Section 5

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2011
S5: Distance Protection
Section 5
Distance Protection
Introduction In previous sections we have looked at overcurrent and unit protection schemes whilst in this section we will look at distance protection schemes and see how they differ in important ways from overcurrent and unit protection schemes.
Objectives At the end of this section you will be able to: Describe how distance protection schemes characteristics differ from overcurrent and unit protection schemes; Have an understanding of the differences between Impedance, Mho and Offset Mho relay characteristics; Have an appreciation of the different types of internal relay compensation arrangements required for both phase and earth fault relay elements; Understand some of the limitations of distance protection schemes the crucial importance of the ratio between source impedance and the impedance the relay is trying to measure.
Time You will need about six hours for this section. Resources Pen and paper.
EEE8049 Protection of Distribution Networks 136
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5.1
Distance protection schemes
As we have seen in previous sections overcurrent protection has inherent back up capability to ensure that if one relay, or circuit breaker, fails to trip as required for a fault then another circuit breaker (or breakers) further back in the distribution network is still likely to isolate the fault. There are two penalties to be paid for the initial failure; an increase in the fault clearance time (more damage to the system) and a greater portion of the network is switched off to isolate the original fault (additional customers are inconvenienced by losing their supplies). On
higher voltage systems with greater interconnection this back up capability becomes a nuisance as overcurrent relays can start to respond to faults elsewhere in unwanted ways. Despite the use of directional overcurrent and earth fault relays, setting such protection becomes more and more difficult (and indeed contradictory for different fault conditions) as the system becomes more interconnected and complex. Additionally, to preserve the transient stability of both generation and the supergrid system faster clearance times are needed than can be delivered by classical IDMT protection.
At higher voltage levels unit protection schemes have several advantages over classical IDMT protection. Unit protection schemes have; fast tripping times, and only operate for faults within their protection zone. Both these features are useful in applying such schemes to more interconnected and complex systems. However the lack of inherent back up capability means that each unit protection scheme has to have overlap zones with its neighbouring unit protection schemes to ensure that all faults are caught quickly. At intermediate voltage levels, such as the 33kV system, classical IDMT protection is often applied in addition to unit protection schemes to provide back up capability. As previously stated, on the supergrid system faster clearance times are needed than can be delivered by classical IDMT protection, so how can we achieve the reassurance of back up capability plus speedy operation? Ideally we need some type of protection which combines the operating speed of unit protection with some form of inherent back up capability
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similar to that delivered by classical IDMT protection. However a much more restricted form of inherent back up capability than that delivered by classical IDMT protection would be a positive advantage. On a complex system a more restricted form of inherent back up capability would limit the permutations for the protection to interact (in possibly unwanted ways) with other types of protection schemes. Thus setting the protection and assessing possible conflicts between the settings of different sets of protection would be made easier. Distance protection schemes satisfy these criteria and thus fit the bill.
5.2
Basic principles
A circuit between two substations has an impedance which is almost invariant. The only sources of variation are the circuits resistance, R, which varies with temperature, and a variation in reactance, X, which varies with system frequency. However the frequency normally fluctuates + 1% about the nominal frequency, with somewhat greater, but still small, fluctuations possible if the power system is in distress. So X varies very little, and for the higher voltage systems as X >> R, the impedance, Z (=R + jX) likewise varies very little despite larger variation in R (because of temperature changes). Hence, in principle, if we measure the
impedance of the power circuit from one of its ends it should always be greater than the normal circuit impedance if that circuit is healthy. If the measured impedance is less than the normal circuit impedance we can be confident that there is a fault within the circuit. As we saw in section 4 measurements are never perfect for a variety of reasons (including transient saturation of CTs), so trying to measure the impedance right up to the end of the circuit with confidence is impracticable. Instead we can be confident of measuring up to 80% of the circuits impedance (leaving the last 20% as a margin against measurement errors) and tripping that end of the circuit immediately (no deliberate time delay) if the measured impedance falls below 80% of the circuits impedance. If there is an intertrip channel available we can also send a trip signal to open the circuit breaker at the remote end of the circuit.
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So how do we spot a fault on the final 20% of the circuit? After all there is negligible difference between the impedance to a fault at the remote end of the circuit and the impedance to a close up fault on another circuit connected to the same busbars as the remote end of the circuit we are trying to protect. The answer is to extend, after a short time delay, our impedance measurement beyond the circuit we are interested in, so that, typically the relay would then see a fault up to somewhere between 20% to 50% of the next circuit along. Fig. 5.1 shows how this is done. In the diagram, assume we are interested in the circuit between relays, A, and, B. The time delay applied to relay, A, is crucial, as a fault beyond the circuit (A,-B,) we are protecting should be cleared promptly by its associated relay and circuit breaker (Relay, C, in this example). If this happens as it should, the measured impedance will return to a higher value than that at which our relay will trip. If, for any reason, there is a failure to clear the fault beyond our protected circuit then the measured impedance will remain low. As a consequence relay, A, will trip for a fault within (typically) the first 20% of the circuit between relays, C, and, D, after the short time delay.
By similar reasoning a third stage of impedance with another time delay (Zone 3) can be provided to relay, A, so as to provide complete back up protection to the circuit between relays, C, and, D. Typically zone 3 protection is set to operate if the measured impedance is less than 120% of the combined impedance of the, A, B, and, B, C, circuits, thus providing complete back up protection to, B, C, circuit. As can be seen from Fig. 5.1, a scheme of relays provides inherent back up protection in a similar fashion to IDMT overcurrent protection. However the crucial difference is that the back up coverage of any one distance relay is deliberately limited to avoid many of the grading problems associated with IDMT protection. This summarises the basic strategy of most distance protection schemes.
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Figure 5.1 Diagram showing how the timed zones of distance relays overlap to provide inherent back up protection
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5.3
Impedance Relays
As shown in Fig. 5.1, to measure the impedance of a circuit each relay needs both current measurements, from CTs, and voltage measurements, from voltage transformers (VTs). Now Z = V / I so in basic terms we need a relay that operates if the ratio V / I falls below a specified value (Zsetting > V / I), or recasting the equation, I x Zsetting > V. We need a comparator relay to do this, and this is often implemented as a rectifier bridge comparator as shown in Fig. 5.2. When the relay is on the point of operating Ibalance Vbalance thus defining Zbalance = (Vbalance / Ibalance). Hence N x Zbalance = (Vbalance / [Ibalance / N]), so by adjusting N we can adjust the impedance, Zsetting, below which the relay will operate. Note that Zsetting is the impedance of the proportion of the circuit to be protected, but referred through the CTs and VTs which supply the relay. Zprimary = Vln / I (in Ohms.) so Zsetting = Zprimary (CT ratio / VT ratio) secondary
Ohms. Conventionally VT ratios are quoted in terms of the line to line voltages on either side of the VT. The standard secondary voltage is usually 110 volts line to line.
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Figure 5.2 An example of an impedance relay

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Example 5.1
A numerical example may clarify what happens. Suppose we wish to apply the 80% coverage of zone 1 protection to a 20km, 1 x 175mm2 ACSR 132kV line with 600/1A CTs. The primary impedance of the line = 0.8 x 20 x (0.177 + j0.402) Ohms. This yields a value of 7.028 /66.2o Ohms so the referred, or secondary value of Ohms (=Zsetting within the relay) = 7.028 x (600 / [132 x 103 / 110] ) = 3.514 Ohms. The characteristics of an impedance relay are shown in Fig. 5.3, below.
Figure 5.3 The characteristics of an impedance relay
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Note that the impedance relay is completely non directional and this can be a serious disadvantage as shown later.
However, for the moment imagine a fault close to the relay such that V is very low, but Ihv (= Isc) is very high. Could this damage the sensitive polarised relay? The answer is no, thanks to one of the better features of the rectifier bridge comparator. The polarised relay will operate on very small currents and thus voltages, which are within the forward bias voltage of the rectifier bridges. Under high operate or restrain conditions within the rectifier bridge comparator, once the forward bias voltage of either of the rectifier bridges appears across the terminals of the sensitive polarised relay the excess current spills across one of the rectifier bridges (the, restrain, bridge for high operate values, and the, operate, bridge for high restrain values). Hence the rectifier bridge comparator is both sensitive and rugged, which is a good combination in a protection relay. Now lets return to the disadvantage of the non-directional nature of the impedance relay. In the example shown in Fig. 5.4 not only has impedance relay 1 operated (as desired), but there is also correct, but unwanted, tripping of relay 2 as it has seen a low impedance, behind, it as a result of a close up fault on another circuit. The situation is similar to non directional IDMT overcurrent protection and so the remedy is similar; control the direction in which the impedance relay can operate. As with directional IDMT overcurrent protection the directional element controls the starting of the impedance relay. Unlike directional IDMT overcurrent protection, for the impedance relay this is done by the directional element removing a short circuit across the current (operate) input to the relay. All the concepts of cross polarisation to achieve a reliable directional operation are exactly the same as for directional IDMT overcurrent protection (see Fig. 3.13). However, the Achilles Heel of such cross polarisation is the close up three phase fault (which can occur if someone attempts to re-energise another circuit with a safety earth still applied; regrettable, but human error). There are ways of tackling this: some relays have employed supplementary capacitor / inductor
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circuits tuned to the fundamental frequency.
Because the tuned circuit has
inherent energy storage, it can maintain a polarising voltage for a few vital cycles when the system voltage collapses under fault conditions. Modern relays may use an internal clock to maintain the frequency at the value pertaining immediately pre-fault. Both make the assumption that the system frequency will not change dramatically during the fault.
Figure 5.4 An example of the drawbacks of non-directional impedance protection
However, whilst the close up three phase fault is an extreme example of the lack of system voltage with which to make a measurement there are several more insidious voltage and current problems associated with all types of distance relays, so we need once again to look at the difficulties of correctly measuring impedance values.
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5.4
Measurement problems associated with distance protection
5.4.1 System Impedance Ratio (SIR)
All distance protection schemes rely on measuring combinations of voltages and current as accurately as possible in order to operate or restrain as appropriate under fault conditions. However, if under fault conditions the measured voltage, V, is too low then measurements become less accurate, and eventually too inaccurate to be valid. The measured voltage, V, at the reach point (Zsetting) of a distance relay depends on the ratio of the source impedance, ZS, to line impedance, ZL, as shown in Fig. 5.5.
Figure 5.5 Diagram showing the relationship between the voltage at the relay and the source voltage, VS V = ZL x VS. = VS . ZL + ZS 1 + (ZS / ZL) ZL- = ZL1 + ZL2 = 2ZL1 V- = VS- . 1 + (ZS1 / ZL1)
and for a phase to phase fault obtain: whilst ZS- = ZS1 + ZS2 = 2ZS1 and hence: Similarly for a phase to earth fault obtain: whilst: and hence:
ZL-n = (ZL1 + ZL2 + ZL0) = (2ZL1 + ZL0) ZS-n = (ZS1 + ZS2 + ZS0) = (2ZS1 + ZS0) V-n = VS-n . 1 + ([(2ZS1 + ZS0)] / [2ZL1 + ZL0])
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Interpretation of the above equations We can see that if the source to line impedance ratio is too high the voltage available to the relay becomes too low for the relay to perform properly. Hence distance protection is not used to protect comparatively short cable circuits in urban areas as the impedance of the cable circuit is too low in comparison to the source impedance. A more interesting point is to consider resistance earthed systems, where ZS0 >> 2ZS1, or 2ZL1, or ZL0. The implication is that distance earth fault protection will not perform well, although the performance of distance protection for phase to phase or three phase faults may be good on circuits such as longer, rural 33kV overhead lines. Hence sometimes only phase fault distance protection is fitted to such circuits, with directional IDMT earth fault protection to catch earth faults. In setting any form of polarised distance protection it is important to read the relay manufacturers application notes to ensure that the maximum stipulated source impedance ratio (SIR) will not be exceeded for either phase faults or earth faults. In particular the lowest credible source fault levels (highest source impedances) under system outages must be considered. When a resistance earthed source transformer is taken out of service, ZS0, the zero sequence source impedance may almost double!
5.4.2 The curious case of four types of fault, one relay element and one answer. (The answers elementary, my dear Watson!)
Now, the loop impedance of a phase to phase fault equals ZL1 + ZL2 = 2 ZL1 where ZL1 = ZL2, whilst for a three phase fault the loop impedance equals ZL1, so it is rather surprising to find that there is a cunning connection to a phase fault distance measuring element that comes up with the same answer, ZL1, for both types of fault. Consider the measurement ([VBVC] [IBIC]) = (VBC [IBIC]) and the corresponding cyclic permutations. Now consider an, B-C, phase to phase fault with reference to Fig. 5.5. VB = a2I1ZL1 + aI2ZL2 + I0ZL0 VBC = (a2 -a)I1ZL1 + (a a2)I2ZL2
VC = aI1ZL1 + a2I2ZL2 + I0ZL0 but ZL1 = ZL2 and so obtain:
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VBC = (a2 -a)ZL1(I1 - I2) IB - IC = (a2 -a)(I1 - I2)
but IB = a2I1 + aI2 + I0 and IC = aI1 + a2I2 + I0 and hence:
(VBC / [ IB IC]) = [(a2 -a)ZL1(I1 - I2)] / [(a2 -a)(I1 - I2)] = ZL1 In deriving the above expression note the following points. No assumption about the type of fault has been made in deriving the result (that is there are no imposed constraints such as I 1 = - I2, or I1 = I2 = I0, etc.) All the zero sequence terms cancel out and disappear because of the vector subtractions, so even if the fault is - E or + E the relay element will still measure ZL1. If the fault is a three phase fault I 2 = 0, and the relay element will still measure ZL1. Hence this method of measuring phase faults is very important as it gives one consistent answer for different fault conditions. The compensation circuits may be contained internally within a distance relay.
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Figure 5.6 Compensated phase fault relay connections 5.4.3 Problems with earth fault distance measurements
If we refer again to Fig. 5.5 we obtain: V-E = I1ZL1 + I2ZL2 + I0ZL0 and, at the point of fault I0 = I1 = I2 so I-E = 3I 0.
However, that relationship holds only at the point of fault and any radial circuit supplying the fault. On mesh systems the symmetrical current components within a circuit can be such that I0 I1, despite I0 = I1 = I2 at the point of fault. This paradox is best explained by reference to Fig. 5.7. The 33kV system is earthed at the 132/33kV substation, but the embedded generation can only contribute positive and negative sequence current components. Hence at both relays Nos. 1 & 2 we can see that I0 I1, despite I0 = I1 = I2 at the point of fault. Another way that produces a similar result (but without generation) is if the two circuits in
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parallel have different ZL0 / ZL1 ratios as can happen if one circuit is entirely overhead line, but the other circuit is composite and contains significant lengths of cable as well as overhead line sections. Because of the different ZL0 / ZL1 ratios the distribution of I0 current between the circuits will differ from the distribution of I1 and I2 currents.
Figure 5.7 Diagram showing why I0 I1 in circuits with an earth fault
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Since the sequence components in the faulty phase are no longer equal it follows that there are non-zero currents in the sound phases also, and these can be used to compensate phase earth distance relays as explained below for an A -E fault. VA-E = I1ZL1 + I2ZL2 + I0ZL0 = I1ZL1 + I2ZL2 + I0ZL1 + I0(ZL0 - ZL1) but ZL1 = ZL2 VA-E = (I1 + I2 + I0)ZL1 + (3 I0)(ZL0 - ZL1) = IAZL1 + (IA + IB + IC) (ZL0 - ZL1) VA-E = IAZL1 + (IA + IB + IC)()([ZL0 / ZL1] - 1) ZL1 VA-E = IAZL1 + (IA + IB + IC)()(k - 1) ZL1 Now strictly speaking k is a complex number, as Z L0 and ZL1 are complex vectors, but providing / ZL0 is not too dissimilar to/ ZL1 then k can be approximated as a real number and we obtain: VA-E = ZL1 [IA + (IA + IB + IC)() (k - 1)] so if we divide VA-E by [IA + (IA + IB + IC)() (k - 1)] we obtain ZL1 as shown in Fig. 5.8. There are other relay wiring configurations to achieve the same result. Note that in order to measure ZL1 we need to provide the relay with information about ZL0 and this is done in a variety of formats by different distance relays. Let k = ZL0 / ZL1
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Figure 5.8 Diagram showing residual compensation for the earth fault relays and compensated phase fault relay connections
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5.4.4 Why distance relays may under-reach because of fault arc resistance
On overhead circuits sometimes there can be a flashover fault between phases. There can be a significant resistance associated with the arc. An empirical
formula, developed by A. R. van C. Warrington (in Protective Relays: their Theory and Practice, Chapman and Hall, 1962) is quoted in assessing the arcs resistance, Rarc. Rarc = 28710 x L(I-1.4) Ohms where L = length of the arc in metres. where I = current in Amperes. The effect of arc resistance is to cause some distance relays to over estimate the position of (distance to) the fault and thus they can under-reach. This is shown in Fig. 5.9. The relay sees the fault as being on the limit of Zone 3, because of the arc resistance, despite the actual fault position being well within Zone 3. If the actual fault was slightly further out the relay would not see it at all!
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Figure 5.9 Arc resistance can cause a distance relay to under-reach One way to avoid the under-reach effects of arc resistance is to measure the reactance between the relay position and the fault, rather than impedance. Exactly how this is done is beyond the scope of this introductory course, but we need to be aware of why some distance relays offer this facility.
5.5
Mho relays
As we have seen, plain impedance relays have the disadvantage of being non directional and so often have to be combined with directional control elements. Mho relays were a later development than impedance relays and have the advantage that they are intrinsically directional.
Figure 5.10 Connections for (red earth fault) polarised Mho relay
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Fig. 5.10, shows the internal connections for an earth fault polarised Mho relay. The two summation transformers can add and subtract current and voltage derived vector quantities by using a small number of turns for the IR-E current components and a much larger number of turns for the very much smaller voltage derived currents. The relay operates when: [Vp / Zp] + IR-E [Vr / Zr] > [Vp / Zp] - IR-E + [Vr / Zr] Let [Vr / Zline] = IR-E to obtain: [Vp / Zp] + [Vr / Zline] [Vr / Zr] > [Vp / Zp] - [Vr / Zline] + [Vr / Zr] Next multiply throughout by ([Zline Zr] / Vr) to obtain: ([ Vp / Zp] [Zr / Vr]) Zline + Zr - Zline > ([ Vp / Zp] [Zr / Vr]) Zline - Zr + Zline Recast the equation to obtain: {([Zr / Zp] [Vp / Vr]) 1} Zline + Zr > {([Zr / Zp] [Vp / Vr]) + 1} Zline - Zr For reasons that will become apparent, we require ([Zr / Zp] [Vp / Vr]) =1 Since Vp = Vr - Vp1 (See Fig. 5.10) we obtain: [Vp / Vr] = (1 - [Vp1 / Vr])
Note that at the relay impedance setting, Zsetting, Vr < 1.0 per unit as there may be a comparatively high source impedance ratio (SIR), so 1.0pu >> Vr >> Vp1 if [Vp / Vr] 1 is required as Vr varies from 1.0pu to near zero, which also implies [Zr / Zp] = 1. When ([Zr / Zp] [Vp / Vr]) =1 we obtain: Zr > 2Zline - Zr Note that there is vector subtraction in the right
hand side of the equation, before the modulus of the vector subtraction is taken. In Fig. 5.11, OBD shows the true vector relationship of 2Zline - Zr at the equality (balance) condition of the equation Zr > 2Zline - Zr. Hence OD = Zr, but not / Zr. Triangle ABC is a mirror image of triangle ABD about the axis defined by OAB. and hence BC = Zr , but not / Zr. It follows that
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OC = Zr, in its true vector form (compare OC with DB). Note the Isosceles triangle, OBC, which can be resolved in to two mirror image triangles, OAC, and, ABC. Hence /OAC = 90o. For any given value of Zr, the locus of point A as vector, Zline, varies has to be a semicircle (because of the right angle diameter Zr ). So far our discussion we have considered the case where / Zline > / Zr. However, exactly similar reasoning for / Zline < / Zr, produces the corresponding locus of point A as vector, Zline, varies, as a semicircle (because of the right angle) in mirror image to the first one about axis OC. In combination these two semicircles give the circular locus shown in Fig. 5.11. Now, if we consider (Zline - Zline), a small reduction in the measured impedance, we can see that: Zr > 2(Zline- Zline) - Zr and thus the relay will operate for Zline falling within the circle. Hence Zr = Zsetting.
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Figure 5.11 Characteristics of a Polarised Mho relay (earth fault)
Because Zp = Zr (see algebra above) but Zr is variable to produce Zsetting, it follows that Zp also has to vary. Refer back to Fig. 5.10. Note that the maximum reach along the line is when / Zline = /Zsetting. The reach is reduced as the cosine (/ Zline - /Zsetting). It is customary to set /Zsetting slightly less than Zline to allow for the effects of arc resistance as shown in Fig. 5.12. For a limit of 5% reduction of reach the angular difference must be under 18 o.
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Figure 5.12 Why the setting angle of a Mho relay is less than the line angle to allow for the effects of arc resistance
Note also that the different zones on a Mho relay are progressively larger circles, (as Zsetting is progressively increased with zone) whose centre points all lie along the axis defined by OC, but all the circles pass through the origin point, O.
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5.6
Offset Mho Relays
In earlier discussions about plain impedance relays we saw that their great drawback is their non-directional response, with the ability to see, behind, the relay (refer to Figs. 5.3 & 5.4). As we have seen in the discussion about Mho relays, their directional nature prevents them from seeing behind the relay for reverse faults. However, paradoxically, a limited ability for distance protection to see a reverse fault can be of benefit in rare cases. One of these cases is to provide back up clearance to busbar faults and / or stuck circuit breaker faults.
Look again at Fig. 5.4, but assume that all the non-directional distance relays have been replaced by directional (Mho) distance relays. The fault shown will clear with proper discrimination, since Relay 2 will not see the fault. Now consider the case where the circuit breaker controlled by Relay 1 fails to trip for the fault (stuck breaker condition). Eventually Relay 3 should spot the problem in zone 2 time. Beyond that Relay 5 may also spot the problem in zone 3 time, but this may not always be the case, as sometimes zone 3 settings are a compromise with other parts of the power system (not shown in this simplified diagram). Also, if the fault is remote from Relay 1 it may be beyond Relay 5s zone 3 reach. Greater redundancy in back up protection would be an advantage in this case. In an ideal world we would like the protection associated with Relay 2 to have a very limited ability to see reverse faults in zone 3 time. This would allow Relay 1 to detect the fault shown in either zone 1 or zone 2 times (dependent on how far out the fault is from Relay 1) before Relay 2 tripped for a reverse fault. A very restricted reverse reach would ensure that Relay 2 could not see a fault in zone 3 of Relay 1 and so would not conflict with Relay 1 operating for a zone 3 fault. A relay
characteristic that satisfies this requirement is the Offset Mho Relay. Fig. 5.13 shows the shows the internal connections for an Offset Mho Relay, whilst Fig. 5.14 shows its impedance characteristics.
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Figure 5.13 Connections for (red earth fault) Offset Mho relay
The Offset Mho relay operates when: IR-E > ( Vr / Zr) - k IR-E Zr > Zline - k Zr Multiply this by (Zr / IR-E) to obtain: where k < 1.
In Fig. 5.14, below, OAC shows the true vector relationship of Zline - kZr at the equality (balance) condition of the equation Zr > Zline - kZr. Hence AC= Zline - kZr =Zr , which describes the radius of a circle centred on point C. Because the radius = Zr > kZr , the circle passes through the R, -X quadrant of the graph, with OD = the reverse reach = (1 k)Zr, whilst the maximum forward reach = (1 + k)Zr. This maximum forward reach equates to the zone 3 setting of a standard Mho relay, whilst the reverse reach provides back
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up protection to the busbar protection, which is generally a unit protection scheme, and / or covers the stuck circuit breaker condition.
Figure 5.14 Characteristics of an offset Mho relay
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Figure 5.15 The characteristics of a Mho relay with an Offset Mho characteristic for zone 3
Generally the complete directional relay comprises zones 1 & 2 with standard Mho characteristics, plus zone 3 with an offset Mho characteristic. In each case the relay operates for Zline within the locus of the relevant zone, with timers within the relay assembly controlling the progression from zone 1 to zone 3. The characteristics for such a composite Mho relay are shown in Fig. 5.15.
5.7
General comments about Mho relays
The above sections illustrated some of the complexities of Mho relays, and manufacturers are constantly developing (Mho) more advanced versions all the time. If we refer back to Fig. 5.8, we can see that the phase and earth measuring elements can be replaced by Mho and Offset Mho elements, although there may be various adjustments to the voltage polarising arrangements to the Mho and
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Offset Mho elements. On top of that, there are timing relays to alter the settings on the elements in progression from zone 1 to zone 3. We begin to see that a complete Mho relay is a very complex measuring instrument!
Each manufacturer has different ways of entering the setting impedances and angle for their various relays. The earth fault measurements require the zero sequence impedance, Z0, as well as the positive sequence impedance, Z1, but there are various formats for entering these. Read the relays application manual very carefully indeed before attempting to set distance protection. Also we need to check that the source impedance ratio is not too high, for both phase and earth faults, so that the relay will operate satisfactorily under conditions of the lowest credible source fault levels. These low source fault levels can occur because of maintenance or fault outages elsewhere on the system, so we need to think around this outage issue quite carefully.
Whilst distance protection has many technical advantages, as outlined in section 5.1, it comes at a price. The main drawback is that it requires a complete set of three phase voltage transformers (VTs). On new schemes this is merely an extra cost, but the requirement for a three phase set of VTs can be a show stopper if we are trying to fit distance protection retrospectively. Problems encountered can be space and safely clearances. Will there be room for, say, 132kV VT bays? If VTs are installed will there be adequate safety clearance to other equipment or buildings? If we are considering fitting VTs to existing switchboards it may be very difficult, very expensive, or an operational nightmare to obtain the requisite outages. Depending on the age and / or type of switchgear it may even be practically impossible.
In an ideal world the VTs should be connected to the circuit to be protected. However, sometimes VT supplies can be derived from other circuits, but then there is the need to ensure that any derived VT supplies are electrically identical to what would be seen by hypothetical VTs connected to the circuit to be
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protected. In practice derived VT supplies require a minimum of duplicate VTs, and quite often elaborate auxiliary switching arrangements to ensure the derived VT supplies truly represent the voltages on the protected circuit. If a source VT becomes electrically isolated from the protected circuit because a circuit breaker opens then this must be mimicked by the auxiliary switching arrangements, and another, appropriate, derived VT supply substituted instead.
At the higher voltages (typically 132kV and above) synchronism checking facilities across circuit breakers are quite widely provided, and this implies VTs on either side of an (open) circuit breaker to check that it will close in synchronism. However the catch is that often such facilities are provided by two, single phase VTs on the same phase on either side of the circuit breaker. Hence the presence of VTs on a diagram does not imply that there is a three phase set of VTs suitable for application to distance protection.
Exercise 5.1
We have a phase to phase fault on the lower voltage side of a Dyn vector group transformer. This gives rise to a 2: 1: 1 current distribution on the higher voltage side of the transformer. Use symmetrical component analysis to work out the vector relationship between I1 and I2 to produce the2: 1: 1 current distribution. Does it differ from the vector relationship between I1 and I2 on the lower voltage side of the transformer, and if so, why?
Exercise 5.1
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Turn to the end of the book for the answer to the exercise
Exercise 5.2
There is a distance relay on the HV circuit supplying a Dyn vector group transformer. Suppose there is a phase to phase fault on the lower voltage side of the transformer. Will the transformation in the positive and negative sequence vector relationships through the transformer alter the value of referred impedance measured by the relay?
Exercise 5.2
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Exercise 5.3
Look at the Figure below. Assume that Kes T12 transformer is out of service. Will the distance relay at Emb see a fault on, or beyond, the 11kV busbars at Kes? Hint: this is about converting from per unit values to secondary Ohms. Next, suppose that the normal 33kV supply to Kes T12 transformer is out of service and that both Kes T11 & T12 transformers are run in parallel, supplied by the 33kV circuit from Emb. Will the
distance relay at Emb see a fault on, or beyond, the 11kV busbars at Kes? Which protection, the feeder IDMT protection at Kes, or the distance protection at Emb will trip first for the feeder phase to phase fault shown on the diagram?
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Diagram 5.16 An example of distance protection.
Exercise 5.3
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Exercise 5.4
Look at the Figure below. What is the apparent impedance to the fault measured by the distance relays at busbar A?
Figure 5.17 An example of impedance measurement
Revised 05.07.2011
Exercise 5.4
Exercise 5.5 The offset of an offset Mho relay is governed by factor, k. What relay characteristic do we obtain by setting, k, = 0? What relay characteristic do we obtain by setting, k, = 1? Of the three types of relay characteristic discussed; Impedance relay, Mho relay, Offset Mho relay, which could be viewed as the master set, encompassing the other two types of relay?
Revised 05.07.2011
Exercise 5.5
Summary
In this section we have looked at several types of distance protection, ranging from non-directional impedance relays to examples of the more complex Mho and Offset Mho relays. Distance protection displays aspects of both IDMT and unit protection schemes. Although distance protection is quite distinct from unit protection, none the less it has fairly sharply defined zones where it will or wont operate. Unlike unit protection it has an inherent back up capability. Unlike IDMT protection it is fast in operation, typically 0.1 seconds for zone 1, with 0.4
Revised 05.07.2011
second increments as it progresses to stages 2 & 3 of operation. Because of the requirement for three phase VTs it is certainly costlier than IDMT protection. The source impedance ratio requirements tend to limit the use of distance protection to 33kV and higher voltage overhead lines. This module should be regarded as a very basic primer on the subject of distance protection, as new, microprocessor based, relays are being developed all the time.
References and Further Reading
Network Protection and Automation Guide, Areva.

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Distance protection schemes

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Figure 5.2 An example of an impedance relay

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Figure 5.3 The characteristics of an impedance relay

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circuits tuned to the fundamental frequency.

Because the tuned circuit has

Figure 5.4 An example of the drawbacks of non-directional impedance protection

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Measurement problems associated with distance protection

5.4.1 System Impedance Ratio (SIR)

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VC = aI1ZL1 + a2I2ZL2 + I0ZL0 but ZL1 = ZL2 and so obtain:

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VBC = (a2 -a)ZL1(I1 - I2) IB - IC = (a2 -a)(I1 - I2)

but IB = a2I1 + aI2 + I0 and IC = aI1 + a2I2 + I0 and hence:

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Figure 5.7 Diagram showing why I0 I1 in circuits with an earth fault

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Figure 5.11 Characteristics of a Polarised Mho relay (earth fault)

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Offset Mho Relays

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Figure 5.14 Characteristics of an offset Mho relay

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General comments about Mho relays