Authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and neglectful parenting styles Authoritative parents have been shown to have children who

are higher in self-reliance, curiosity, self-control and compliance, cheerful mood, prosocial behaviour and friendliness in peer realtionship (Rothbaum, 1986). Authoritarian parenting styles have been associated with lower levels of childrens social competence, as reflected in social withdrawal and anxiety, or aggressive and explosive behaviour (Baumrind, 1971; Baumrind & Black, 1967; Reitman et al., 2002). Children of permissive parents have been found to be lacking in the areas of maturity, impulse control, independence and social responsibility (Baumrind, 1971; Baumrind & Black, 1967). Children of neglectful parents have problems with attachment, cognitive development and emotional skills (Baumrind, 1971; Baumrind, 1991). 02chapters1-9.pdf(SECURED): 33 Multiple pathways have been identified between within-child risk factors (e.g., difficult temperament and IQ), family risk factors (e.g., marital conflict, parental psychopathology, socioeconomic disadvantage), parenting behaviours and childrens externalising behaviour problems (Belsky, 1984; Hinshaw, 2002; Keown & Woodward, 2002; Patterson et al., 1989; Rubbin et al., 1995; Shaw & Bell, 1993). 02chapters1-9.pdf(SECURED): 34 Parental responsivity It has been hypothesized that positive parenting practices can moderate or buffer the effects of negative family risk factors on childrens behaviour problems (Rubin et al., 1995). In situations of high family stress, children with at least one warm and responsive parent have been shown to have lower rates of externalising behaviour problems compared with children without such a parent (Rutter, 1979). Other research has consistently shown that responsivity, parent-child synchrony, warmth and reasoning have a positive association with an arrayof child fucntioning variables, including: less aggression and other externalising behaviours; less anxious-inhibited behaviour and psychosomatic problems; moral, helping and altruistic behaviour; friendliness and social competence; self-esteem; constructve play and intellectual functioning (Johnston et al., 2002; Keown & Woodward, 2002; Kochanka & Murray,

2000; Roberts & Strayer, 1987; Rothbaum, 1986; Shaw et al., 1998; Stormshak et al., 2000). Responsive parents may be modelling and teaching reciprocal and cooperative behaviours (horizontal qualities) in their interactions with their children (Russell, Pettit & Mize, 1998). Parents who use inductive reasoning, when compared with parents who use more power assertive techniques, have been shown to have children with fewer disruptive playground behaviours, more prosocial behaviours, and higher levels of perefrence by their peers (Hart, DeWolf, Wozniak & Burts, 1992). 02chapters1-9.pdf(SECURED): 32 This section has examined the environmental and within-parent determinants of parenting behaviour such as parental psychopathology, marital satisfaction and social support. Both effective and ineffective parenting practices incorporating behaviours along the dimensions of parental control and responsivity were described. Parenting styles that incorporate parental attributions and expectations were also briefly described. The realtionships between the parenting behaviours and styles described int his section and childrens externalising behaviour problems will be examined in the next section. 02chapters1-9.pdf(SECURED): 28 Temperament. Temperament is ........... of innate characteristics that determine individuals sensitivity to various experiences and responsiveness to patterns of social interactions. It is a central aspect of each persons personality and has been shown to be stable over time. For example, Kagan and his colleagues (Kagan, Reznick, & Gibbons, 1989) have studied shyness and sociability. Children who were classified as shy, or inhibited at age 21 months due to their timidness with unfamiliar people and their cautiousness surroundings exhibited similar behavior when they were examined at age 7 1 2 . Children who were raised as sociable, or uninhibited as toddlers were talkative and outgoing with strange adults and peers in unfamiliar settings at age 7 1 2 . Temperament influences how infants respond to their caregivers and how caregivers respond to children, thereby illustrating the concept of bidirectionally. Thus, certain parenting styles may be elicited by childrens temperament (Sameroff, 1994). For example, a very active may have to be told more than once to sit still at the table or have to be removed from the table to eat alone, whereas a less active child may only to

be told Sit still at the table so the food wont spill off the plate. Some methods of child rearing may have to be modified to suits the individual childs temperament ..... . for example, a child who has irregular pattern of hunger is better suited to a more flexible demand feeding schedule, whereas a child who exhibits regularity is more suited in feeding at a scheduled intervals. In a classic longitudinal study of 136 children from infancy to adolescence (Chese & Thomas, 1987; Thomas, Chess, Birch, 1970) nine temperamental characteristics were isolated. This model