June 29, 2009

BRAIN:
1. Highest level of motor & sensory integration in the human body. Facts: A. Brain is part of the CNS (central Nervous System) B. Protection of the brain A. Cranium Major Protection of brain B. spinal fluid which is second level of protection C. Meninges

Meninges- Its a three layer tissue that surround the entire Central Nervous System forming the lat protective
barrier of the brain. 1. Are the 3rd layers of protection. 2. Have 3 layers of tissue that surrounds the entire CNS forming the last protective layer of the brain. 3. It allows some chemicals to reach the brain while prohibiting other chemicals from entering. (Ex) alcohol does pass through the meningies antibodies do not pass through meningies. The meninges are referred to as the blood brain barrier membrane. Meningitis- Inflammation of the meningies (Think inside out)

I Dura Mater

(hard mother)

Composed of course collegen and elastin

A. Endosteal Dura- Strong white fibourous tissue and merges with the underside of the cranial bone so they become continuous. B. Menelingeal Dura- made of elastin. Also strong but more flexible than the collegen ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sub dura space- shaped like bubble wrap between the menengial dura and the arachnoid mater and its filled
with spinal fluid _______________________________________________________________________________________

II Arachnoid Mater-

and extensive network of blood vessels. In the form of a cob web pattern

Thick and supplies the menengies with nutrients and to produce cerebral spinal fluid. Its a fluffy silky network of blood vessels. ( blood vessel therefore epithelia tissue) ___________________________________________________________________________________

Sub-arachnoid space- located between arachnoid mater and pia mater- shaped like bubble wrap and filled
with cerebral spinal fluid- its job is to hold cerebral spinal fluid.

III Pia Mater-(areoler tissue) soft caressing mother- it physically comes into contact with the brainkinda melts into the tissue of the brain- its delicate, vascular and the pia mater covers the entire brain and spinal cord. *** I Falx serebri- located in the longitudinal sucus between the rt and lt hemisphere of the cerebrum. II Falx Cerebelli- located in the sagital sucus that seperates the rt and lt hemisphere of the cerebellum. III Tentorium Cerebelli- located in the transverse sucus located between the cerebrum and the cerebellum. VI Diaphragmasella- extention of the menengies located under the brain. PARTS OF THE ADULT BRAIN

7 PARTS 1. Cerebrum 2. Thalamus 3. Hypothalamus 4. Mesgncephalon 5. Cerebellum 6. Pons 7. Meulla oblongata

I Cerebrum
Portion of the brain that is the highest level of sensory and motor and creative inspiration of the entire brain- its that part of the brain that makes us human a. Its the largest part of the brain (human only) b. Dry weight is 1350-1400 grams- in it are 14 15 billion different neurons.

Anatomy of the cerebrum:

Gyrus- wormy like parts are anatomical-w/I each are location of certain specific thought functions. Ex. To the side the wormies are responsible for interpreting what we hear. In front is the decision making gyri and emotions. Sucus- In between the gyrus longitudinal sucus separates the cerebrum into two parts- Lt and Rt. Brain. Corpuscollosum- Important because it allows the two parts of the brain to coordinate inferior conection between the rt hemisphere and the lt hemisphere of the cerebrum Cerebrum is divided into two non specific sections outside- is called the cerebral cortex= location for creativity, the center for thoughtunder the cortex is the medulla-towards the middle is the memory storage of the brain

Cerebral

Specific functions of the Cerebral- Its the conscious part of the human brainallows us to make human thought and decisions.
1. highest level of moter and sensory intergration 2. It is the location of conscious decision making 3. location of human intelligence 4. part of the brain that is responsible for original thought and ideas 5. seat of human behavior 6. seat of ambition and goal orientation 7. seat of temperature interpretation (not detection) 8. seat of academic memory 9. The cerebrum initiates motor activity (muscle contraction) it begins but doesnt carry through. The cerebrum decides if the activity is important then the cerebellum coordinates the activities and carries them out. 10. It helps coordinate the sleep/wake cycle
Thalamus Hypothalamus = Diencephalon The thalamus and the hypothalamus are located where the diencephalon use to be When we were in the womb Its in the middle of the brain

II Thalamus (Cerebrum still has the ability to over-ride this threshold or decision made through the thalamus)
Located on the ceiling of the diencephalon Facts: 1. We have 2 right and left 2. Its the bridge between the conscious cerebrum and the sub-unconscious learned human experiences 3. All impulses coming from the spinal cord must pass though the Thalamus- when it happens it triggers some type of past experience associated with that impulse ex. Audio, visual, subcontanious stimulation 4. establishes pain and pleasure thresholds (ex) tickle daughter- (ex) likes cool shower vs. hot shower 5. Selects or discriminates against temperature sensations 6. associates external sensation with degrees of emotional response (ex) orphanage and dusting with pledge 7. Has a learning mechanism for the awareness of dangerous incoming signals (ex) 6 th sense about someone 8. It is the explanation for the experiences of Desa-vu 9. sexual desires

III Hypothalamus (unconscious)

Located underneath the thalamus- describe as being on the floor of the diencephalon-thalamas on the ceiling the hypothalamus being on the floor. Its responsible for monitoring and maintaining by minor changes in the bodies physiology maintains homeostasis- (the bodies unconscious ability to monitor and maintain many chemical and physiological functions within narrow health limits) 1. 7.35-7.45 (blood gases) 2. glucose levels 80-120 milligrams per deciliters per blood (monitored by the hypothalamus- it raises or loweres) 3. internal body temperature 98.6 or 37c 4. monitors and regulates the water balance (osmotic balance) by releaseing or antidiaretic hormone or thyroxin to maintain the body level. 5. Regulates hunger sensations. 6. regulates gastric secretions particularly of the digestive enzymes (ex) Lays potato chips commercial-salts and fats stimulate digestive secretions. 7. regulates the activity of the pituitary gland (hypophesis) its directely attached to the hypothalimus and is directly controlled by the hypothalamus regulates the activity of every other gland in the body 8. Regulates the onset of birth labor 9. regulates her menstral cycle 10 Regulates lactation in her (breast milk) 11 Regulates the sperm count in him 12 Regulates growth of the skelitin 13 Regulates the entire activity of the Autonomic nervous system (see page one)

IV

Mesencephalon
Located deep on the inside of the brain- unconscious- relay station impulses by the spinal cord and distributes those impulse to the appropriate parts of the upper brain- the hypothalamus, thalamus or the cerebrum(EX) autism- messages are not going to the appropriate part of the brainWhat does it do? 1. Regulates certain reflex activities Reflex is composed of a input-stimulus followed immediately called a response-which does not go through the conscious part of the brain: a. pupilary light reflexes b. auditory reflex-jumping to load noise c. blink-destributes lacrimal fluid (tears) enzymes in tears are to clean eyeballs d. menace reflex- blinking and moving away from something coming towards it. V

Pons
Located inferior to mesencephalon-its a relay station sending all message to the mesencephalon-it does have some function of its own: 1. regulates the sleep/wake cycle 2. cooperates with the hypothalamus to regulate body temperature 3. regulates the rhythm of respiration- (inspiration then apnea then expiration)

VI

Cerebullum
Compose of two separate bodies of the cerebral located on the posterior and inferior- (the two brown balls) Its the second largest part of the brain. 1. Unconscious coordinates motor muscular activity involving simultaneous use of several muscles on simulation by the cerebrum- Its where learned motor activity is stored. It does not have the ability to initiate the activity on the cerebrum can do that. But once the signals given by the cerebrum its the cerebellum that takes over and coordinates everything. 2. It helps maintain posture and the position of the head and balance. (ancillary) 3. Gives periodic signals to all the muscles of the body to maintain muscle tone (unhealthy= muscular distrify, multiple scrosis) 4. maintains and coordinates the proper timing in maintaining an activity which multiple muscles are used in a sequence. 5. the center of learned motor activity

VII Medulla oblongata

1. primitive part of the brain (every animal has one) 2. forms the connection between the spinal cord and the upper parts of the brain 3. Pons, cerebellum and the medulla together are called the brain stem 4. Damage to the medulla is terminal 5. Relay station Vital Center Controls those activities that keep us alive like 1. Respiratory center controls the depth of breathing 2. Cardiac center maintains the cardiac rhythm 3. barometric center regulates the blood pressure 4. hepathic regulates the liver activity 5. nephric center regulates the center of the kidneys Non Vital Center Not necessary to keep us alive but to keep us comfortable 1. Coughing 2. Sneezing 3. Hiccupping 4. Yawning 5. Vomiting

June 24, 2009

Non conducting Cells:

Neuoglial CellsThey protect nourish and support the nervous system particularly the Central nervous system Generalities: 1. In contracts to the conducting neurons (that never ever reproduce) Neuoglial cells are mitotic. They are in constant reproduction. 99% time cancer is due to the inability to control one of these 6 neuoglial cells. 2. most these cells have the ability to move from here to there through an amoeboid action. 3. When these cells die there break down products are used for nutrients for the conducting neurons 4. under no circumstances do they conduct an action potential- if anything they would get in the way A. Astrocyte- (star cells) Very large star shaped cells with many many tenticles. These tenticles are called astropods. (astropodia) They look like octopus spread outWhat they do- They wrap around bundles of neuron and blood vessels to insure that the blood vessels stay in contact with the nerve bundle. Like living cables that keep blood vessels in contact with bunches of neurons. B Oligodendroglia-smaller star shaped cells with multiple tenticles called dendropodia. They wrap themselves around bunches of neurons to keep them in contact and make a nerve. C. Microglia-(Cell of a neuroglia) Small phagocytic cells that patrol the nevous system against anything that should not be there. D. Ependymal Cells-(columnar in shape) They line the cavity and sinuses of the brain There job is to keep the entire nervous system moist and wet by producing and releaseing Cerebral Spinal Fluid Spinal Fluid(Liquidy clear fluid that baths the entire central nervous system- its physiological salt water-it should be clear with no cells in it. Can be extracted by spinal tap- if more then 2 cells detects a problem somewhere- spinal cord ends at 2 lumbar vertibra. {Menenges- holds the spinal cord } {Conus Medullarus- section of the menenges filled with spinal fluid but void of any neurons} E. Schwann Cell- Big fatty flat pan cake shape cells that wrap themselves around the axons of selected neurons and their presence interferes with the normal production of an action potential. F. Neurocells of Langerhans- these cells have the ability to accumulate glucose, amino acids, lipids, they are involved in providing neurons with the resources necessary to make major repairs to the neurons. Here it is not replaced with scar tissue but actual material Nissl Bodies- They actually do the repair

Conducting Neurons These cells that do have an excitable membrane and they are responsible for conducting the Action Potential
Specialized
Unipolar Neuron- has a single extention such as one end acts as the dendrite while the other end acts
as the axon they are found in the special sences- sight hearing taste equaliquenbium

Efferent neurons- neurons pointing towards the brain

Bipolar neurons-

possess one axon and one dendrite but this time separated by the soma They also are associated with the special sences.

Multi polar neuron has several dendrites and one (maybe two) axons along with many many
teledendrites.

(cell membrane)= NEUROLEMMA- every conducting neuron does support an ACTION POTENTIAL (cytoplasm) NEUROPLASM(mydicondria) NEUROSOMES- They do what mitrochondia does that is oxidate a phosforlation of ATP (smooth endoplama reticulm) NEURO ENDOPLASMA RETICULUM-does same thing stores carbo proteins and lipids

Nissl Bodies- within the cell (new since last 5 years were mysterious dark bodies) contain enzymes and DNA
to repair a non lethal injury to a neuron

Neurolemma (membrane)- every conducting neuron does support an action portential Within the Neurolemma Neuro plasm (plasma) Neurosomes (midcondria) Neuro Plasma Riticulum

Microtubules- give cytoskeliten giving the neuron bulk, and responsible for the rapid transport of water and nutrients into the axon, and they are responsible for contracting and pulling organelles from here to there Dendritic Arroreum- dendrites are the short branches all the short branches are attached to a central branch which is the Axial Filament/Brachium

Axial Filament= Brachium- central branch called the

Nodes of Ranvoir-Space between the Schann Cells that expose the bare neurolemma

Action Potential Facts; 1. must be conducted on bare neurolemma 2. there are no Schwann cells on dendrites or the arroreum or the somma this is always bare neurolemma. Sultitory Conduction: (dancing) not a traditional action potential- They (neurons with Schwann cells) are the fastest conducting neuron in the body- voltage builds when it gets stopped by the Schwann cells and it depolarizes the node of Ranvoir and it hops and lands in the next Node of Ranvoir and does the same thing and the same thing till it gets to the end

Mechanism (details) of the Action Potential Nerve or muscle impulse (moving voltage)

Generalities 1. Its an electrical current 2. A.P. can only occur across an excitable membrane 3. excitable membrane is one that is POLARIZED (tbes) 4. every neuron is surrounded by an excitable membrane, every muscle cell (myocite- smooth, striated and cardiac) Transducer- of all the special senses are surrounded by an excitable membrane. Transducer-Mechanical and electrical device that converts a physical event into an electrical impulse

Definitions
Electrical current- is the movement of electrically charged particles from one location to another location Ions- are any electrically charged adams or molecules Cat-ions (cations) positively charges ions sodium potassium ions and calcium ions An-ions (anions)- negatively charged Potential- potential difference- is the voltage that exists between two different points in space Exists only when a current is not present- If it is present then you have and electoral current not a potential- It exist when you have two isolated (not mixed)-if mixed then its electrical current- groups of electrical charges of any identity Polarized- two isolated groups of electrical charges of any ID this situation is polarized while separatedDepolarized-If Mixing occurs its That cluster or isolated group that has more positive charges is identified as the positive terminal or the anoid. The other is identified as the cathode or negative

(+) (-) CationCathoid (+) Anoid (-) Anion

Sodium is prohibited from passing through but potassium can squeeze through due to slight membrane defect in all excitable membranes

Resting membranePolarized (not currently conducting an action potential) Outside of membrane is a lot of potassium and sodium Transmembrane potential- (TMP) voltage in a resting membrane- is for most neurons for -80 Millivolts. It only exists while the membrane is polarized

****Stimulus- in order to be a stimulus it must have the ability to open, create, produce,
channels through the membrane-otherwise it wont be a stimulus (two men looking at each other- man looking at a women-yes it is a stimulate) Positive charges flood into the membrane- then the inside becomes positive with respect to the outside (Neurotransmitter-)

The wave of depolarization is moving energy, when it gets to a teledendrite- what does this wave of depolarization do?? - It breaks up the pre synaptic membrane Sodium Potasium pump- chemical reactions that flooded in- there is a set of several thousand chemical
reactions that take these original charges and transports them back up not necessarily through the original channels. Last step Then repolarization occurs and now have an original resting condition and the membrane waits for another impulse to occur

Stimulas Then this level drops out of site Next set takes these vacancies Next the vacancies are taken by the next set Continues Until wave of depolarization is reached the energy that is stored busts up the presanaptice Pump eventually brings originals back up

Action Potential
Effatic conduction= always travel in one directionalways travels this way

Dendrite--- Soma--- axon--- teledendrite Dendrites are the only excitable membrane
Only place that a depolorazation can start is at a dendrite Has to be a receptor in order to start the action potential

Every signal that passes through the body across an excitable membrane is of this type.

June 22, 2009 A neuron connection to a striated muscles only. (not a smooth or cardiac) Always goes Teldenorite to Myocite Myofiber/neuron Excitable membranes- has electrical charge across it between outside and inside Sarcolemma-of any type Neurolemma-of any type- electrical current is called an ACTION POTENTIAL Membranes surrounding the special senses are excitable Nodes in the heart are excitable ***These membranes have the ability to conduct an electrical current*** Synaptic Cleft= is the separation between the teledendrite and the myofiber has to be filled with a fluid (salt water /calcium) shouldnt be anything else there if healthy if no fluid it will not work. Diagram Physiology of: Motor End Plate = Neuro muscular juncture = Synapse Pre-synaptic membrane (neuron)
Pre synaptic vessels (always has inside a chemical called a neurotransmitter)

Post synaptic membrane (myocite/muscle cell)

Post Synaptic Vessicles (neurotransmitter antagonist) It destroys the neurotransmitter when it lands (thats what you want to hppn)

Acetylcholine esterase (ACTs) Post synaptic destroys Acetylcholine when it lands

Acetylcholine-(ATC) Pre Synaptic the neurotransmitter dedicated to skeletal.

The presence of a neurotransmitter on a postsynaptic membrane depolarizes the post synaptic membrane by opening up channels in it.

***All neurotransmitters operate by punching holes through the post synaptic membrane. These holes cause the mixing of inside ions with outside ions resulting in a drop of the transmembrane potential (TMP) to 0 and as a result it creates a new action potential but this time across the post synaptic membrane

Physiology of a motor end plateSteps. 1. An Action Potential is created in the brain (have to have a conscious thought process to move the skeleton) 2. This signal travels down the appropriate nerves ultimately to the appropriate myoneuro juncture. 3. Realizing that an action potential is a form of moving energy, upon reaching the appropriate presynaptic membrane this stored energy manifest itself by shattering the entire presynaptic membrane a. this action releases the presynaptic vessels into the synaptic cleft. 4. These vesicles filled with neurotransmitters defuse across the synaptic cleft towards the post synaptic membrane5. Upon reaching the post synaptic membrane these vesicles crash into it break open and spill the neurotransmitter onto the surface of the post synaptic membrane 6. the presence of the neurotransmitter disrupts the molecular structure of the post synaptic membrane resulting in free flowing channels through the post synaptic membrane A. presence of these channels result in the mixing of outside ions with inside ions B. This mixing results in a drop of the transmembrane potential to 0 therefore creating a new action potential but this time across the post synaptic membrane 7. When the post synaptic vesicles break due to the action of the neurotransmitters results in a release of the antagonist enzyme-Acetylochorline esterase ACTs which destroys ACT 8 . Meantime the presynaptic membrane and the presynaptic vesicle repair themselves and replenish the supply of the neurotransmitter 9. post synaptic membrane and post synaptic vessels repair themselves and produces new post synaptic vessels containing the antagonist neurotransmitter. 10 The entire motor end plate is in a resting condition waiting for a new command from the mind 1/10,000 of a second Seretonin-mood controlling neurotransmitter

Physiological Events in the actual contraction of a striated

muscle

Steps: 1. after the neurotransmitter creates a new action potential across the post synaptic membrane, this action potential spreads rapidly across the entire sarcolemma. 2. Eventually this spreading action potential encounters the fenestra of the triad 3. Part of the AP is diverted into the triad 4. Moving energy manifests itself by breaking open the 2 sacoplasmic reticuli ( their job is to hold calcium ion) attached to the t-tubular 5. the freed calcium ions float through the sarcoplasm to the myofibrils a. at the location of the myofibrils, the calcium ions activate ATPase 6. now ATPase has been active by the calcium ions, the ATPase does what it is suppose to do which is splits ATP(stored energy) causing 100,000s of mini explosions in the myofibrils a. these millions of mini explosions cause the myofibrils to contract or come together resulting in a muscle contraction. 7. the muscle remains contracted until its complimentary muscle re stretches it 8. everything replenishes themselves and waits for another command

Definitions