residents within The City it is able to attract
the highest levels of professional skill - to complete its
daily workforce of 350,000 - from a population of 20
million living in the south-east region of England. This
daily migration is handled by sustainable forms of
transport. Over 90% of the commuting workers arrive by
train or bus and less than 5% by car - the remainder cycle
or walk to work.
London is a polycentric and polycultural city.
Although widely known as a world financial centre, The
City also houses global concentrations of insurance and
shipping business. In addition it is the principal legal
centre of the UK and home of the internationally
acclaimed Barbican cultural centre. Westminster has
Figure 6. The proposed Pinnacle Tower (centre left) within the City of
London cluster of high-rise buildings. Designed by Kohn Pedersen
Fox Architects. (Source: KPF)
Figure 8. The proposed City of London cluster of high-rise
buildings, as seen from Waterloo Bridge. (Source: City of London
Corporation)
Figure 7. The proposed 20 Fenchurch Street Tower, designed by
Rafael Vinoly Architects, with the City of London cluster beyond.
(Source: Rafael Vinoly Architects)
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 31
equally powerful centres of excellence in higher
education, nightlife, theatre and the media. Other parts of
the metropolis offer many urban villages with
distinctive character and specialised activities. The
population is truly cosmopolitan with over 300 languages
being spoken in Londons schools. This rich mix of
activities and cultures has produced a world city with
unrivalled creativity and a unique ability to adapt to
change fundamental requirements for a sustainable
future.
Business activity improves its efficiency and
product quality through the competition which results
from a concentration of trading activity. The cheapest and
best bananas are to be found in a street famed for the sale
of bananas. So it is with financial services and hence the
continuing success of the City of London. In order to
further increase the density of activity and, thereby, the
competitiveness of the financial markets The City needs
more floorspace. Since there are no longer any
significantly under-developed sites in this readily
accessible financial centre the only way to meet the need
for expansion is through the construction of a cluster of
towers which includes our new iconic mascot - the
Gherkin.
The buildings most frequently refurbished and reclad
are the tallest buildings in The City. Lower buildings are
usually demolished for complete redevelopment of the site
while many of the towers from the 1970s are stripped back
to their basic structure and refitted with new services and
Figure 9. 30 St. Mary Axe, also known as the Gherkin, designed by
Foster and Partners and completed in 2004. (Source: City of London
Corporation)
Figure 10. Citypoint Tower London. First completed in 1967, an
extensive refurbishment, designed by Sheppard Robson and
completed in 2000, increased the floorplates and added height to the
top floor. (Source: City of London Corporation)
Figure 11. Originally completed in 1970, the former London Stock
Exchange Tower has been renovated and reclad in glass - a design by
Nicholas Grimshaw Architects. (Source Nicholas Grimshaw Architects)
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008 32
redesigned exterior elevations. This retention of a high
proportion of the buildings embedded energy and the
adaptability of the structure make a significant contribution
to the sustainability of this building type. There are also
useful trends in the recycling of demolition materials - with
the best projects achieving levels of up to 96% - and to the
use of recycled materials for the construction of new
buildings. Green roofs, renewable source energy and a return
to natural ventilation all make their contribution to our
ecological credentials - as does the increased density of new
developments.
Nevertheless, the factor which achieves the greatest
separation of energy use when comparing the City with
other financial business locations such as Frankfurt,
suburban business parks or rural home-working is the
overriding dependence upon public transport to access the
widest skill base. Add to this energy efficient powerhouse of
world finance a broadening range of supporting hotel, retail
and leisure facilities together with the construction of
architecturally outstanding buildings and attractive pocket
parks and the historic brand of the City shows that its 2,000
year continuum of change is stronger than ever.
Conclusion
A sustainable location for commercial development
has a temperate climate, good public transport, a
multi-skilled and polycultural workforce and a stimulating
social and physical environment. Such a location would be
the ideal site for a successful city and probably already is.
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008
Luke Leung
As an Associate Partner in Building Services/Sustainable Engineering Department of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP,
Mr. Leung leads a MEP building service team from conception to construction for large and tall buildings. He works as
a MEP team leader to incorporate the most sustainable, innovative and sensible solutions according to the needs of each
project. Additionally, he is a member of ASHRAE Technical Committee 9.12 on Tall Buildings, Chairman on ASHRAE
seminars and forums in High-rise Residential Design and Sky Sourced Sustainability etc., a member of Chicago
Council on High Rise Building (CCHRB), LEED accredited professional, California Association of Building Energy Con-
sultants Certifed Energy Plans Examiner, Chicago Energy Code Energy Consultant and has won multiple design awards.
He is currently the MEP team leader on a confdential tower, the potentially tallest building in USA and also Burj Dubai,
the tallest building in the world. Developed one of the frst active stack effect management system in super tall buildings.
Currently he is working with top professionals and fre department in Chicago in enhancing fre fghting strategies for
tall buildings in the city. He has an MBA from The University of Chicago, a MS and BAE from The Pennsylvania State
University.
His prior experience included: ZhengZhou Greenland Plaza , a new mixed-use development. The 280 meter tower, includ-
ing a 5 stars Marriott hotel, class A offce, retail and entertainment, will be the tallest building in Western China; renovation
of 230 M Renaissance Center (General Motors Global HQ) in Detroit, the tallest building in Detroit and largest renovation
in the country at the time; Jinta Tower in TianJin, 335 M tall tower, potentially the tallest in the city; Nanjing Greenland
Tower, 380 M tall mixed use tower in Nanjing, etc.
Peter A. Weismantle
Peter A. Weismantle, is an Associate Partner in the Chicago offce of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP (SOM). As a Senior
Technical Architect, he focuses on mixed-use and multi-phased projects, specializing in super-tall towers for projects in
Europe, Asia, the Middle East and the United States.
Peters career began at SOM in 1977. Upon completion of Chicagos 1.8 million sf McCormick Place Exposition Center
Expansion in 1987, he relocated to assist in the establishment of the SOM London offce. In the six years he worked in the
UK, Peter participated in major projects in London including the Broadgate, Ludgate and Canary Wharf developments.
Upon his return to Chicago in 1993, he assumed the primary architectural technical design role on the 421m tall, 3.0 mil-
lion sf Jin Mao Tower in Shanghai. Following that, Peter also worked on the initial design of the 92 story, 2.6 million sf
Trump International Hotel and Tower Chicago. Beginning with SOMs successful competition entry in mid-2003, Peter
has directed the architectural technical design of Burj Dubai. This 5.0 million sf, super-tall, mixed-use tower located in
Dubai, UAE is comprised of residential, commercial, hotel and retail areas.
Currently, Peter is working on several major projects including 300 meter super-tall towers planned for Shanghai and Wen-
zhou, China, a 5.0 million sf mixed-use development in Dallas and a 575 meter super-tall hotel in Las Vegas.
Peter received a Bachelor of Arts from Lehigh University and a Master of Architecture from the University of Pennsylva-
nia, Graduate School of Fine Arts.
Luke.Leung@som.com Peter.Weismantle@som.com
Sky-Sourced Sustainability - How Super Tall Buildings Can Benefit From Height
Luke Leung PE
1
and Peter Weismantle AIA, RIBA
2
1/2
Associate Partner, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP, 224 S. Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60604
Abstract
Utilizing the earth and near-grade environment as a source of energy has historically been a common practice. Beyond
solar and wind, designers do not usually look towards the sky as the source of additional benefits. The objective of this
paper is to make tall building designers more aware of the additional sources of sustainability in the sky, how these
sources change with altitude and how this knowledge can benefit the design, construction and operation of tall
buildings.
Exterior environmental factors including temperature, pressure/air density, solar, wind, moisture and their relationships
with altitude are discussed. Selected approaches are suggested on how to benefit from them. Since current energy Codes
and Green building standards do not address the issue of environmental variations with altitude; the sky has potential
to offer unique energy saving opportunities and possibly add to the quantified sustainability of a tall building.
Where possible, a 1 km (3,281 ft) tall tower in Dubai is used as an example for illustration.
Keywords: Tall Buildings, Altitude, Sources of Sustainability
Introduction
While ground source energy is commonly known,
except for solar and wind power, sky sourced
environmental benefits are not commonly discussed in
the building design community. Harvesting selected
forms of sky sourced energy, for example by taking
advantage of the temperature lapse rate, may arguably
have little or no material impact to the environment. To
better understand what the sky can offer is important
because the next generation of super tall buildings
promise not only to be much taller but, due to the current
concern with the environemnt, must be more
sustainable than existing buildings. For example, Burj
Dubai (Figure 1), currently under construction, will be
significantly taller than the tallest building ever built
(Figure 2) and has multiple considerations regarding
sustainable design. Beyond Burj Dubai, plans have
been announced in Dubai and other predominantly
Middle-Eastern and Asian cities for even taller structures.
Several proposals have already been announced for
towers of 1,000 meters or more. It is therefore of timely
interest that designers understand how the sky can
benefit the next generation of tall buildings.
Figure 1: Burj Dubai Under Construction, July 2007
Figure 2: Comparative Heights of the Worlds Tallest Buildings
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008
Sky-Sourced Sustainability - How Super Tall Buildings Can Benefit From Height
Luke Leung PE
1
and Peter Weismantle AIA, RIBA
2
1/2
Associate Partner, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP, 224 S. Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60604
Abstract
Utilizing the earth and near-grade environment as a source of energy has historically been a common practice. Beyond
solar and wind, designers do not usually look towards the sky as the source of additional benefits. The objective of this
paper is to make tall building designers more aware of the additional sources of sustainability in the sky, how these
sources change with altitude and how this knowledge can benefit the design, construction and operation of tall
buildings.
Exterior environmental factors including temperature, pressure/air density, solar, wind, moisture and their relationships
with altitude are discussed. Selected approaches are suggested on how to benefit from them. Since current energy Codes
and Green building standards do not address the issue of environmental variations with altitude; the sky has potential
to offer unique energy saving opportunities and possibly add to the quantified sustainability of a tall building.
Where possible, a 1 km (3,281 ft) tall tower in Dubai is used as an example for illustration.
Keywords: Tall Buildings, Altitude, Sources of Sustainability
Introduction
While ground source energy is commonly known,
except for solar and wind power, sky sourced
environmental benefits are not commonly discussed in
the building design community. Harvesting selected
forms of sky sourced energy, for example by taking
advantage of the temperature lapse rate, may arguably
have little or no material impact to the environment. To
better understand what the sky can offer is important
because the next generation of super tall buildings
promise not only to be much taller but, due to the current
concern with the environemnt, must be more
sustainable than existing buildings. For example, Burj
Dubai (Figure 1), currently under construction, will be
significantly taller than the tallest building ever built
(Figure 2) and has multiple considerations regarding
sustainable design. Beyond Burj Dubai, plans have
been announced in Dubai and other predominantly
Middle-Eastern and Asian cities for even taller structures.
Several proposals have already been announced for
towers of 1,000 meters or more. It is therefore of timely
interest that designers understand how the sky can
benefit the next generation of tall buildings.
Figure 1: Burj Dubai Under Construction, July 2007
Figure 2: Comparative Heights of the Worlds Tallest Buildings
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008
Study on Environmental Effects of Height and
Energy Usage
Little study has been done on the effect of height
in the energy usage of tall buildings. During the design
of the Freedom Tower, the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory in the US was charged to model the energy
consumption using a program called Energy Plus. The
modeling included temperature and wind effect changes
with altitude but did not include changes in air pressure,
moisture or air density. The result of the simulations
indicated that environmental factors that vary with
altitude have a significant effect on the annual total
building cooling and heating energy reduction in total
building annual cooling and heating energy of
approximately 13% when no environmental factors are
compared to all factors combined. Shading has the
largest individual effect. Given the nature of the
building and the environment, the percentage may be
even higher if air pressure, moisture and density were
included. It should be note that the study included the
shading effect of the buildings around the tower, which
accounts for about 9% of the energy savings (Peter G.
Ellis and Paul A. Torcellini, 2005
Weighted Average - More Favorable Environment for
Cooling Dominated Tall Buildings?
One observation from the Freedom Tower study is
using the mid-level of a uniform tower and multiplie by
the total number of floors is a good approximation of
energy consumption for the entire tower (Peter G. Ellis
and Paul A. Torcellini, 2005). This approximation
needs to take into account the impact of stack effect. In
general, no matter how tall a building is, the ground
environment is fixed. The taller the building in hot
and humid climate, the greater the decrease in the
weighted average of the temperature, air density and
moisture, and higher the reduction in energy use. Using
Dubai as an example, the temperature using Dry
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ADLR) with altitude at the
mid-level of a 500 M tall building is 43.7 C (110.6 F),
the lapse rate temperature for the mid-level of a 1000 M
tall building is 41.2C (106.2 F), see Figure 3. The
moisture amount and air density also exhibit similar
pattern. Focusing on the environmental elements, it is
possible that a cooling dominated tall building offers
better weighted averages for energy savings. For a
heating dominated building, the result may be opposite.
Investigations of Sky-Sourced Sustainability Using a
Hypothetical 1 Km Tall Building
The authors assume that the next generation of
super tall buildings will attain the milestone height of 1
kilometer (3,280 ft). Using a hypothetical residential
building of that height, similar to Burj Dubai in
mid-level floor plan and located in Dubai, the following
is a case study covering elements available at height
and suggestions on how to harvest and benefit from them.
Summer design hour is used to quantify cooling loads
reduction.
Temperature
Tall buildings in Dubai can benefit from dry bulb
temperature drop as they rise in altitude. Taking
advantage of lower temperatures above grade is not a
new idea; it has been applied to the traditional wind
towers design (See Figure 4). In standard atmosphere,
dry bulb temperature decreases linearly with elevation in
troposphere (lapse rate in lower atmosphere). There are
3 different ways to calculate lapse rate, ASHRAE
(American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air
Conditioning Engineers) method, Dry Adiabatic Lapse
Rate (DALR) and Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(SALR).
ASHRAE method according to Chapter 6,
Fundamentals Handbook (ASHRAE 2005) is applicable
to an average atmosphere. Based on the summer
design dry bulb is 46.1 C (115 F DB) at ground level,
the temperature at the top of the tower is 39.6 C (103.3
F), see dotted line, Figure 5. In winter design
condition, while the ground level temperature is 10 C
(50 F), the top of the tower is 3.5 C (38.3 F). This
formula is applicable to standard atmosphere, which
Figure 3: ADLR Lapse Rate Temperature at the Middle Floor of a
500 M (1640) Tall vs. 1000 M (3,280) Tall Building
Figure 4: Picture of Wind Towers
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008
likely will not happen in the summer design day in Dubai.
See temperature drop gradients in summer using
ASHRAE methods in Figure 5.
The DALR method is more applicable to the
summer design conditions in Dubai, when the outside
condition behaves similar to an air parcel with less than
100% relative humidity (i.e. its temperature is above its
dew point). The dry bulb summer design temperature is
46.1 C (115 F DB), which has capacity to carry a lot of
moisture. Under this condition, heat gain or lost from
outside the air parcel due to condensation is minimal.
The DALR is approximately constant at 9.78 C/km
(5.37 F/1000 ft, or about 3C/1000 ft, See solid line
Figure 5). The top of a 1 KM (3280) tower will be at
36.3 C (97.4 F).
The SALR method assumes the atmosphere is
saturated with moisture. SALR is 4.9 C/km (+
2.7 F/1000 ft or + 1.51C/1000 ft). The temperature
drop is less since condensation of moisture releases
significant amount of latent heat to lessen the impact of
temperature drop due to adiabatic expansion. This is
only applicable in times when the atmosphere is
saturated with moisture, which is unlikely at the summer
design day in Dubai.
There are three major benefits for tall buildings
that are dominated by cooling: lower cooling energy due
to conduction heat gain, low sensible heat gain from
unwanted infiltration and lower cooling energy from the
wanted ventilation air. Based on an indoor condition of
23 C (73.4F), conduction heat gain can be reduced up to
46%. Similar percentage can be achieved for both
infiltration and a sensible portion of ventilation air.
Total energy savings using the mid-level of a 1 KM
(3280) as an example, will result in a summer design
hour load reduction of 9%.
While lapse rate is a normal phenomenon in lower
atmosphere, it is by no means constant. Temperature
inversions occur from time to time. Care must be taken
in applying lapse rate for cooling equipment sizing.
Energy consumption for the entire year for the 1 KM
(3280) tower will benefit from the lapse rate.
Air Pressure
Air pressure decreases with elevation. Outdoor
air pressure adjustment with altitude can be found in
Chapter 6, ASHRAE Fundamentals 2005. It assumes
dry air with the ASHRAE lapse rate indicated in Figure 5.
Outdoor pressure drop for a 1 KM (3280) tower is
indicated in Figure 6. The exterior pressure difference
between the top and bottom of the tower is
approximately 11.3% (see Figure 6).
Since air pressure decreases with altitude, this
allows exterior air to expand and become less dense.
Air density decreases with elevation. Assuming dry air
with the pressures indicated in Figure 6, densities at
different elevations are derived in Figure 7 using ideal
gas law. For the outdoor conditions, the ASHRAE
lapse rating according to Figure 5 is assumed. There is
a difference of 10% in air density between the bottom
and top of the building (See Figure 7).
Less energy is required to cool thinner outside air;
both wanted through the ventilation system and
unwanted through infiltration. This is especially true
because the outside air is at a lower temperature (also
likely less moisture, see Moisture). Intuitively, one
will think an adjustment to outside air amount will be
required to achieve the same mass flow rate, but
ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (ASHRAE, 2004) does
not require altitude correction. In the footnote of the
Table Minimum Ventilation Rates for Breathing Zone:
Figure 5: Exterior Temperature Gradient of a 1 kM (3,280 Ft)
Tower in Dubai in Summer (SOM LLP)
0,0
10,0
20,0
30,0
40,0
50,0
Elevation in M
DALR
ASHRAE
84000
86000
88000
90000
92000
94000
96000
98000
100000
102000
104000
0
9
1
1
8
3
2
7
4
3
6
6
4
5
7
5
4
9
6
4
0
7
3
2
8
2
3
9
1
5
1
0
0
0
Elevations in M
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

i
n

P
a
Pressure Drop
Figure 6: Air Pressure Change for a 1 kM (3,280 Ft) Tower in Dubai
(SOM LLP)
Figure 7: Density Changes of Exterior Air for a 1 kM (3,280 Ft)
Tower (SOM LLP)
0,940
0,960
0,980
1,000
1,020
1,040
1,060
1,080
1,100
1,120
Elevations in M
Air Density
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008
Volumetric airflow rates are based on an air density of
0.075 lb
da
/ft
3
(1.2 kg
da
/m
3
), which corresponds to dry air
at a barometric pressure of 1 atm (101.3 kPa) and an air
temperature of 70F (21C). Rates may be adjusted for
actual density but such adjustment is not required for
compliance with this standard. This allows the same
volumetric amount of outside air for ventilation at the
bottom and the top of the building, though in reality the
air at the top has lower air flow mass. Using the
mid-level of a 1 KM (3280) tower, air density alone
contributes to 10% of energy savings for ventilation and
results in total summer design hour savings of 3%.
Wind
Wind speed increases with altitude. The
magnitude depends on several factors including the
coefficients related to terrain roughness and conditions at
the meteorological station (ASHRAE 2005). See
Figure 8 for a 1 kM (3,280 Ft) tower in Dubai average
wind profile.
Higher wind speed increases the convection
coefficient which, as a result, increases the heat transfer
of a building to the outside. Also high wind speed
increases the amount of infiltration. At the mid-level of
the 1 KM tower, this will increase the heat transfer
(U-value) by 8% and will increase heat gain at the
summer design hour by 1%.
While in Dubai the higher wind speed will
increase the amount of energy consumption, it is
different for an office building located in more a
temperate climate. The lapse rate of the environment
can benefit a cooling dominated building if the outdoor
environment is, for a substantial amount of time during
the year, below the indoor design conditions. This was
confirmed in the case of the Freedom Tower energy
study.
By aligning the fan intake with the prevailing wind,
ventilation system can benefit from the exponential
increases of wind speed and form a wind-assisted
ventilation system. At the mid-level floor of Burj
Dubai, using an average wind speed of 6.5 m/s, wind can
generate approximately 75 Pascal (.3 water gauge) of
pressure at the intake. Taking advantage of this roughly
translates to 6 to 15% savings in fan energy.
Taking account of the lowering of exterior
temperature due to lapse rate as well as the exponential
increase in wind speed, allows a tall building to benefit
from passive ventilation. The alignment of the
openings with prevailing wind has significant impact to
the amount of outside air entering a building. This
approach was recently applied in the design of a 260 M
tall mixed use tower in China with a 90.5 M (296.8) tall
sky atrium starting at 36
th
floor (164.8 M, or, 540.5
above grade). Using Computational Fluid Dynamics
modeling, it was determined by allowing an opening of
10 SM facing prevailing wind rather than turning it 45
degree to the prevailing wind, 100,800 m3/h (59,294
CFM) of outside air can be introduced into the building
rather than 20,736 m3/h (12,198 CFM, see Figure 9).
Wind speed increase with altitude is also beneficial
to power generation using wind energy. Though one
has to be careful about the economics of using wind
driven micro turbines, manufacturers of wind micro
turbines often use 4 M/s (8.9 MPH) as a guideline to
determine viability. In a tall building, wind speeds
towards the upper portion will often times exceed that
number.
Moisture
Moisture ratio can decrease with altitude
depending on the dry bulb temperature, pressure and the
lapse rate. Using data from MODIS orbiting satellite,
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
0
.
3
9
1
.
5
1
8
2
.
9
2
7
4
.
4
3
6
5
.
9
4
5
7
.
3
5
4
8
.
8
6
4
0
.
2
7
3
1
.
7
8
2
3
.
2
9
1
4
.
6
1
0
0
0
.
0
Elevations in M
W
i
n
d

S
p
e
e
d

M
/
s
Wind Speed
Figure 8: Wind Speed Changes of a 1 kM (3,280 Ft) Tower in
Dubai (SOM LLP)
Figure 9: CFD Modeling of Wind Driven Ventilation; Left:
Aligning a 10 M
2
(107.6 Ft
2) Opening
with Prevailing Wing; Right:
Turning the Opening 45 Degree Away from Prevailing Wind (SOM
LLP)
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008
vertical profile of moisture is developed using statistical
regression. See Figure 10 (Seemann, 2006), for both
the plot of temperature and moisture. It should be note
that in the Figure, 1 hPa = 100 Pa (.4 H
2
O), the chart
approximate sea level at the origin of the Y axis. On
the X axis, degree K minus 273.15 is degree Celsius.
At sea level it is approximately 18.3 C (65.0 F). For
the 1 kM (3,280 Ft) building, pressure at the top is
approximately 900 h Pa (13.05 psi, refers to Figure 6),
the dry bulb temperature lapse rate per satellite data is
similar to Figure 5. Data available from different
satellites appear to indicate that the moisture ratio
decreases with increasing altitude. Depending on
which equipment output one looks at (red dotted line vs.
blue solid line in moisture mixing ratio), there is a
20-40% reduction of moisture in the air between the top
and bottom of a 1 kM (3,280 Ft) tower. The pattern of
moisture ratio decreases is similar to the ASHRAE dry
bulb temperature drop profile.
Moisture reduction with altitudes is significant for
tall buildings energy savings, especially in climates
similar to Dubai with levels of high humidity in the
outside air. The ASHRAE lapse rate formula at the
mid-level of the 1kM tower will result in 4% cooling
load reduction in summer.
Solar
The effect of increased height is mixed when
considering solar radiation. Under direct-beam
clear-sky situations, the amount of solar radiation in
general increases with altitude. This is especially true
for UV radiation above the friction zone. For each 305 m
(1000 foot) increase in altitude, there is roughly a 4 to
5% increase in incident UV radiation.
However, for the entire year, assuming normal
periods of cloudy sky, at altitudes below 1 kM (3,280 Ft),
the situation is less certain. The amount of solar
radiation depends heavily on the local atmospheric
conditions especially the quantity of aerosols present in
the air. Regression analysis is often used to calculate
solar radiation based on measured data, however,
measured data for different altitudes in Dubai is not
available.
In other parts of the world, solar radiation on
horizontal surfaces actually decreases for cities at higher
altitudes. Simple multiple linear regression analysis
using US National Solar Radiation Data Base by
Complex Systems Research Center (University of New
Hampshire) indicated that altitude has a negative
coefficient in the Eastern US cities (John D. Aber, May
2000). Using this equation, increases in altitude for
different east coast cities actually leads to lower solar
radiation. See Figure 8 using a 1 kM (3,280) altitude
difference for two elevations in Richmond, Virginia
(USA) as an example. This is likely because of
orographic lifting of air masses which result in
condensation and cloud formation. A similar relationship
between solar radiation and cities at different altitudes is
also supported by others (Chandel 2005).
Regarding the radiation unit:
Months Differences
(Sea level vs. 1000 M)
J 3.0%
F 8.0%
M 6.2%
A 3.6%
M 6.1%
J 5.3%
J 6.4%
A 5.5%
S 5.9%
O 9.5%
N 5.6%
D 7.4%
Figure 10: Temperature (left) and mixing ratio (right) profiles from
orbiting satellite MODIS MOD07 retrievals (blue lines) and Aqua
AIRS (red dashed), (Seemann, 2006)
Figure 11: Solar Radiation Differences between Sea Level and 1 kM
(3,280 Ft) using Regression Analysis on Measured Data (SOM LLP)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months
R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n

(
U
m
o
l
/
M
-
2
/
S
-
1
)
1000 M
At Sea Level
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008
Vertical surface solar radiation has added
complications because it is composed of three elements:
1. direct normal irradiance; 2. diffuse radiation from the
sky and 3. diffuse radiation from the ground (ASHRAE
Fundamentals 2005). Direct normal irradiance is a
function of apparent solar irradiation, solar altitude, and
the aerosol/water vapor in the air. For diffused
radiation from the sky, additional angle of incidence of
the sun and the ratio between diffuse radiation falling on
a horizontal surface under a cloudless sky over direct
normal irradiation on the earths surface on a clear day
will impact the quantity. Diffuse radiation from the
ground is impacted by all the above factors plus ground
reflectivity and the tilt angle of the surface of interest.
For a tall building, while the direct normal irradiance and
diffuse radiation from the sky is likely increasing (lesser
atmosphere), the diffuse radiation from the ground is
likely decreasing since there is a thicker air mass to
travel through. The final radiation on the window
depends on the local conditions of the three elements
mentioned.
Sustainability and Energy Useage
Environmental factors can contribute significantly
to the sustainability of a tall building. Using the
mid-level floor of Burj Dubai as an example, the total
amount of cooling load reduction at the summer peak
design hour can be as much as 11% (assuming ADLR
lapse rate, only include temperature and air density
adjustments). This does not include moisture reduction
because dry air is assumed and does not include other
environmental elements. Calculating annual energy
savings is more challenging since available energy
programs are not sophisticated enough to model all these
elements without additional enhancements.
Attempting to take advantage of a buildings
height has several implications for the architecture of
that building:
1. Architectural expression can be influenced or
modified based on the micro environment.
Assuming that the architecture wants to reflect
the nature of the environment, there may be a
different expression between the top and bottom
of the tower and on elements with different
environmental exposures.
2. Current energy and green building standards
seldom, if at all, address environment variations
with altitude. It may be possible that designers
can take benefit of the environment variations to
capture energy savings.
3. Variation of the envelope: The U-value and
shading coefficient design criteria can be
different between top and bottom of the
building envelope in order to optimize the
curtain wall to the local conditions. Energy
codes often mandate the maximum amount and
type of glass permitted. Taking into account the
local environmental conditions may confirm
that different amounts of, or types of, glass can
be used in a tall building. Care also should be
taken when specifying the curtain wall to
include more extreme temperature due to
temperature lapse rate.
4. Similar to how wind is formed in nature, the
differences in environmental conditions
between interior and exterior can create air
movement. This air movement can be
captured for passive cooling and ventilation.
In the Chinese mixed-use project mentioned
earlier, 205,300 M
3
/hr of air is designed to
move through the atrium during transitional
seasons for cooling and ventilating the sky
atrium.
5. Harvesting solar is likely more effective at the
top of a tall building, especially if it is above the
frictional zone where the significant amounts of
aerosols are present. This is especially true in
a city with a large amount of hours with
clear-sky direct-beam radiation, such as Las
Vegas. Inside the frictional zone, because of
airbourne aerosols, local conditions need to be
studied.
6. Although unlikely at height, there is a recent
interest in greening buildings with vegetation at
the exterior of a building. Care should be
taken to review the type of vegetation based on
the micro climate, especially in locations where
winter design can be close to but above freezing.
In those cases the temperature lapse rate may
put the upper portion of the tower below
freezing.
7. In cases where solar gain does not increase
significantly with altitude due to local
conditions, cooling dominated spaces prefer to
be on the upper part of the building to benefit
from lower temperature and heating dominated
spaces prefer to be at the lower portion of the
building.
8. For a cooling load dominated building, having
high occupancy spaces at the top of the building
(e.g. restaurants or clubs) though creating egress
issues, can actually save a significant amount of
ventilation energy because of the locally lower
air density, temperature and moisture content of
the outside air. These spaces will also use less
fan energy because they are moving less dense
air.
CTBUH 8th World Congress 2008
9. Also, for a cooling load dominated building,
locating the primary outside air intake at the top
of each zone will take advantage of lower air
temperature, moisture and density (Figure 12).
Furthermore, aligning the outside air intakes
with the prevailing wind will reap the benefit of
free wind energy. Lastly, locating the points of
exhaust to take advantage of the inducing effect
of wind flow downstream of the direction of the
prevailing wind will assist in the removal of
unwanted air.
10. Wind turbines prefer to be at the upper part of
the building to take advantage of higher wind
speed.
References
ABER D. J., FREUDER R., (2000) Variation Among Solar Radiation
Data Sets for the Eastern US and its Effects on Predictions of Forest
Production and Water Yield. Complex Systems Research Center,
University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hempshire 03824, USA.
ASHRAE, (2005) Fundamentals Handbook 2005. ASHRAE, USA
ASHRAE, (2003) HVAC Applications Handbook 2003. ASHRAE,
USA
ASHRAE, (2004) Standard 62.1-2004 Ventilation for Acceptable
Indoor Air Quality. ASHRAE, USA
ASHRAE, ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004, (2004) Energy
Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings.
ASHRAE, USA
CHANDEL S. S., (2005) New Correlation to Estimate Global Solar
Radiation on Horizontal Surfaces Using Sunshine Hour and
Temperature Data for Indian Sites. Journal of Solar Energy
Engineering, ASME
ELLIS G. P., TORCELLINI A. P., (2005) Simulating Tall Buildings
Using EnergyPlus. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden,
CO, USA
INGENIEROS, E. S., (2004) Modelling Microclimate in Urban
Environments and Assessing its Influence on the Performance of
Surrounding Buildings. Groupo de Terrmotecnia, Vada. De los
descubrimientos s/n, 41092, Seville, Spain
LOWRY P. W., (1980) Clear-Sky Direct-Beam Solar Radiation Versus
Altitude: A Proposal for Standard Soundings. Department of Ecology,
Ethnology, and Evolution and the Institute for Environmental Studies,
University of Illinois, Urbana 61801
RAYMOND H. W., (2000) Estimating Moisture Profiles Using a
Modified Power Law. Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite
Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
SEEMANN W. S., BORBAS E. E., LI J., MENZEL W. P., GUMLEY E.
L., (2006) Modis Atmospheric Profile Retrieval Algorithm Theoretical
Basis Document. Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite
Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
STEWART C., MD FACEP (2004) Solar Radiation
Sunburn"Beyond the Road"- Environmental Emergencies for
Emergency Services Providers.
USGBC (2005), Green Building Rating System for New Construction
& Major Renovations, Version 2.2. USGBC, USA
Figure 12
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
Illinois Institute of Technology, S.R. Crown Hall
3360 South State Street
Chicago, IL, 60616
Phone: +1 (312) 909 0253
Fax: +1 (610) 419 0014
Email: info@ctbuh.org
http://www.ctbuh.org/
ISBN: 978-0-939493-25-8